大般涅槃經疏 1

English (machine translation) 1

Language: English

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Preface to the Outline of the Southern Recension of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra

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Composed by Śramaṇa Shīzhèng, transmitter of the Tiāntái lineage and collator of sūtras at the Chóngshèng Monastery under the Yuán dynasty.

Our Buddha, the Great Sage, at the final assembly under the Twin Trees, preached this sūtra for the sake of bhikṣus of the latter age and all sentient beings across the great earth, to clarify their minds and perceive their nature. It fully illuminates the discipline of the precepts and broadly reveals the doctrine of permanence; the Móhē zhǐguān relies upon it to uphold the vinaya and manifest permanence, comparing it to a priceless treasure that ransoms life. Therefore, the sūtra states: “If this sūtra exists, the Buddha-Dharma exists; if this sūtra perishes, the Buddha-Dharma perishes.” The very life-pulse and survival of the Buddha-Dharma are bound to it. It began with Jǔqú Měngxùn, who requested Dharmakṣema and Master Měng to translate it twice, comprising thirteen chapters in forty scrolls, which circulated in the north. Coming to Emperor Wén of the Sòng, he decreed Masters Yán and Guān, together with Xiè Kānglè, to revise and finalize it further, expanding it into twenty-five chapters and condensing it into thirty-six scrolls, which circulated south of the Yangzi. During that time, those who preached, heard, and attained awakening were exceedingly numerous, and writings clarifying it were also abundant, as recorded in the Biographies of Eminent Monks. As the distance from the Sage grew greater, people's spiritual faculties turned duller. Our ancestor, the Venerable Zhāng'ān, based on Nāgārjuna's fundamental tenet and using the Tiāntái doctrinal categories, authored a commentary and outlined the sūtra, profoundly tallying with the Buddha's intent. Jīngxī excised and supplemented it, causing the path of Dharma to shine forth anew. Since the lectures of Cíyún of Sìmíng and the subcommentary composed by Gūshān, it has been desolate and barely heard. What is the reason for this? It is because the sūtra text is vast and extensive, and the commentary’s meaning is profound and subtle; moreover, the outline was not integrated into the sūtra, making it difficult to search out in the end. Shīzhèng has dedicated his mind to this scripture for years up to the present. In the rénshēn year of the Sòng, while residing at the head seat under the assembly of Master Gǔyuán at Yǒngqīng, I subsequently modeled it on the formatting of the Lotus and Golden Light sūtras, using the outline sentences of the commentary to mark them distinctly above the sūtra text. In cases where the commentary did not cite the lemmas, their beginning and end were difficult to determine, so I engaged in repeated inquiries and debates with my companions; the abbot made the final determinations, ensuring that it necessarily arrived at what is correct. Every night we gathered under the eaves of Níguān Veranda, reading the sūtra, outline, commentary, and subcommentary in rotation. Those who participated in this gathering were Huáizǒng of Dàcí, Dàchéng of Bàocí, Jūjiǎn of Dàyún, Wénshèng of Shòuxīng, Qīngzhèng of Lónghuá, Huáitǎn of Yuánhuá, and Fǎháng of Tiānzhú. It began in the eighth month of that autumn and ended in the late spring of the following year. Kědù of Wújī Dōngtáng collated and proofread it again, and Monk-official Dào'ān of Báiyún Gǔshān carved the printing blocks for its distribution. I vow, together with future generations, to uphold, read, recite, and practice according to its teaching. Above, may it not betray the Buddhas and patriarchs; below, may it not fail one's own spiritual nature. Wishing long life to the Emperor, may its merit extend to all beings throughout the nine realms. Written on the day of the imperial calendar in the rénwǔ year of the Zhìyuán era.

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Composed by Master Guàndǐng of Zhāng'ān under the Suí dynasty.

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Revised by Śramaṇa Zhànrán of Tiāntái under the Táng dynasty.

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Introductory Chapter, Part One.

