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A History of the Kerala School of Hindu Astronomy (in Perspective) c9: Chapter III. Major Trends in Kerala Literature on Jyotiṣa

A History of the Kerala School of Hindu Astronomy (in Perspective) c9

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English

Contents

Chapter III. Major Trends in Kerala Literature on Jyotiṣa

1. Introductory

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The extensive Jyotiṣa literature produced in Kerala, in Sanskrit and in Malayalam which latter is the regional language of that part of India, comprise of original treatises, expositions of individual topics, commentaries on standard texts, computation manuals, minor tracts, single verses and manifold mnemonic tables. A good part of the shorter tracts and other secondary literature which do not form full-fledged works have been lost and what survives of this type of literature has to be looked for in flyleaves and end folios of codices where such matter is generally found written. The definitive literature, too, has been affected considerably. The full extent of the literary activity in this line is not adequately known, much less recognised, for reasons of subject, script and language, as already mentioned above. However, an idea of this literary production can be judged from an examination of the surviving literature, a documented Inventory of which is given in Ch. V, below. While the said Inventory is expected to include references to all the works and authors that could be identified, special notice might be taken here of the broad trends and nature of the literature produced in this discipline. In order that the picture of Kerala Jyotiṣa might be presented in full, the accounts given below and in the Inventory are not restricted to astronomy and mathematics but made to include also the allied discipline of astrology which constitutes the applied aspect of astronomy.

2. The Classical texts

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Some scholars have claimed that the foremost Indian astronomer, Āryabhaṭa hailed from Kerala. Though this claim yet remains to be fully authenticated, the popularity of the *Āryabhaṭīya* among Kerala astronomers is apparent from the profusion of manuscripts of that work recorded from that region¹ and from as may as eleven commentaries on it, in Sanskrit and Malayalam, written by Kerala astronomers, the more important among them being those composed by Sūryadeva Yajvan, Parameśvara of Vaṭaśreṇi, Nīlakaṇṭha Somayājī and Ghaṭigopa.¹ Two other texts of the Āryabhaṭan school, viz., the *Laghu-bhāskarīya* and the *Mahābhāskarīya* of Bhāskara I,—of which, too, most of the recorded manuscripts are from Kerala,—have been equally popular in the land. There are seven Keralite commentaries on the former by Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa, Sūryadeva Yajvan, Parameśvara, Udayadivākara and Śaṅkaran Nampūtiri, the other two being anonymous. The latter work has five Keralite commentaries, including those by Govindasvāmin, Sūryadeva Yajvan and Parameśvara. The other classical astronomical texts which were popular in Kerala are the *Sūryasiddhānta* which claims three Kerala commentaries and the *Laghumānasa* of Muñjāla, which has at least four Kerala commentaries The most popular textbook on mathematics has been the *Līlāvatī* of Bhāskara II, for which at least a dozen commentaries, besides several other works based on it, have been recorded. On the side of horary astrology, the *Horā* or *Bṛhajjātaka* of Varāhamihira enjoyed the greatest popularity; about twenty commentaries on this work by Kerala authors have been identified; besides these, there are also several abridgements and adaptations of that work. On the same subject, the *Jātakakarmapaddhati* of Śrīpati, which has three Kerala commentaries, had also been quite popular and in *Praśna* (Astrological query), the pride of place goes to *Praśnaṣaṭpañcāśikā* of Pṛthuyaśas with two Kerala commentaries.

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¹ Out of about 120 manuscripts of *Āryabhaṭīya* recorded in the *New Catalogus Catalogorum of Sanskrit and allied works and authors*, Vol. II, (Madras, 1966), p. 171, as many as 85 are from Kerala.

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¹ For details of the manuscripts, editions, extent, dates, and available studies on these works, as also of other works that might be referred to here-in-below, see Ch. V, ‘Inventory of Kerala Jyotiṣa’.

