彰所知論 1

English (machine translation) 1

Language: English

1.12 — 5 parts

1.1

Preface to the Treatise Elucidating the Knowable

1.2

Composed by Lian Fu, Grand Master for Splendid Happiness, Associate Administrator of the Branch Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs under the Yuan

Now, the only one who transcends the three realms is the Buddha. The Buddha appeared in the world on account of a great cause and condition, out of compassion to transform all living beings; this is a good that will never wear away throughout eternity. The Imperial Preceptor of the Great Yuan thoroughly penetrated the three vehicles; his nature and conduct were like spring, benevolent and majestic beyond measure. When Emperor Yuhuang was still in his dragon mansion, he had long known of the master's orthodox transmission, and respectfully went to entreat the master to expound the teaching to him in person. The master sincerely applied his tranquil intention to magnify the imperial lineage and widely spread the lineage's tradition, elucidating what he knew and composing this treatise. In investigating its textual principles and deducing its doctrinal meanings, it is as bright as the sun and moon and as vast as heaven and earth. Indeed, as for the affairs of the Tathāgata, who could illuminate them if not a sage? The Superior-Administrator, the venerable Xueyan, possessed extraordinary talent appearing but once in an age, with comprehension surpassing others. Having long attended the master's Dharma assembly, he translated this treatise in silence so that it might be transmitted to the world. Formerly, the master and I met in Min; our friendship reflected each other's, with an affection like that between brothers, and the master firmly requested that I compose a preface. I struggle amidst the dust of the phantom ocean and have long set aside brush and inkstone; how could I be fit to shine forth the light of the orthodox teaching? The master smiled at me and said, "Why are you so modest?" I dared not decline, and so have written this preface.

1.4

Composed by 'Phags-pa, Imperial Preceptor of the Yuan

1.5

Translated by Shes-rab-dpal, Imperial-Appointee Superior-Administrator of the Buddhist Teaching for Jianghuai, Fujian, and Other Places, Master of Dharma-nature, Tripiṭaka Master, Propagator of the Teaching, and Great Master of Buddha-Wisdom

1.6

Homage to the Vajra Guru.

1.7

Homage to all Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

1.8

The All-Knowing One perceives the knowable / and out of compassion reveals it to all living beings. / Paying homage to the supreme wisdom, / I shall expound [the treatise] elucidating the knowable. / That is to say: the receptacle world and the world of sentient beings, / the phenomena of the path and the phenomena of the fruit, / together with all unconditioned phenomena— / are briefly subsumed and set forth as five.

1.9

Chapter 1: The Receptacle World

1.10

The substantial nature comprising the receptacle world (bhājana-loka) is the four primary elements (mahābhūta), because they arise possessing their respective natures: earth is solid, water is moist, fire is hot, and wind is mobile. The most extremely subtle of these primary elements is called an infinitesimal particle (paramāṇu), also called a particle adjacent to void (paramāṇu-rajas), which cannot be further divided. Seven of those particles adjacent to void make one infinitesimal particle; seven infinitesimal particles make one subtle dust particle; seven subtle dust particles make one gold-penetrating particle; seven gold-penetrating particles make one water-penetrating particle; seven water-penetrating particles make one hare-hair particle; seven hare-hair particles make one sheep-hair particle; seven sheep-hair particles make one ox-hair particle; seven ox-hair particles make one particle drifting in a crevice; seven particles drifting in a crevice make one nit; seven nits make one louse; seven lice make one barley grain; seven barley grains make one finger-joint; three joints make one finger-width; twenty-four finger-widths laid across make one cubit; four cubits make one bow-length; five hundred bow-lengths make one krośa; eight krośas make one yojana. This is the measure of the world's physical extent.

The cause for the world's formation is brought forth by the shared karma (sādhāraṇa-karman) of all sentient beings (sattva). How is it formed? From the expanse of space, winds arise from the ten directions and strike one another, becoming firm, dense, and immovable to form the exquisite wind-mandala (vāyu-maṇḍala). Its colour is blue-white; it is immensely firm and solid, sixteen lakṣas of yojanas deep, and immeasurable in breadth. Clouds born of warmth, named Kāñcanagarbha, pour down heavy rain which abides supported upon the wind; this is called the bottom sea, eleven lakṣas and twenty thousand yojanas deep, and twelve lakṣas, three thousand four hundred and a half yojanas broad. As its waters churn and clash, gold congeals on top, just as curd freezes into a film over boiled milk; this is the golden earth-mandala (kāñcana-maṇḍala). Hence the water-mandala (jala-maṇḍala) decreases, becoming only eight lakṣas thick. The remainder transforms into gold, three lakṣas and twenty thousand yojanas thick. The breadth of the golden mandala is equal to that of the water-mandala, and its circumference is three times that, totaling thirty-six lakṣas, one myriad, three hundred and fifty yojanas. The former wind-mandala is the base of the Sahā world, while the two mandalas of earth and water are the bases of the realm of the four continents.

Heavy rain pours down once more upon the earth-mandala, forming the great ocean. Churned by the wind, the finest grade collects to form Mount Meru; the medium grade gathers to form the seven golden mountains; the lower grade gathers to form the Cakravāḍa mountains; and the mixed grade gathers to form the four continents and so forth. The substance of Meru is composed of silver to the east, lapis lazuli to the south, crystal and mother-of-pearl to the west, and gold to the north. The other seven [mountains] are exclusively of gold; the earth of the four continents and so forth are composed of mixed grades; and the Cakravāḍa mountains are composed exclusively of iron. Meru enters the water by eighty thousand yojanas; compared to all other mountains it is lofty and sublime, hence it is named Sublime Height (Meru).

Next in order are the seven golden mountains: first, Mount Yugaṃdhara, forty thousand yojanas high; second, Mount Īṣādhara, twenty thousand yojanas high; third, Mount Khadiraka, ten thousand yojanas high; fourth, Mount Sudarśana, five thousand yojanas high; fifth, Mount Aśvakarṇa, two thousand five hundred yojanas high; sixth, Mount Vinataka, one thousand two hundred and fifty yojanas high; seventh, Mount Nimindhara, six hundred and twenty-five yojanas high. (The Tibetan treatise commentary states: 1. Dual-Holding Mountain, 2. Axle-Holding Mountain, 3. Timber Mountain, 4. Fine-Vision Mountain, 5. Horse-Ear Mountain, 6. Elephant-Trunk Mountain, 7. Fish-Mouth Mountain.) Beyond the four continents are the Cakravāḍa mountains, three hundred and twelve and a half yojanas high. Their respective breadths are each equal to their height emerging above the water.