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In former generations, they directly chanted [the text], explaining the words and elucidating the meaning; dividing the chapters and sections began with Xiǎoshān Yáo and Guānnèi Píng, becoming the rule because of them. In this sūtra, the contractions and expansions of the textual sentences are not uniform; there are divisions into two, three, four, five, seven, and eight. Emperor Wǔ of Liáng only established 'middle-prior' and 'middle-after'; Kāishàn had only the introduction and main body, while Guāngzhái added the dissemination section; Língwèi held that questions have origins and answers have surplus momentum; Héxī had five gateways, Vasubandhu seven divisions, and Xīnghuáng eight gateways. Although the orchid and chrysanthemum are each beautiful, the sūtra prohibits while treatises open up. The cowherd maiden adding water is prohibiting; deep branching and substantial analysis are opening up. Now we divide it into five, and also into seven: first, listing the sections; second, indicating the passages; third, explaining the names; fourth, explaining the sequence of arising; fifth, general and specific; sixth, citing scriptural proof; seventh, different interpretations.

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First, as for listing the sections: 1. Summoning and inviting the nirvāṇa assembly; 2. Expounding the donation of nirvāṇa; 3. Manifesting the practice of nirvāṇa; 4. Inquiring into and answering the meaning of nirvāṇa; 5. Subduing and gathering as the function of nirvāṇa (and so forth).

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Second, as for indicating the passages of the text: First, from “Thus” up to “blood shed on the ground” is the invitation; from Cunda up to the great assembly's question is the donation; from manifesting illness up to King of Virtue Bodhisattva is the practice; from Siṃhanāda up to the end of the chapter is the meaning; from Kāśyapa up to the end of the sūtra is the function.

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Third, as for explaining the names: The Way does not move in isolation; it awaits the time, the place, and companions. Now, the time of nirvāṇa having arrived, the Buddha opens the illumination of his mouth and emits sounds according to each class of beings, startling and awakening, moving them to assemble here at Kuśinagara. Pulling by conditions is called 'summoning'; attracting and causing to arrive is called 'inviting'. Assemblies consist of the provisional and real: the real can be summoned, and the provisional should be invited. The fifty-two assemblies rush and gather from the ten directions, all to reveal the great parinirvāṇa; therefore it is named 'summoning and inviting the nirvāṇa assembly'. Through immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas, the Buddha cultivated the difficult-to-attain treasury of the great nirvāṇa. Originally having no secret miserliness, beings simply could not all receive it; therefore, he first applied poison and later washed with water, identical at first but different at the end, awaiting the faculties and time. Through Cunda's offering, he bestowed permanence, physical appearance, and strength. Through the bhikṣus' request to remain, he denounced the false and discussed the true. Exhorting them earnestly to ask questions, Kāśyapa received the instruction. Bestowing according to what was asked so that nothing was left remaining, the Dharma rain filled and overflowed Kuśinagara; therefore it is named 'expounding the donation of nirvāṇa'. However, the profound stillness of the secret treasury cannot be reached without practice; through skillful means he manifested it to bring them forward. Where he went, he lay on his right side and remained silent without speaking, manifesting the practice of illness. Kāśyapa pressed and invited him, whereupon he sat cross-legged, delighted and relieved, preaching the three and pointing to the one. Bodhisattvas practice the five practices and ten virtues; therefore it is named 'manifesting the practice of nirvāṇa'. Furthermore, the meaning of nirvāṇa is vast and inexhaustible. If one wishes to take up one aspect to cover them all, it is like pointing to the salty ocean as flat; therefore, the sūtra specifically inquires into buddhadhātu six times in continuous succession, and the Buddha replies to each one; this is named the 'meaning of nirvāṇa'. Furthermore, the essence of buddhadhātu is neither good nor evil, yet the dual function of good and evil pervades without boundary. Summarizing the essentials to cover the broad with the brief: employing the good, Rāhula is gathered; employing the evil, Sunakṣatra can be reined in. The two sons being such, the rest can be analogized. Moreover, the essence is neither heterodox nor orthodox, yet both heterodox and orthodox are employed: employing the orthodox, he initially gathered the five men including Kauṇḍinya; employing the heterodox, he ultimately reined in the ten heterodox outsiders. The beginning and the end being so, the middle is also likewise. This is named the 'function of nirvāṇa'.

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Fourth, as for the sequence of arising: Due to the assembly there is donation; due to donation practice is established; due to practice one sees the meaning; realizing the meaning brings about function. Alternatively, function derives from meaning, meaning derives from practice, practice derives from donation, and donation derives from the assembly's gathering. Relying on each other in forward and reverse sequence, they thereby form an orderly succession. Beginning without a beginning, there is summoning and inviting; ending without an end, there is the great function. Evil exhausted and heterodoxy eliminated, goodness completed and orthodoxy subsided, subduing and gathering having ceased, ultimate quiescent cessation is entered in nirvāṇa.