3. Major works on Astronomy

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A number of original texts on astronomy, dealing with all the main topics of the subject, have been identified. Some of them, like the *Tantrasaṅgraha* of Nīlakaṇṭha Somayājī, the *Tantrasāra* of Nārāyaṇa of Peruvanam and the *Sadratnamālā* of Śaṅkara-Varman, belong to the *tantra* type of treatises which take the beginning of the Kali era as the starting point for astronomical calculations. The bulk of the original texts are, however, of the *karaṇa* type, which use some convenient contemporary date as the epoch for starting the calculations enunciated by them, a device made use of by modern astronomers as well. This date is so chosen that at the ending moment of that day, *i.e.*, at the beginning (sunrise) of the next day, the Mean Moon (*Candra*) and Mean Higher Apsis (*Candra-tuṅga*) are in the same position or very close to each other, so that the days accumulated up to the epoch (called *Khaṇḍa-dina* or *śodhya-dina*) could be subtracted in ‘full’ from the current *Kali-dina*. The Mean positions of the Sun, Moon and other planets etc. are determined very accurately for the epoch and the readings so obtained are used as zero corrections for all computations for any date after the epoch. The *Grahacāranibandhana* of Haridatta, the basic *karaṇa* text of the Parahita system of astronomy, however, uses the date of Āryabhaṭa as the epoch, and the *Dṛggaṇita* of Parameśvara, the basic text of the *Dṛk* system, uses the beginning of Kali as its epoch. Some of the *karaṇa* texts are mere manuals giving rules for specific astronomical computations while some others like the *Karaṇapaddhati* of Putumana Somayāji, are fullfledged textbooks on the subject. Among the more important *karaṇa* texts may be mentioned the *Karaṇāmṛta* of Citrabhānu, which has three commentaries, the *Karaṇasāra* with commentary, possibly, by Śaṅkara Vāriyar pupil of Nīlakaṇṭha Somayāji, the anonymous *Karaṇadarpaṇa* with three commentaries, *Karaṇottama* of Acyuta Piṣāraṭi with two commentaries, of which one is by the author himself, the anonymous *Laghukalārpaṇa* and the anonymous *Kriyāsaṅgraha*, with two commentaries. Several *karaṇa* texts have the generic title *Pañcabodha*. A dozen of them have been identified in the Inventory in Ch. V. Most of these are anonymous and only three of the authors could be identified, they being Putumana Somayāji, Puruṣottama and Kṛṣṇadāsa. These *Pañcabodha*-s have been very popular with the almanac-makers of the land and some of these claim commentaries, as well. The *Pañcabodha*-s generally contain five sections dealing with five astronomical topics. The topics treated are not, however, always the same. Thus *Pañcabodha* IV deals with *Vyatipāta*, *Chāyā*, *Maudhya*, *Śṛṅgonnati* and *Grahaṇa*, while *Pañcabodha* II deals with *Tithi*, *Vāra*, *Nakṣatra*, *Yoga* and *Karaṇa*. Again, to deal with only five topics is not always the rule in these works; the number of topics dealt with could be less or more than five. For instance, *Pañcabodha* V or *Pañcabodhasataka* of Puruṣottama, in 100 verses, contains only two sections and *Pañcabodha* I is in ten sections, dealing with *Tithinakṣatra*, *Vakyadhruva*, *Madhyama Sphuṭakriya*, *Lāṭavaidhṛta*, *Maudhya*, *suryacchāyā*, *somacchāyā*, *Śṛṅgonnati* and *Grahaṇa*. The *Bhadradipagaṇita* of Iṭakramañceri Nampūtiri and the *Gaṇitasāra* or *Pañcabodha-gaṇitasara* of Śaṅkaran Nāmpūtiri of Mahiṣamaṅgalam, both in Malayalam, are also comprehensive treatises.

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Several the *karaṇa* texts are smaller tracts devoted only to one or two topics like *Vyatipāta*, *Vaidhṛta*, *Chāyā*, *Sphuṭakriya* etc.

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Three amongst these topics, *viz.*, Computation of the Moon, Eclipses and Shadow, seem to have attracted the special attention of Kerala astronomers and, as a result, a large number of manuals have come to be composed on these subjects. Some of these works attempt also at evolving new processes, offer new corrections and give the rationale to the procedures adopted. Most of these texts are anonymous.