Between the seven golden mountains are the roaming grounds of the nāga kings, called the Play Seas. Among the seven seas between the eight mountains, closest to Meru: first is the Yugaṃdhara Sea, eighty thousand yojanas broad; second is the Īṣādhara Sea, forty thousand yojanas broad; third is the Khadiraka Sea, twenty thousand yojanas broad; fourth is the Sudarśana Sea, ten thousand yojanas broad; fifth is the Aśvakarṇa Sea, five thousand yojanas broad; sixth is the Vinataka Sea, two thousand five hundred yojanas broad; seventh is the Nimindhara Sea, one thousand two hundred and fifty yojanas broad, brimmed with the water of eight qualities. The appearances of the eight mountains and seven seas are all square; the outer sea tastes salty. From Nimindhara to the Cakravāḍa mountains, the distance between the two ranges is three lakṣas and twenty-two thousand yojanas. Although the outer ocean water has no demarcation, due to the colour of Meru, the eastern sea appears white, the southern sea blue, the western sea red, and the northern sea yellow; because these colours are manifested, they are called the four seas. Its perimeter is thirty-six lakṣas, seven hundred and fifty yojanas. The outer Cakravāḍa mountains have a circumference of thirty-six lakṣas, two thousand six hundred and twenty-five yojanas.

In the outer ocean, the southern continent of Jambudvīpa is shaped like a chariot box, narrowing toward the Iron Ring to three and a half yojanas, while its other three sides are each two thousand yojanas, with a perimeter of six thousand and three and a half yojanas. It has two intermediate continents: Cāmara (meaning 'yak') to the east, and Varacāmara (meaning 'superior yak') to the west. In the centre of Jambudvīpa is the land of Magadha, the birthplace of the Buddhas of the three times. Next, crossing nine Black Mountains to the north, there is the Great Snow Mountain named With Auspiciousness (Śrīmat); to the north of this mountain is Mount Gandhamādana. Between these two mountains resides a great nāga king named Anavatapta, whose lake is called Lake Anavatapta (meaning 'unheated'). It is square in shape, fifty yojanas on each side, two hundred yojanas in perimeter, and fully filled with the water of eight qualities. From this lake issue four great rivers: to the east, the Gaṅgā River flows with silver sand from an elephant's mouth, joined by five hundred rivers to empty into the eastern sea; to the south, the Sindhu River flows with lapis lazuli sand from an ox's mouth, joined by five hundred rivers to empty into the southern sea; to the west, the Vakṣu River flows with crystal and mother-of-pearl sand from a horse's mouth, joined by five hundred rivers to empty into the western sea; to the north, the Sītā River flows with golden sand from a lion's mouth, joined by five hundred rivers to empty into the northern sea. These four rivers circle Lake Anavatapta clockwise seven times and flow in their respective directions. Twenty yojanas north of Mount Gandhamādana, there is a crag called Nanda Crag, fifty yojanas on each side, two hundred yojanas in perimeter, and three and a half yojanas high. There are also eight thousand smaller crags. Twenty yojanas north of that crag stands the king of sāla trees named Susthita; its roots plunge into the ground forty bow-lengths and it rises eighty bow-lengths high, surrounded by seven tiers of tree rows. Twenty yojanas to the east is the Slow-Flowing Lake, circular in shape, fifty yojanas broad, and one hundred and fifty yojanas in perimeter. There are also eight thousand small pools, brimming with the water of eight qualities, within which grow lotuses with leaves like ox-hide, stems like axles, flowers like chariot wheels, and a taste delicious as honey. In this place there is also the elephant king named Susthita, mounted by Indra when going into battle; together with eight thousand elephants, during the four cold months he resides at the Golden Crag, during the four hot months at the Susthita [Tree], and during the four rainy months at the Slow-Flowing Lake. Beside Lake Anavatapta stands a jambu tree; its fruit is delicious and the size of an earthen jar. When ripe, it falls into the water with the sound 'jambu'. A dragon transforms into a fish to devour this fruit, and what remains flows into the stream to become Jāmbūnada gold; the continent is called Jambudvīpa after this tree. To the west of this continent is the country of Uḍḍiyāna, where holders of the great vajra palace lineage dwell, from which the Vajrayāna Dharma spread. In the southern sea is Mount Potalaka (Ship-Bearer), upon whose peak Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva dwells, while noble Mother Tārā dwells at the foot of the mountain. In the east is Wutai (Five Peaks), upon which Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva dwells. There are sixteen great countries and a thousand small countries, as well as three hundred and sixty types of people, speaking seven hundred and twenty distinct languages.

In the outer ocean, the eastern continent is called Pūrvavideha (Superior Body), shaped like a half-moon, three hundred and fifty yojanas on the side facing Meru and sixty yojanas on the other sides, with a perimeter of six thousand three hundred and fifty yojanas. On both flanks of this continent are two intermediate continents: Deha (meaning 'body') to the north, and Videha (meaning 'superior body') to the south. These three continents surpass the other continents by seven tāla trees; or it is said that because the continent's inhabitants are dignified in appearance and their bodies are superior, it is called Superior Body. In the outer ocean, the northern continent is called Uttarakuru, square-shaped with four corners, two thousand yojanas on each side, with a perimeter of eight thousand yojanas. On both flanks of this continent are two intermediate continents: one named Kuru (meaning 'having excellence') and the second Kaurava (meaning 'having superior border'). The provisions of the people of that continent come from wish-fulfilling trees; seven days before someone dies, the wish-fulfilling tree emits an unpleasant sound, announcing, 'You will die in seven days.' Or it is said that the inhabitants have low tongues and speak the language of flesh-eating piśācas, hence 'Kuru' means unpleasant sound. In the outer ocean, the western continent is called Godānīya (Ox-Barter), shaped like a full moon, two thousand five hundred yojanas in diameter, and seven thousand five hundred yojanas in perimeter. There are two intermediate continents: Śāṭhā (meaning 'possessing deceit') to the south, and Uttaramantriṇa (meaning 'superior conduct') to the north. The inhabitants of that continent possess many precious cattle for bartering, hence it is named the Continent of Ox-Barter. The mountains, seas, and the like all descend downward eighty thousand yojanas to approach the golden earth. The Singala Island, Suvarṇadvīpa, Candradvīpa, and so forth near Jambudvīpa belong to Jambudvīpa. The smaller islands of the other great continents are likewise.