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Fifth, as for general and specific: The preaching at the beginning, middle, and end is never without facing an assembly. If there were no assembly, to whom would it be vainly preached and bestowed? Therefore, in general, it is all the assembly. Specifically speaking, the gathering of the assembly is found at the very beginning, properly named summoning and inviting. Speaking generally, every single word and event is a donation to sentient beings; specifically, it addresses the conditions of questioning, giving according to requests. The text being broad and the events clear, it is therefore named 'expounding the donation of nirvāṇa'. Speaking generally, all instruction of beings is nothing other than guidelines, and all is generally practice; specifically, it discusses the five practices and ten virtues. The text is extensive and the events distinct; therefore it is named 'nirvāṇa practice'. From beginning to end, this sūtra thoroughly clarifies buddhadhātu; buddhadhātu is general, analyzed nowhere without it; specifically, it takes one round of questions and answers to purely discuss buddhadhātu. The text is clear and the events distinct, so it is named the 'meaning of nirvāṇa'. Speaking generally, the entire treatise guides and benefits all beings, just as medicinal herbs on the great earth are for the use of sentient beings—my Dharma is also like this; therefore, it is named general. Specifically, it discusses gathering evil and gathering heterodoxy, the text being extensive and the meaning evident; therefore, it specifically clarifies function.

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Sixth, as for citing scriptural proof: First we cite multiple passages, and next we cite a single passage. First, regarding multiple passages: For instance, the sound and light universally proclaim, causing beings to hasten to the Buddha's location for their final questions—is this not summoning? Also, the 'Siṃhanāda' chapter states: “Summoning and inviting the great bodhisattvas of the ten directions, they assembled in the śāla grove for the great lion's roar.” The 'Cunda Chapter' states: “I now bestow upon you permanence, life, physical appearance, and strength.” The 'Virtue King Chapter' states: “You now wish to fathom the ocean of great nirvāṇa; meeting me, I have abundant wisdom-donations to give you.” The 'Holy Practice Chapter' states: “Bodhisattvas should single-mindedly cultivate the five kinds of practices in the great nirvāṇa.” It also says: “Cultivating the great nirvāṇa, one attains ten merits.” In the 'Siṃhanāda' chapter, six phrases are used to ask about buddhadhātu: by what meaning is it named buddhadhātu? The Tathāgata answers fully: buddhadhātu is simply the meaning of great nirvāṇa. The 'Kāśyapa Chapter' states: “Roaming through the world with a mind of friendliness.” The world does not go beyond good and evil, heterodox and orthodox; converting the heterodoxy of the ten ṛṣis and gathering the evil of the one son constitutes the function of nirvāṇa. Next, regarding citing the text from a single passage: The 'Siṃhanāda' chapter states: “Buddhadhātu is also named śūraṅgama-samādhi, also named prajñāpāramitā, also named vajrasamādhi, also named siṃhanādasamādhi, and also named buddhadhātu.” Yet buddhadhātu is not one; why are there five? It is named with five to lead beings to understand it is not five. The summoned and invited assembly are all good friends who share the Tathāgata’s practices. If viewed from their root of virtue, they all abide in the Śūraṅgama; if viewed from manifestation, they are the fifty-two assemblies; therefore, the name of śūraṅgama is used to prove the summoned assembly. (Personal note: Regarding the fifty-two assemblies: the bhikṣus and other two assemblies count as three, and the bodhisattva assembly is one. From two Gaṅgās up to a thousand kotis of Gaṅgās, the incrementally numbered assemblies are twenty-one, the identically numbered assemblies are eight, the countless assembly is one, the intermediate assemblies are four, the six heavens make six, the Brahmā assembly is one, the asuras one, the Māra heaven one, Maheśvara one, and the four directions four, totaling fifty-two.) The Unsurpassed Tamer, having sarvākārajñatā, universally illuminates faculties and principles without the slightest error, opening permanence, revealing nature, and excavating the treasury of awakening to bestow upon the contemporary assembly. If viewed from the Buddha's wisdom, it should be called prajñā; if viewed from setting forth teachings, it is called the donation of nirvāṇa; you should know that the name prajñā can prove the donation of nirvāṇa. These five practices and one practice are truly upright and unshakeable, and can further shatter afflictions and delusions. If viewed from cultivation, they are called practice; if viewed from analogy, they are compared to vajra; you should know that vajrasamādhi can prove the practice of nirvāṇa. 'Meaning' is that by which names are established; hence under the name of nirvāṇa there is the reason for buddhadhātu, and buddhadhātu is precisely the meaning of nirvāṇa. This meaning is sovereign, decisive, and fearless: if viewed from what can be likened, it is compared to the lion's roar; if viewed from what is likened, it is the meaning of buddhadhātu; you should know that the name of siṃhanāda can prove the meaning of nirvāṇa. Essence and function are mutually identical; among all phenomena, there is always the nature of bliss, which is none other than buddhadhātu. Relying on essence to operate function, roaming and converting the world, gathering evil and heterodoxy to return to orthodoxy and goodness; you should know that the name of buddhadhātu can prove the function of nirvāṇa. Now, dividing the chapters according to the sūtra, the text and meaning have evidence and are not merely far-fetched interpretations.