4. Computation of the Moon

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The fact that the calculation of the exact *tithi* (lunar day) and *nakṣatra* (asterism) at any moment depends upon the accurate knowledge of the Moon at that moment and that all the three, *viz.*, *tithi*, *nakṣatra* and Moon, are always required for the fixation of social and religious functions, in horoscopy and in the computation of eclipses etc. is enough to explain the importance given to the computation of the Moon. But the fast motion of the Moon, amounting to about 13 degrees a day, and the consequent quick change of its position during the same day, required special consideration in its correct computation. A good number of *karaṇa* texts, devoted specifically for the computation of the Moon, have, therefore, been composed. Among the more important manuals of this type may be mentioned the *Candra-sphuṭagaṇita* with a commentary and a super-commentary, *Candra-sūryasphuṭa-gaṇita*, *Candra-sphuṭādi-gaṇita*, *Śuddha-candra-kriyā-gaṇita*, *Śrāddha-candrādi-gaṇita* and *Sūkṣma-candra-sphuṭādi-gaṇita*, all anonymous.

5. Veṇvāroha method for the Moon

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Of all heavenly bodies, the Moon has not only the fastest motion, but also the maximum changes in its velocity during the same day. Therefore, the computation of the Moon at some intermediate time during the day, if calculated on the basis of its true position and motion at sunrise or at sunset, as advocated in some *Pañcabodha* texts, would not give accurate results. An ingenious but facile method for the determination of the Moon at any time of the day with high accuracy has been evolved by the 14th century Kerala astronomer Mādhava of Saṅgamagrāma in his work called *Veṇvāroha*. He has also enunciated accurate moon-mnemonics, correct to the seconds, for being used in the *Veṇvāroha* method. His method seems to have caught the fancy also of later astronomers who have extended the method further to yield still more accurate results. At least four later works of this genre have been identified, they being *Candrasphuṭāpti, Veṇvārohakriya and Dṛg-Veṇvārohakriya, all anonymous, and Veṇvārohaṣṭaka of Puṭumana Somayāji.

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6. Computation of Eclipses

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A branch of astronomy in which intense investigations have been made by Kerala astronomers refers to the computation of eclipses. The phenomenon of eclipses seems to have been exploited fully towards verifying calculations, instituting corrections and devising new methodologies. A reference has already been made to Parameśvara of Dṛggaṇita fame who has recorded the details about a large number of eclipses which he had computed, observed and also suggested corrections to correlate the two. Apart from minor tracts, a number of texts on the computation of eclipses have come down. These include three works having the common title Uparāgakriyā-krama, the first by Nārāyaṇa with commentary, the second by Acyuta Piṣāraṭi, with two commentaries, and a third, which is anonymous; an Uparāgaviṃśati with commentary; Grahaṇamaṇḍana by Parameśvara; six anonymous works with the common title Grahaṇa-gaṇita; four works under the title Grahaṇaṣṭaka, one of which is by Parameśvara and the others anonymous; and the three works, Candra-graha-gaṇita, Candra-sūryoparāga-gaṇita and Sūrya-grahaṇa-gaṇita, all anonymous. Two works on eclipses which deserve special mention are the Grahaṇa-nyāya-dīpikā of Parameśvara, which discusses the rationale of eclipse-computation, and the Grahaṇa-granthādi by Nīlakaṇṭha Somayāji, which is an elaborate disquisition on the tradition and rationale of computing eclipses etc.

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7. Computation of the Shadow

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Computation of the positions of the Sun and the Moon from the Shadow (Chaya) caused by them and vice versa had practical utility in the social and religious life of the people of mediaeval times. Besides calculations made on the basis of the Śaṅku (gnomon), intrinsic calculations involving the Mahācchāyā (Great Shadow or Sine Zenith distance) and the Mahāśaṅku (Great gnomon or Sine Altitude) had been developed in this behalf. Some of the Pañcabodhas and other karaṇa texts mentioned above have sections devoted to Shadow computation. Besides these, several independent works devoted solely to this subject have also been produced. Among the works of this category may be mentioned five different works, all entitled Candracchāyā-gaṇita, one of these being by Parameśvara, another by Nilakaṇṭha Somayāji and the others anonymous; two of these works have also commentaries. Other works on the subject include the Chāyāgaṇita, Chāyāgraha-gaṇita, Chāyādigaṇita and two different works having the common title Sūryacchāyādi-gaṇita. Acyuta Piṣāraṭi, too, has written a succinct work on the subject, entitled Chāyāṣṭakam.