Forty thousand yojanas higher into the sky, pure and unobstructed, a supremely firm wind-mandala revolves toward the right, upon which the sun, moon, stars, constellations, and the sky-dwelling devas rely and dwell. The sun-mandala is formed of fire crystal, fifty-one yojanas in diameter, one hundred and fifty-three yojanas in circumference, and six yojanas and eighteen parts thick. Above it is a golden rim, upon which are four corners adorned with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, crystal, and mother-of-pearl. The palaces inhabited by the sun devaputras and others are driven by the wind, circling the four continents once every day and night. When the sun moves north, the days are long; when it moves south, they are short; when it moves between north and south, day and night are equal. Due to the light of its traversing places, there are cold and heat, forming winter and summer. It moves north for six months and south for six months; reaching the midway path is called the return of the sun and moon, and completing the circuit through the wheel of constellations is called one year. The moon-mandala is formed of water crystal, fifty yojanas in diameter, one hundred and fifty yojanas in circumference, and six yojanas and eighteen parts thick, upon which are also four corners adorned with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, crystal, and mother-of-pearl. Regarding the palaces where the moon devaputras dwell, as the sun and moon draw near or far, the moon's own shadow waxes or wanes: when it waxes by one part, the first half-month begins, and after fifteen parts it is called full; when it wanes by one part, the second half-month begins. Its own shadow covers it, and after fifteen parts it is called not full. Because of waxing and waning, it is called the spatial lunar mansion; by one day and night, it is called the terrestrial lunar mansion. Thirty such [days] are called one month. The constellations are formed of various jewels of the palaces of the sky-dwelling gods; they are all round in shape: the small are one krośa, the medium three krośas, and the large six krośas, their circumference being threefold, and they belong to the Four Heavenly Kings' retinue.

Mount Meru has four terraces. Beginning from the water's edge and ascending ten thousand yojanas is the first terrace, projecting sixteen thousand yojanas outwards from Meru. Ascending another ten thousand yojanas is the second terrace, projecting eight thousand yojanas outwards. Ascending another ten thousand yojanas is the third terrace, projecting four thousand yojanas outwards. Ascending another ten thousand yojanas is the fourth terrace, projecting two thousand yojanas outwards. On the summit of Mount Meru, at each of the four corners rises a peak, four and a half yojanas high, one hundred and twenty-five yojanas broad, and five hundred yojanas in perimeter, inhabited by yakṣa spirits.

In the centre of the summit of this mountain, in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (Trāyastriṃśa), is the city called Sudarśana, made of pure gold, one and a half yojanas high, two thousand five hundred yojanas on each side, and ten thousand yojanas in perimeter. The city's structure is golden, fully adorned with one hundred and one various jewels. Its ground is soft as cotton. On the four sides of this city are sixteen thousand jeweled pillars, jeweled beams, jeweled rafters, and jeweled eaves. There are four gates on the four sides, and a thousand small gates lacking one; there are four great avenues and many small lanes. Beside the four gates, five hundred devaputras clad in firm armor guard these gates. Within the city is Indra's palace, called the Supreme Place or the Palace of Excellence (Vaijayanta); it is square in shape, four hundred and a half yojanas high, two hundred and fifty yojanas on each side, and one thousand yojanas in perimeter. It has one hundred and one battlements; each battlement has seven pavilions; each jeweled pavilion has seven small towers; each small tower has seven ponds; each pond has seven lotuses; and on each lotus are seven young boys and girls playing various kinds of music, singing, dancing, and rejoicing. To the east of Sudarśana City is the chariot park named Many Chariots (Caitraratha), a thousand yojanas high; to the south is the battle-staging ground named Rough and Coarse (Pāruṣyaka); to the west is the strolling ground named Mixed and Variegated (Miśraka); to the north is the play ground named Joyful (Nandana), equal in length and breadth to the former. Twenty yojanas outside these parks are fine grounds named Many Chariots, Rough and Coarse, Mixed, and Joyful, equal in measure to the four parks. To the northeast of Sudarśana is the wish-fulfilling tree named Pārijāta, also called the tree of full growth; its roots penetrate fifty yojanas deep, it is one hundred yojanas high, and its branches spread fifty yojanas across, bestowing desired pleasures. Beneath it is a stone slab called Asmāgarbha (or A-li-mo-li-ke), white as fine cotton cloth, fifty yojanas on each side and two hundred yojanas in perimeter. To the southwest of Sudarśana is the assembly hall of the gods, called the Hall of the True Dharma (Sudharmā), nine hundred yojanas in perimeter and circular in shape. In the centre of this hall is Indra's throne, made of pure gold, around which are arranged thirty-two thrones for his counselor ministers, all laid out for the Thirty-Three Gods.

Ascending eighty thousand yojanas higher, resting upon the wind in the expanse of space, is the palace of the Yāma gods (Deity Free from Strife), made of various jewels, twice the size of Mount Meru's summit. Ascending one lakṣa and sixty thousand yojanas higher, resting upon the wind in the expanse of space, is the Tuṣita heaven palace, made of various jewels, twice the size of Yāma in length and breadth. Ascending three lakṣas and twenty thousand yojanas higher, resting upon the wind in the expanse of space, is the Nirmāṇarati heaven palace, made of various jewels, twice the size of Tuṣita. Ascending six lakṣas and forty thousand yojanas higher, resting upon the wind in the expanse of space, is the Paranirmitavaśavartin heaven palace, made of various jewels, twice the size of Nirmāṇarati. This is the desire realm (kāma-dhātu).