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8. Long-range almanacs

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In the matter of preparing annual almanacs, while the general trend in Kerala, as elsewhere, has been to prepare them for one year at a time, efforts had been made to prepare long-range almanacs covering long periods. It has been recorded that Mādhava of Saṅgamagrāma compiled an Agaṇita-pañcāṅga¹ which is, probably, the same as referred to in the Karaṇapaddhati (IV. 14, 16, 18) and preserved in the Kerala University Oriental Research Institute under the title Agaṇitagrahacāra. Śaṅkaran Nampūtiri of Mahiṣamaṅgalam is credited with a ‘Register of Muhūrtas’² for 1000 years. The Agaṇita of Nalleppaḷḷi Subrahmaṇya Śāstri enunciates methods for the facile computation of the planets for a 1000 years.³

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¹ This reference occurs in an astronomical document preserved in the Oriental Institute, Baroda, Cf. K. V. Sarma, ‘Direct lines of astronomical tradition in Kerala’, Pt. Charudeva Shastri Felicitation Volume, Delhi, 1972.

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² See Ulloor, Kerala Sāhitya Charitram, Vol. II, (Trivandrum, 1954), p. 272.

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³ Ref. to by Ulloor, op.cit., Vol. IV, (Trivandrum, 1957), p. 291.

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9. Astronomical rationale

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An extremely significant class of astronomical treatises from Kerala refers to disquisitions on the rationale of astronomical formulae and procedures. Short expositions of this nature occur in commentarial literature, especially in the commentaries of Parameśvara, Nilakaṇṭha Somayāji and Nārāyaṇa, author of Kriyākramakarī on the Līlāvatī. Single or groups of verses and short tracts pertaining to the exposition of specific points or procedures are often found inscribed on end-leaves of astronomical codices, without indication of source or author. These go mostly unnoticed or ignored by cataloguers of manuscripts. It would, indeed, be highly worthwhile to record, study and analyse these passages with a view to see if some of them contain anything important. In this connection, the discovery of some full-fledged treatises devoted to the exposition of astronomical theories and processes ought to be highly interesting to scholars and historians of mathematics. These texts, which, generally, have the words *yukti* or *nyāya* ‘rationale’ attached to their titles, explain, interpret and discuss the formulae used and procedures followed in the topics which the texts deal with. Among works of this nature may be mentioned the *Grahaṇa-nyāya-dīpikā* on the computation of eclipses and *Vākyakaraṇa* on the formulation of astronomical mnemonics, both by Parameśvara of Vaṭaśreṇi, the *Yukti-bhāṣā* and *Gaṇita-yukti-bhāṣā*, the former and, possibly the latter too, by Jyeṣṭhadeva, the *Nyāya-ratna* by Puṭumana Somayājī, the *Gaṇita-yuktayaḥ* by an anonymous ‘Bhāradvāja brāhman’ and the *Rāśigola-sphuṭānīti* on ‘Reduction to the ecliptic’ by Acyuta Piṣāraṭi. The *Sundararāja-praśnottara* by Nīlakaṇṭha Somayājī, in which he has explained certain astronomical theories and practices in answer to queries raised by a contemporary astronomer Sundararāja of the Tamil country, also belongs to this category of works. It may also be noted that works solely devoted to the demonstration of procedures call themselves *-kriyā* or *-kriyākrama*, e. g., *Saṅgrahasādhana-‘kriyā’* and *Uparāga-‘kriyākrama’*.