Above is the first dhyāna. Thus the four continents, seven mountains, Meru, Cakravāḍa, the six heavens of the desire realm, and the first dhyāna constitute one four-continent realm. Counting from one to a thousand forms a minor chiliocosm, encircled by a minor Iron Ring mountain range. Counting this minor chiliocosm from one to a thousand forms a medium chiliocosm, encircled by a medium Iron Ring mountain range. Counting this medium chiliocosm from one to a thousand forms a trichiliocosm, encircled by a great Iron Ring mountain range. In this manner, there are ten billion such four-continent realms, all distributed in rows. In the dark chasms between the Iron Ring mountains and the continents and mountains, there is neither day nor night, and one cannot see one's raised hand. The measure of the First Dhyāna Heaven equals a four-continent realm; the Second Dhyāna Heaven equals a minor chiliocosm; the Third Dhyāna Heaven equals a medium chiliocosm; and the Fourth Dhyāna Heaven equals a trichiliocosm. Their distances apart double with each level; this is called the form realm (rūpa-dhātu). As for the formless realm (ārūpya-dhātu), it has no distinct spatial location; wherever a being dies, if they are to be born there, that very place is where they arise. Because they abide in formless absorption, it is called formless.

1.11

Chapter 2: The World of Sentient Beings

1.12.1

The world of sentient beings comprises six kinds in total: first, hell beings (naraka); second, hungry ghosts (preta); third, animals (tiryag); fourth, humans (manuṣya); fifth, asuras; sixth, gods (deva). What are the meanings of the names of these six kinds? Because their limbs and bodies are chopped and destroyed, they are called hell beings. Because they are afflicted by hunger and thirst, they are called hungry ghosts. Because they crawl and walk bent forward, they are called animals. Because their minds engage in much conceptual discrimination, they are called humans; this is the meaning of manuṣya. Although their bodies and enjoyments are the same as those of the gods, they are slightly base and inferior, or because they have no liquor, they are called asuras; this is the meaning of asura. Because they are born from the body of Brahmā, amuse and delight themselves in sport, or are worthy of offerings, they are called gods; this is the meaning of deva. As for the hells: twenty thousand yojanas below Jambudvīpa, extending twenty thousand yojanas in the four directions, formed purely of iron, flames blaze thoroughly through them. There are eight hot hells: first, Saṃjīva (Reviving); second, Kālasūtra (Black Rope); third, Saṃghāta (Crushing); fourth, Raurava (Crying); fifth, Mahāraurava (Great Crying); sixth, Tapana (Heating); seventh, Pratāpana (Great Heating); eighth, Avīci (Uninterrupted). As for the Saṃjīva Hell: sentient beings born there, impelled by their former karma, seize various weapons, conceive mutual hatred and enmity, and repeatedly chop and strike each other, falling piece by piece, fainting away in temporary death. A voice in the sky says, 'Revive!' and those sentient beings immediately revive and strike each other again. As for their lifespan: the entire lifespan of the gods of the Four Heavenly Kings is one day and night; counting in this way, their lifespan is five hundred years, during which they suffer such torment. As for the Kālasūtra Hell: the hell wardens snap black ropes to mark lines across the sentient beings' bodies from head to foot, and using fiery saws and axes, slice and chop their limbs and bodies. By the power of former karma, what has been sliced falls away and grows again. As for their lifespan: the entire lifespan of the Trāyastriṃśa gods is one day and night; counting in this way, their lifespan is one thousand years, during which they suffer such torment. As for the Saṃghāta Hell: the sentient beings born there are struck and beaten with iron mallets, or two iron mountains resembling sheep heads collide, grinding, crushing, and destroying them; when the two mountains part, they naturally revive, only to be crushed and destroyed again. As for their lifespan: the entire lifespan of the Yāma gods is one day and night; counting in this way, their lifespan is two thousand years, during which they suffer such torment. As for the Raurava Hell: sentient beings born there, terrified of a hot iron pond, flee into a thick forest, where blazes rage and burn them perpetually. By the power of former karma, their tongues extend a thousand yojanas in length and breadth. There is a great ox with iron horns and iron hooves, harnessed to an iron plowshare, blazing fiercely with flames, which plows through their tongues. As for their lifespan: the entire lifespan of the Tuṣita gods is one day and night; counting in this way, their lifespan is four thousand years, during which they suffer such torment. As for the Mahāraurava Hell: it is the same as the preceding one, but the suffering is doubled. As for their lifespan: the entire lifespan of the Nirmāṇarati gods is one day and night; counting in this way, their lifespan is eight thousand years, during which they suffer such torment. As for the Tapana Hell: within a triple iron city, flames blaze through and through as they endure torment inside. As for their lifespan: the entire lifespan of the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods is one day and night; counting in this way, their lifespan is sixteen thousand years, during which they suffer such torment. As for the Pratāpana Hell: it is also the same as the preceding, but the suffering is doubled. As for their lifespan: it equals half an intermediate kalpa, during which they suffer such torment. As for the Avīci Hell: inside an iron room, their bodies become a single mass of flames, enduring the utmost suffering. As for their lifespan: it equals one intermediate kalpa. As for the sixteen secondary hells (utsada): on each of the four sides of the eight hot hells there are four places. First, the Kukūla (Knee-Deep Embers) utsada: it is deep enough to submerge up to the knees; when sentient beings wander there, the moment they set foot down, skin, flesh, and blood are all scorched, rot, and fall off, leaving only bones; when they lift their feet, [the flesh] grows back and is restored as before. Second, the Kuṇapa (Corpse Excrement) utsada: impure mire submerges sentient beings to the waist, in which there are many jaṅkuṭa worms with snouts as sharp as needles, which bore through skin and penetrate bone to suck and eat their marrow. Third, the Kṣuradhārā (Crest of Blades) utsada: this has three kinds. First, the path of blade edges: here razor blades are laid pointing upward to make a great path; when sentient beings wander there, the moment they set foot down, skin, flesh, and blood are completely sliced, shredded, and fall off, and when they lift their feet, [the flesh] grows back and is restored as before. Second, the Asipattravana (Sword-Leaf Forest): the trees in this forest have leaves made purely of sharp swords and knives; when sentient beings wander there, the wind blows the leaves down, severing and piercing their limbs and bodies, their flesh and bones scattering, while black and mottled dogs chew and tear at them to eat them. Third, the iron spike forest, called the Śālmali: the trees of this forest have sharp iron spikes sixteen finger-widths long; when sentient beings are forced to climb up and down the trees, the sharp spikes pierce and gouge them upward and downward, and the blood, flesh, and skin of these sentient beings hang stained upon the spikes, leaving only tendons and bones. There are iron-beaked crows that probe and peck at the sentient beings' eyes and brain marrow, fighting to consume them. Although these three kinds—the path of blade edges and so on—are distinct, their iron weapons are the same, so they are subsumed under one utsada. Fourth, the blazing river utsada, called Vaitaraṇī (Impassable): it is filled with intensely hot, boiling alkaline caustic water; when sentient beings enter it, floating or sinking, moving against or with the current, lying crosswise or upright, they are steamed and boiled, their bones and flesh decaying into mush; just as when a large cauldron is filled with alkaline water and rice or the like is placed inside with fierce fire burning beneath, the grains of rice turn upside down within it and their whole bodies are reduced to mush, so it is with sentient beings. If they wish to escape, on both banks there are hell wardens holding knives and spears who intercept and drive them back, leaving them no way out. This river is like a moat, and the preceding three are like parks. These are called the proximate hells (pratyekanaraka). As for the eight cold hells: first, Arbuda (Blister); second, Nirarbuda (Burst Blister); third, Aṭaṭa; fourth, Hahava; fifth, Huhuva; sixth, Utpalaphullita (Splitting like a Blue Lotus); seventh, Padmaphullita (Splitting like a Lotus); eighth, Mahāpadmaphullita (Splitting like a Great Lotus). As for the Arbuda Hell: they are born amid cold water; in the extreme, severe cold, blisters form over their bodies, so it is called the Arbuda Hell. As for their lifespan: if from a great vessel containing eighty droṇas of sesame seeds in the kingdom of Magadha one seed were removed every hundred years, when those sesame seeds are exhausted, their lifespan is the same. As for the Nirarbuda Hell: due to extreme cold, their blisters burst and yellow fluid oozes out. Their lifespan is twenty times that of the preceding. As for the Aṭaṭa Hell: due to great, severe cold, they clench their teeth to endure it. Their lifespan is twenty times that of the preceding. As for the Hahava Hell: they make this sound while enduring the cold. Their lifespan is twenty times that of the preceding. As for the Huhuva Hell: weeping and wailing from the cold, they make this miserable sound. Their lifespan is twenty times that of the preceding. As for the Utpalaphullita Hell: from severe cold their bodies split open like the petals of an utpala flower. Their lifespan is twenty times that of the preceding. As for the Padmaphullita Hell: from severe cold their bodies split open like a blooming lotus. Their lifespan is twenty times that of the preceding. As for the Mahāpadmaphullita Hell: their bodies split even more than before, like a great lotus blooming with many petals. Their lifespan is twenty times that of the preceding.

1.12.2

As for the solitary hells, they are located in the wilderness and mountains of Jambudvīpa, where [beings] alternate between experiencing suffering and experiencing pleasure within a single day and night. The eight hot hells, the eight cold hells, the neighboring [hells], and the solitary [hells]—these are called the eighteen hells. / As for hungry ghosts, five hundred yojanas beneath Rājagṛha there is a city of hungry ghosts named Yellow-White, also called Bleak. Their ghost king is named the Dharma King Yama, who dwells together with thirty-six kinds of retinue and the like. Their types are four: first, those with external obstructions; second, those with internal obstructions; third, those with food and drink obstructed; and fourth, those who obstruct food and drink. First, as for those with external obstructions, they cannot even hear the sound of food and drink. Second, as for those with internal obstructions, if they obtain a tiny bit of food and drink, their mouths are like the eye of a needle and it cannot enter; even if it can enter the mouth, their throats are like horsehair and it cannot pass down; even if it passes the throat, their bellies are like wide mountains and cannot be filled; and even if their bellies were filled, their shins are like stalks of grass and they cannot move, thus suffering this great torment. Third, as for those with food and drink obstructed, when they see food and drink, countless hell-wardens holding various weapons guard it so that they obtain nothing. Fourth, as for those who obstruct food and drink, when they consume food and drink, due to the retribution of their karma, iron pellets and molten bronze are poured into their mouths and flow out below. These four kinds are all hungry ghosts. As for their lifespan, one month in the human world is one day and night, and counting in this way, their lifespan is five hundred years, which corresponds to fifteen thousand years in the human world. Those who dwell among humans in charnel grounds and the like, consuming blood, flesh, and so forth, all belong to the category of hungry ghosts. / Third, as for animals, most dwell in rivers and the sea, mingled together like dregs of wine, the large eating the small and the small eating the large, constantly terrifying one another. Due to the waves of the ocean, their dwelling places are not fixed; some also dwell among humans and devas. As for their lifespan, the long, such as nāga kings, have a life of half an intermediate kalpa; the short, such as gnats and the like, have a life of a single instant. Their bodily size is not fixed. / Fourth, as for humans, they dwell on the four great continents, the eight intermediate continents, and the various small continents. As for their lifespan, like the humans of Jambudvīpa, at the beginning of the kalpa of formation their life was immeasurable, and afterwards it gradually decreased to sixty years at present, after which it will gradually decrease until it reaches ten years, and then it will gradually increase again, having no fixed measure. Humans of Uttarakuru have a fixed lifespan of one thousand years; humans of eastern Pūrvavideha have a lifespan of five hundred years; humans of western Aparagodānīya have a lifespan of two hundred and fifty years. Except in Uttarakuru, in the rest there are untimely deaths. As for their provisions: in the continent of Uttarakuru they eat naturally grown rice, and clothing and necklaces emerge from wish-fulfilling trees; in the other three continents, they eat grains, meat, and the like, enjoying wealth and treasures. As for their bodily size: humans of Jambudvīpa are eight cubits in measure; humans of western Aparagodānīya are sixteen cubits in body; humans of Uttarakuru are thirty-two cubits. The facial shapes of humans also correspond to the shapes of their continents. The humans of the small continents are like those of the great continents, each of their bodies being half the size; therefore it is said thus. / Fifth, as for demigods (asuras): eleven thousand yojanas below the water's edge of Meru, within the mountain's open expanses in the city of Radiance, dwells the asura king named Rāhu (which means "grasping the head"), together with his multitudes of retinue. Another eleven thousand yojanas [below], within the city of Garland of Stars, dwells the asura king named Kaṇṭhamālā (Necklace), together with his multitudes of retinue. Another eleven thousand yojanas [below], within the city of Firm, dwells the asura king named Suśubha (Wonderful Subduer), also called Mahābala (Great Strength), together with his multitudes of retinue. Another eleven thousand yojanas [below], within the city of Profound, dwells the asura king named Vemacitrin (which means "various threads," also "tattooed body"), together with his multitudes of retinue, constantly clashing and contending with Śakra. The city is named Possessing Gold; the palace is named Playing Music; the wish-fulfilling tree king is named *Cittapātali; the assembly place is named Bhadradhana (Good Wealth); the stone is named Subhadra (Auspicious Good); the groves are named Universal Joy, Wonderful Joy, Utmost Joy, and Very Auspicious Joy; the grounds are also named Universal Joy, Wonderful Joy, Utmost Joy, and Very Joyful; the elephant ridden when going into battle is named Invincible; the elephant ridden for sport is named Piled Snow; the horse is named Steep Neck. These demigods contend with the Trāyastriṃśa devas over the taste of sudhā (ambrosia) and the asura maidens. For the purpose of warfare, they come forth from the mountain expanses, their bodies clad in strong armor of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, crystal, and mother-of-pearl, holding in their hands swords, lances, javelins, bows, and arrows, commanding armies of four divisions. Those asura kings—Rāhu, Kaṇṭhamālā, Suśubha, Vemacitrin, and so on—either the first three come forth, or all four come together. At that time, of Śakra's five guardian hosts, first the host of nāga kings and others who dwell in the Playful Ocean and delight in white dharmas do battle with the demigod army and turn them back. If the nāgas are not victorious, they go to the place of the Firm-Headed (Kharoṣṭha), where together the two guardians again do battle with the asuras. If they are again not victorious, they go to the place of the Garland-Bearers (Mālādhāra), where together the three guardians again do battle with them. If they are again not victorious, they go to the place of the Ever-Proud (Sadāmatta), where together the four guardians again do battle with them. If they are again not victorious, they go to the place of the Four Kings, where together the five guardians again do battle with them. The Four Great Heavenly Kings lead the armies of the four divisions, clad in sturdy jeweled armor and holding spears and weapons; in battle, the Four Heavenly Kings are victorious for the most part. If they cannot repel [them], they go before the Trāyastriṃśa heaven and say to Śakra: 'We guardians cannot turn back that asura host; your majesty should repel the enemy.' Having been addressed in this way, the lord of devas, Śakra, mounts the elephant Supratiṣṭhita and announces to the hosts of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven: 'You should know that the asura army has now reached the summit of Meru; put on strong armor, take your mounted chariots, and fight the asuras.' Having spoken these words, those devaputras each put on jeweled armor, take up spears and weapons, go to the All-Chariot Grove to take their mounted chariots, enter the Coarse-Harsh Grove to transform their bodies and minds into harshness, and go forth from the City of Good Sight to fight face-to-face against those asuras. If the asuras are victorious, they encroach into the interior of the city; if the devas obtain victory, they pursue the asura army to the first sea. At the time of fighting, if the devas and demigods have their shins or waists severed, they die immediately; if their hands and feet are severed, they grow back as before. When a Bhagavān, a pratyekabuddha, or a wheel-turning king dwells in the world, the asuras do not give rise to minds of contention, and even if they clash, the devas will certainly be victorious. When goodness increases in the world, the deva hosts are also victorious; when unwholesomeness increases in the world, the asuras are victorious. Therefore, the devas protect and uphold wholesome matters. / As for devas, there are six heavens of the desire realm, seventeen of the form realm, and four of the formless realm. As for the six heavens of the desire realm: on the first tier of Mount Sumeru dwell the Firm-Headed host; on the second tier dwell the Garland-Bearing host; on the third tier dwell the Ever-Proud host. On Mount Yugaṃdhara to the north there is a city named Aḍakavatī, where the Great Heavenly King Vaiśravaṇa and the yakṣa hosts dwell. Likewise, to the east there is a city named Superior Virtue, where there is a great heavenly king named Dhṛtarāṣṭra, where the gandharva host dwells.