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10. Practical astronomy

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Astronomy being a practical science, progress in that discipline is incumbant no less on practical observation than on computational skill. Several works including the *Golaḍīpikā* I of Parameśvara and the *Bhadradīpa* of Iṭakramañceri Nampūtiri contain sections on the construction and use of the armillary sphere. The commentaries of Parameśvara and Nīlakaṇṭha Somayājī carry references to their lifelong astronomical observations. By far the most interesting treatise in this line is the *Grahaparīkṣākrama* of Nīlakaṇṭha Somayājī, in about two hundred verses. There is also a detailed Malayalam commentary on this work. An equally interesting, though possibly, very late, work is *Nazhikamaṇiyuṭe yukti*, in Malayalam, which is a detailed exposition of the working of the pendulum clock.

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11. Revision of astronomical constants

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As indicated earlier, the composers of *karaṇa* texts generally started their works with contemporary epochs. Sometimes they also started with corrections to the astronomical constants, and to the sine tables which they incorporated in their works. A work mainly devoted to the enunciation of corrected constants is the *Siddhāntadarpaṇa* of Nīlakaṇṭha Somayājī, wherein he has set out the number of revolutions of the planets, and their higher apses, ascending nodes, maximum latitudes, velocities etc., as investigated and verified by him. He has also written an elaborate commentary on this work. Some short tracts call themselves *Khaṇḍavum dhruvavum* and merely give the epoch and the corresponding zero-corrections as determined by their respective astronomer-authors. Then again, there exist a large number of manuscripts which form collections of sine tables and mnemonics and are catalogued in libraries under generic titles like *Jyāḥ, Jyotiṣa-vākyāni* etc. on account of their not being full-fledged and independent works. These collections are potential sources of additions and novelties to the well-known mnemonics and, so, deserve to be examined from this point of view.

12. Mathematics

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The *Līlāvatī* of Bhāskara II, with more than a dozen Kerala commentaries, has remained, as indicated earlier, the most popular textbook on general mathematics. Among indigenous works, some of the astronomical treatises like *Yuktibhāṣā, Bhadradīpa* etc. deal with general mathematics in some of their sections. An interesting summary of the general mathematical processes is contained in an anonymous work entitled *Ekaviṃśatipraśnakrama*. Other works solely devoted to the treatment of mathematics are *Kaṇakkatikāram*, with commentary, two works having the same title *Kaṇakkusāram*, one in prose and the other in verse, both with commentaries, *Kaṇakkunūl, Kaṇakkucodyam* and *Kaṇakkuśāstram*, all anonymous.

13. Horary astrology

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While the classical texts on *Jātaka* used in Kerala were the *Bṛhajjātaka* of Varāhamihira and the *Jātakakarmapaddhati* of Śrīpati, the most popular indigenous text on the subject was the *Jātakapaddhati* of Parameśvara of Vaṭaśreṇi, which has as many as eight commentaries and the *Jātakadeśamārga* of Putumana Somayājī. From among other works, which enjoyed varied popularity, may be mentioned the *Jātakakrama* and *Jātakasāra* of Śaṅkaran Nampūtiri of Mahiṣamaṅgalam, the *Jātakanītimārga* and *Jātakasārasaṅgraha* by Āzhvāñceri Tamprākkal and the anonymous *Jātakodaya*.

14. Auspicious times (Muhūrta)

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Practically all the texts popular in Kerala, enunciating the fixation of auspicious times (*muhūrtas*) for the numerous religious and social ceremonies, are of indigenous origin. The *Muhūrtadarśana* of Vidyāmādhava of Nilamana near Gokarṇa, with six commentaries, and the *Muhūrtaratna* of Govinda Bhaṭṭatiri of Talakkulam, with its commentary by Parameśvara of Vaṭaśreṇi, are the early texts of this category. But, by far the most popular works on the subject are two *Muhūrtapadavī*-s written by two brothers of the Māttūr family in Cochin, whose names have, hitherto, remained unknown, but can, now, be identified as Puruṣottama and Subrahmaṇya. The popularity of these two *Muhūrtapadavī*-s can be judged from the profusion of manuscripts of these works available and the seven commentaries composed on them.¹

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¹ To cite but one instance, the Kerala Oriental Res. Institute and Mss. Library holds in its collections not less than 103 of these manuscripts, as recorded in their catalogues.