1.12.3

In the west is a city named Variegated Colors (Citraratha), where a great heavenly king named Virūpākṣa resides among the host of nāgas and spirits. In the south is a city named Growth, where a great heavenly king named Virūḍhaka resides among the host of Kumbhāṇḍas. On the other four tiers, the seven golden mountains, and so forth, as well as the sun, moon, stars, constellations, the Cakravāḍa iron range, and the tāla trees on the mountains of Jambudvīpa, the retinues of the Four Kings also dwell; all belong to the Four Kings, and this is called a single division. Regarding their lifespan: fifty human years make one day and night, and calculated in this way, their lifespan lasts five hundred years. As for their bodily size, it is one fourth of a krośa.

On the summit of Meru in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the lord of the gods Śakra dwells in the supreme place, enjoying the pleasures of desire insatiably together with an asura maiden named Sujātā and the hosts of goddesses. There is also a royal elephant ridden when going forth to battle named Supratīka, and a royal elephant ridden in pleasure gardens named Airāvaṇa (translated here as 'Son of the Earth-Holder'); each elephant has a circumference of seven yojanas, and each dwells surrounded by eight thousand smaller elephants. There is also a royal horse named Swift Wind, dwelling with eight thousand horses. The lord of gods has thirty-three assisting ministers; therefore it is called the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. The sons of the gods are captivated by the pleasures of the five desires; when they become heedless, there is a great celestial drum whose drum-sound issues a voice admonishing the gods: 'All conditioned phenomena are impermanent; all contaminated phenomena are suffering; all phenomena are devoid of self; quiescent cessation is bliss.' When battling the asura army, it emits a sound that dispels suffering, admonishing them: 'May the gods achieve victory; may the asuras be defeated!' The palaces, cities, pools, trees, gatherings of stones, and so forth are as distinguished previously. Regarding the lifespan of those gods: one hundred human years make one day and night, and calculated in this way, their lifespan is one thousand years. The bodily size of those gods is half a yojana.

As for the Yāma Heaven: the Thirty-Three fight with the asuras, but this heaven is free from fighting; hence it is called the Heaven Free from Strife. Regarding the lifespan of those gods: two hundred human years make one day and night, and calculated in this way, their lifespan is two thousand years. The bodily size of those gods is two yojanas.

As for the Tuṣita Heaven: the Venerable Maitreya succeeds to the position of the worldly and transworldly King of Dharma and experiences great joy of the Dharma; it is called Tuṣita, meaning 'Joyous Together'. Four hundred human years make one day and night in that heaven, their lifespan is four thousand years, and their bodily size is four yojanas.

As for the Nirmāṇarati Heaven: creating their own enjoyment, it is called 'Delighting in Creation'. Eight hundred human years make one day and night in that heaven, their lifespan is eight thousand years, and their bodily size is eight yojanas.

As for the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven: enjoying what is created by others, it is called 'Mastery over the Creations of Others'. The king of the gods therein possesses majesty and mastery, and is the Lord Māra. Sixteen hundred human years make one day and night in that heaven, their lifespan is sixteen thousand years, and their bodily size is sixteen yojanas.

From the Avīci [Hell] below up to the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven is called the Desire Realm. Because they indulge in sensual desires and consume material food, it is spoken of in this way.

The seventeen heavens of the Form Realm are subsumed under the four dhyānas. The three heavens of the first dhyāna are Brahmā's Retinue, Brahmā's Ministers, and Great Brahmā. Regarding the lifespan of those gods: Brahmā's Retinue is half an aeon, Brahmā's Ministers is one aeon, and Great Brahmā is one and a half aeons. The bodily size of those gods is progressively half a yojana, one yojana, and one and a half yojanas. The three heavens of the second dhyāna are Limited Light, Immeasurable Light, and Utmost Light. Regarding the lifespan of those gods: Limited Light is two aeons (for the four heavens above, forty medium aeons make one great aeon; for the heavens below, eighty medium aeons make one great aeon), Immeasurable Light is four aeons, and Utmost Light is eight aeons. The bodily size of those gods: Limited Light is two yojanas, Immeasurable Light is four yojanas, and Utmost Light is eight yojanas. The three heavens of the third dhyāna are Limited Virtue, Immeasurable Virtue, and Extensive Virtue. Regarding the lifespan of those gods: Limited Virtue is sixteen aeons, Immeasurable Virtue is thirty-two aeons, and Extensive Virtue is sixty-four aeons. The bodily size of those gods: Limited Virtue is sixteen yojanas, Immeasurable Virtue is thirty-two yojanas, and Extensive Virtue is sixty-four yojanas. The eight heavens of the fourth dhyāna are Cloudless, Merit-Born, and Extensive Fruit—these three being the abodes of ordinary beings; and Effortless, Heatless, Well-Appearing, Clear-Seeing, and Akaniṣṭha (Ultimate Form)—these five being the abodes of noble ones, called the Five Pure Abodes. Regarding the lifespan of those gods: Cloudless is one hundred and twenty-five aeons, Merit-Born is two hundred and fifty aeons, Extensive Fruit is five hundred aeons, Effortless is one thousand aeons, Heatless is two thousand aeons, Well-Appearing is four thousand aeons, Clear-Seeing is eight thousand aeons, and Akaniṣṭha is sixteen thousand aeons. The bodily size of those gods: Cloudless is one hundred and twenty-five yojanas, Merit-Born is two hundred and fifty yojanas, Extensive Fruit is five hundred yojanas, Effortless is one thousand yojanas, Heatless is two thousand yojanas, Well-Appearing is four thousand yojanas, Clear-Seeing is eight thousand yojanas, and Akaniṣṭha is sixteen thousand yojanas. Beginning from Brahmā's Retinue up to Akaniṣṭha, all are called the Form Realm. Because they have departed from the pleasures of desire but have not departed from form, it is therefore called the Form Realm.

The four heavens of the Formless Realm have no bodily form and no spatial location; they are divided into four according to meditative concentration: the Ākāśānantyāyatana, the Vijñānānantyāyatana, the Ākiṃcanyāyatana, and the Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana. Regarding the lifespan of those gods: the Ākāśānantyāyatana has a lifespan of twenty thousand great aeons, the Vijñānānantyāyatana forty thousand great aeons, the Ākiṃcanyāyatana sixty thousand great aeons, and the Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana eighty thousand great aeons. These four abodes are called the Formless Realm; because they have not departed from meditative form but have departed from coarse form, they are termed 'formless'.

These lifespans are reckoned in years, aeons, and periods of time. What are their measures? The shortest period of time is called a kṣaṇa; one hundred and twenty kṣaṇas make one tat-kṣaṇa; sixty tat-kṣaṇas make one lava; thirty lavas make one muhūrta (translated here as a 'momentary interval'); thirty muhūrtas make one day and night; thirty days and nights make one month; and twelve months make one year. There are six kinds of aeons: 1. medium aeon (also called distinct aeon), 2. aeon of formation, 3. aeon of continuation, 4. aeon of destruction, 5. aeon of voidness, and 6. great aeon. Regarding the first, the medium aeon: when human beings of Jambudvīpa [decrease] from an immeasurable lifespan, gradually decreasing until reaching eighty thousand years, this is subsumed under the aeon of formation. Decreasing from eighty thousand years to ten years is called the initial medium aeon. Then increasing again to eighty thousand years and decreasing to ten years constitutes one cycle. Eighteen such increases and decreases constitute eighteen medium aeons. Then, [increasing] from ten years to eighty thousand years is the final boundary of the medium aeons; before, after, and in between, eighteen cycles constitute twenty medium [aeons]. As for the second, the aeon of formation: beginning from the vāyu-maṇḍala down to the Avīci Hell, when a single sentient being is born, the bhājana-loka is formed; this lasts for one medium aeon, as explained previously. Regarding the sattva-loka, after this trichiliocosm is destroyed by fire, it forms again.