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15. Astrological query (*Praśna*)

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The branch of astrology called *Praśna* has been very popular in Kerala where many a new technique and practice has been evolved. The classical work on the subject which was popular in the land was the *Praśnaṣatpañcaśikā* of Pṛthuvaśas, son of Varāhamihira, which claims two good Kerala commentaries. There has, however, been substantial literary production, in consonance with the high popularity of its practice. Here too, several treatises comprehending all aspects of *Praśna* and many others which dealt with special items therein have come to be composed. The most important work of the former category is the *Praśnamārga* by a Nampūtiri of the Panakkāṭṭu family, possibly named Parameśvara. Numerous manuscripts of this work and of the four commentaries on it have been recorded. A good number of later works have been based on it or take it as their chief authority. Other full-fledged works on *Praśna* include three treatises with the identical title *Praśnasāra*, one by Śaṅkara, the second by a Somayāji of Bhūtanāthapura and the third by Mādhava of Iñcakkāzhvā family, two works of the name *Praśnānuṣṭhanapaddhati*, both anonymous, *Praśnāmṛta* of Śrīkumāra, *Praśnāyana* of Puruṣottama with auto-commentary, *Praśnamālā*, possibly by Śaṅkaran Nampūtiri of Mahiṣamaṅgalam, with commentary, two works entitled *Praśnarīti*, one by Dāmodaran Nampūtiri of Maṅgalaśśeri and the other by Iṭakkāṭṭu Kukkaṇiyāl and three different works of the name *Praśnalakṣaṇa*, all anonymous. Among works dealing with individual subjects, there are a large number devoted to topics like *Akṣara*, *Aṣṭamaṅgala*, *Āyus*, *Āyudha*, *Pakiṭa*, *Tambula*, *Roga* etc.

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16. Natural astrology

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Of classical texts on natural astrology, the *Bṛhatsaṃhitā* of Varāhamihira was generally known, besides *Lampaka* by Padmanābha, a later work well known in the whole of South India. Among works on natural astrology produced in Kerala, a mention might be made of *Sāmudrikasāra* of Śaṅkara, with two commentaries, two anonymous *Sāmudrikalakṣaṇa-s* and the *Raṇadīpikā* by Kumāra Gaṇaka. The last-mentioned work which, in eight chapters, deals in detail with the preparation for and conduct of war, is particularly significant. Some works deal with individual topics like *Bhūparīkṣa*, *Rekhaśastra* etc. and some others like *Naraceṣṭa*, *Pakṣiśastra* etc. with special types of prognostication.

17. Malayalam versions of Sanskrit texts

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It is interesting to note that almost all *Jyotiṣa* works in Sanskrit have one or more commentaries or renderings in Malayalam, produced, obviously, with a view to introduce their study among the non-Sanskrit knowing public. This is a feature found in many other regions of India as well. The Malayalam versions are generally called the *Bhāṣa* of the works concerned. Often the author of the original work himself prepared the *Bhāṣa* and at other times, others. There have also been adaptations and abridgements of Sanskrit works. A very instructive instance of this trend is found in the works of an Āzhvāñceri Tamprākkal who, in a series of works, adapted a number of important Sanskrit texts and also provided the Malayalam renderings of these adaptations. Thus, his *Phalasāra-samuccaya*, in three parts, forms, in its Part I called *Jatakabhāga*, an adaptation of the *Hora* of Varāhamihira and the *Sārāvalī* of Kalyāṇavarman, in Part II called *Praśnabhāga*, an adaptation of the *Praśnamārga* of Panakkāṭṭu Nampūtiri, and in part III entitled *Muhūrtabhāga*, of the *Muhūrtadarśana* of Vidyāmādhva. In fact, of the ten works credited to this author, five, viz., *Jyotiśśāstrasaṅgraha*, *Saṅgrahasādhanakriyā*, *Jātakasārasaṅgraha*, *Jātakanītimārga* and *Phalasārasamuccaya*, are adaptations of standard Sanskrit works and the other five, form the *Bhāṣa-s* of these five works.