1.12.4

When a celestial being dies in the Ābhāsvara heaven and is born in the realm of Mahābrahmā, being born solitary, he grows weary: 'Alas! Would that other beings of the same class were born into this world!' Although he has formulated such a thought, it is not through the power of his recollection, but because beings from the Ābhāsvara heaven whose life-spans have ended happen to be born there. The one who was born first then conceives this thought: 'Because of my longing, they were born.' Therefore the world all calls him Mahābrahmā, the Ancestor of Humans. Next in sequence are born the Brahmapurohita, the Brahmapāriṣadya, the Paranirmitavaśavartin, and so forth down to the Cāturmahārājakāyika; then the northern Uttarakuru continent, the western Godānīya continent, the eastern Pūrvavideha continent, and the southern Jambudvīpa continent are born in sequence. At that time, the people of Jambudvīpa had boundless life-spans; their food and drink was joy and bliss; they had mind-made physical forms, their bodies were endowed with radiance, and they flew through the air at will, like the devas of the realm of form. Then the earth-essence gradually emerged: its taste was sweet and delicious, its color white like honey, and its fragrance rich. At that time, there was one person who by disposition craved flavors. Smelling the fragrance, he gave rise to attachment; he reached out, tasted it, and immediately ate it. He also told the others, who followed his example and took it to eat. Because they ate solid food, their bodily radiance vanished. Due to the collective karma of beings, the sun and the moon then arose, shining over the four continents, and next the earth-essence disappeared. Then there arose earth-cakes, whose taste was sweet and delicious and whose color red like honey; they vied with one another to crave and eat them, and the earth-cakes disappeared again. Next forest creepers arose; because they vied with one another to crave and eat them, the forest creepers also disappeared. Then naturally growing rice, unploughed and unsown, arose, and everyone gathered and ate it together. Because this food was coarse, residual impurities appeared, and both the sensory roots and excretory passages emerged. At that time, the people harvested fragrant rice to eat whenever they ate, morning or evening. Later, someone who was lazy by disposition took a large amount of fragrant rice and stored it overnight for food; the others followed suit, and the fragrant rice vanished. Thereupon, they jointly divided the fields, fearing that it would be exhausted in the future. Toward their own allotted fields they gave rise to stinginess and protection; toward others' allotted fields they harbored thoughts of encroaching and stealing, and so strife and contention arose. At that time, the people deliberated upon a virtuous person to invest him as the master of the apportioned fields. Because he was approved by the multitude, he was called King Mahāsammata (which means 'Approved by the Multitude'). The king had many sons who successively inherited the throne: the eldest son was named Rocana, his son was Kalyāṇa, his son was Varakalyāṇa, and his son was Upoṣadha—these are called the five kings of the vivarta-kalpa. The son of King Upoṣadha was named Māndhātṛ, his son was Cāru, his son was Upacāru, his son was Cārumant, and his son was Cārumān—these are called the five Cakravartin kings. The son of King Cārumān was named Jaya, his son was Jayanta, his son was Śakuni, his son was Kuśa, his son was Darśana, his son was Mahādarśana, his son was Anantara, his son was Suvarṇa, his son was Bhāgīratha, his son was Apāpa, his son was Meru, his son was Dhṛtarāṣṭra, his son was Mahāghoṣa, his son was Mahāmahāghoṣa, his son was Kṣema, his son was Diśāmpati, his son was Renuka, his son was Vipula, and his son was Mahādeva. This royal lineage was handed down for five thousand generations. His final descendant was handed down for seven thousand generations, called King Aśmaka. His final descendant was handed down for eight thousand generations, called King Kuru; his final descendant was called King Kapāla. There were nine thousand kings, the last descendant of whom was named Nāgasvara. There were ten thousand kings, the last descendant of whom was Damiḍa. There were fifteen thousand kings, the last descendant of whom was named Gautama—this is the Ikṣvāku lineage. Handed down from his sons, there were one thousand one hundred kings of the Ikṣvāku lineage; the last king of the Ikṣvāku lineage was named Virūḍhaka (that is, King Ikṣvāku). The king had four sons: the first was named Ulkāmukha, the second Hastikaśīrṣa, the third Hastinīkāśya, and the fourth Nūpura; they were called the Śākya clan. Nūpura had a son named Nūpurapāda, his son was Vasiṣṭha, his son was Goma, and his son was King Siṃhahanu. He had four sons: the first was named Śuddhodana, the second Śuklodana, the third Droṇodana, and the fourth Amṛtodana. The son of King Śuddhodana was the Bhagavān, and the next was named Nanda. King Śuklodana had two sons: the first was named Tiṣya, and the second Devadatta. King Droṇodana had two sons: the first was named Aniruddha, and the other Bhadrika. King Amṛtodana had two sons: the first was named Ānanda, and the other Devadatta. The son of the Bhagavān was named Rāhula. With this, the Śākya lineage came to an end. Furthermore, kings of other lineages promoted the teaching in accordance with the Dharma. Two hundred years after the Tathāgata's parinirvāṇa, in the country of Central India, there was a king named Aśoka, a Dharma-king in Jambudvīpa; during the assembly of the Great Council, the king served as the donor and caused the Buddha's teaching to flourish. Three hundred years later, in the northwestern region of Jambudvīpa, there was a king named Kaniṣka; at the time of the third council, he acted as the donor and broadly caused the Buddha's teaching to flourish. The Dharma-kings of Brahmā-India, Kaśmīra, Khotan, Kucha, Nepāla, Cīnasthāna, Dali, Xixia, and so forth each caused the Buddha's teaching to flourish in their own countries. More than a thousand years after the Tathāgata's parinirvāṇa, in the country of Tibet, the first king was named gNya'-khri btsan-po; in the twenty-sixth generation there was a king named Tho-tho-ri gnyan-btsan, and at that time the Buddha's teaching first arrived. In the fifth generation after that, there was a king named Srong-btsan sgam-po; at that time, there was a paṇḍita named Ācārya [Kusara], and the chief translator was named Thon-mi Sambhoṭa, who translated the Dharma and constructed vihāras at Lhasa and elsewhere, disseminating the Dharma. In the fifth generation after that, there was a king named Khri-srong lde'u-btsan; this king invited the Great Master Śāntarakṣita, the Master Padmasambhava, the paṇḍita Kamalaśīla, and various accomplished masters, who, together with seven people including Vairocana-rakṣita and rBa dPal-dbyangs, translated the Dharma. Other paṇḍitas together with various translators broadly translated the Dharma, and the three kinds of vows flourished throughout the country. In the third generation after that, there was a king named Khri Ral-pa-can; the territory of this king was vast. At that time, there were Jinamitra, Surendrabodhi, and other paṇḍitas, who, together with sKa-ba dPal-brtsegs, Cog-ro kLu'i-rgyal-mtshan, and others, collated what had already been translated and translated what had not yet been translated, broadly making the Dharma flourish. The Tibetan royal lineage still exists today; because there are many paṇḍitas, translators, and spiritual friends, the Dharma has thereby flourished. In the northern land of Mongolia, the ripening of former merit gave birth to a king named Chinggis. Starting with Chinggis, he brought into submission various regions and many spoken realms, like an Iron Wheel-Turning King. His son was named Ögedei, who was titled Qa'an at the time; he inherited the imperial throne and expanded the borders beyond before. He had a son named Güyük, who inherited the imperial throne as Emperor Chinggis [line].

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彰所知論 — Classical Chinese