18. Kerala-Jyotiṣa outside Kerala

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That some of the characteristic innovations, extensions and practices evolved in Kerala in the discipline of Jyotiṣa, especially in its astrological aspect, have travelled beyond its borders and become current in certain other parts of India is but natural. It is again natural that, as these theories and practices grew popular in those regions, local treatises came to be composed incorporating the new ideas. Most of these treatises are distinguished by the term ‘Kerala’ tacked on to their titles.¹ However, what seems highly significant in this matter is the variety and profusion of the works that have been composed in this manner. About 80 works of this nature have been identified in the different Manuscripts Libraries.² Their non-Kerala origin has been determined from one or more of the following indications: (1) Clear mention of alien authorship, (2) the addition of the term ‘Kerala’ to the title, (3) the popularity of the works in other parts of India, while they are virtually unknown in Kerala, (4) the availability of manuscripts of these works only in non-Kerala scripts and (5) the general absence of manuscripts of the works in Kerala. While the bulk of these works are anonymous, some are apocryphal texts attributed to ancient sages or said to be parts of larger Tantras and Samhitās. Only a few of these are known under the names of their real authors. The disciplines of Jātaka and Praśna claim the largest number of these works, the former about 20 and the latter about 35.

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¹ This phenomenon is found, in varying degrees, also in the case of certain other disciplines like Tantra, Śrauta, Dharma and Mantraśāstra.

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² For a classified and documented list of the manuscripts of these non-Kerala works, see Appendix, below.

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In horoscopy, some of the works are comprehensive treatises, like for example, Kerala-rahasya or Kerala-jātakananda ascribed to Śukrācārya, Kerala-sūtra ascribed to Marici, Kerala-śastra-sūtra or Jatakalaṅkara ascribed to Nikaṣā, and the two anonymous works Keraliya-jataka and Keraliya-jataka-saṅgraha, while the others are devoted to specific aspects of astrology like bhava-s, daśa-s and yoga-s. An interesting work is Kerala-horāvyākhya by Sarvartupaṇḍita who composed that work at Vijayanagar at the instance of his patron Gopāla.

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Most of the texts on Praśna are anonymous. Among those whose authors, real or apocryphal, have been indicated are: Kerala-praśna-grantha and Kerala-granthodaharaṇa both by Mūladeva, Kerala-śastra, Kerala-praśna and Pāśaka-kerali, all by Garga, Kerali by Rāvaṇa, and Keraliya-praśnaratna by Nandarāma Paṇḍita. Of peculiar subjects dealt with are prognostication (1) on the basis of letters in the Akṣaracintāmaṇi section of Keralamata ascribed to Śiva, Keralapraśna or Keraliya-jñāna and Akṣarakevalipraśna, both anonymous; (2) on the basis of the throw of the dice in Kerala-pāśavalī of Garga and the two anonymous works Kerali-praśnavicāra and Keraliya-śakunāvalī; and (3) on the basis of arecanuts in *Keralapraśna* (anonymous, Mithila III. 180). Of works on natural astrology, a mention might be made of *Keralayātrā* on setting out on a journey, and *Keralī* on the throbbing of the limbs and on dreams, both anonymous, and *Keralī-śakuna*, on omens, the last being attributed to Vyāsa.

c9.s10.6

*The desideratum.* The non-Kerala works on Kerala Jyotisa, mentioned above, demonstrate how the specialities of a discipline as evolved in one region of India have been transmitted to the other regions of the country and how they have been accepted, preserved and propagated in those parts under the label of their original place of origin. It is well to remember here that it is but natural that during their transmission and propagation through the centuries, some of the original ideas might have undergone some modifications. It is also possible that some new or local ideas have come to be incorporated in these works and paraded as Keralite views. It would be extremely instructive to investigate this subject fully. Comparative studies between the non-Keralite works and allied Keralite works could show how far the former represent the original views. The textual or other sources from Kerala, if any, of the individual non-Keralite works have to be identified. It would also be interesting to examine why these works are almost always unknown in Kerala, the land to which the ideas expressed therein are supposed to belong.

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