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Seventh, pointing out differing explanations: Emperor Wu of the Liang divided the sūtra chronologically into the beginning, middle, and end. If this is based on dawn, midday, and afternoon, that might work; but with dusk and midnight, to what texts would they correspond? The Sūtra on the Upāsaka Inviting the Saṅgha says, 'Speaking this took a full week'; so to which year would the beginning, middle, and end belong? Now, dividing the chapters according to the Dharma avoids this difficulty. Kaishan posits the preface and the main body: the preface is the convocation, and the main body comprises the four chapters. Guangzhai adds the dissemination section, which is merely a small part of the chapter on function. Lingwei takes it that the questions have karmic origins and the answers have lingering momentum; yet since there are questions and answers everywhere, there should be lingering momentum everywhere. As for the Hexi [master, Dharmakṣema], taking the first two fascicles as the gateway of guiding and receiving those with karmic affinity from present and past captures the real but loses the provisional; now, our term 'convocation' fully encompasses both provisional and real. Taking from the third fascicle up to the great assembly's questioning as the brief and extensive gateway is merely based on the quantity of text; now, unfolding it as expounding the giving of nirvāṇa encompasses both the extensive and the brief. Taking the five practices as the gateway of nirvāṇa practice, and the ten virtues as the gateway of bodhisattva virtues—practice and virtues both belong to the causal stage; now, combining them into the chapter on practice avoids superfluous phrasing. Taking from Siṃhanāda to the end of the sūtra as the gateway of the inconceivable middle-way buddhadhātu conflates and blends them, making it difficult to understand; now, dividing it into essence/meaning and function makes the text easy to comprehend. The Dilun masters take the first fascicle as the section of supernatural manifestation and instruction, which captures the provisional but loses the real; now, saying 'convocation' avoids any bias. They take the second fascicle as the section of gotra, destroying doubts and eliminating attachments, and from the third fascicle up to the great assembly's questioning as the section of the true meaning of the correct Dharma; now, making it a single giving of nirvāṇa encompasses both of their sections. They take the five practices and ten virtues as the section of cultivating attainment through skillful means. They take Siṃhanāda as the section of entering realization through non-negligence; but the previous cultivation of attainment was already entering realization—would entering realization again not be redundant? Now we make it the chapter on meaning. They take Kāśyapa as the section of maintaining through compassion, and Kauṇḍinya as the section of revealing characteristics; holding badness toward goodness and revealing heterodoxy to return to orthodoxy are combined into the chapter on function. The Xinghuang master at first took the gateway of guiding and receiving those with karmic affinity from present and past, which adopted the idea of [Seng]lang; second, the gateway of destroying doubts and eliminating attachments, which adopted the idea of the Dilun masters; third, the brief and extensive gateway, fourth, the practice gateway, fifth, the stages gateway, and sixth, the gateway of practicing the middle way, all of which adopted Lang's ideas; the gateway of the function of skillful means, and the gateway of non-duality between heterodoxy and orthodoxy, differ from Hexi only in opening and combining, with no difference in their terms or import.

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Second, the specific explanation: The chapter on convocation was set in place by the compiler of the sūtra. Formerly, it was called the common preface and the specific preface. Because the Path of the three times is identical, it is called the common preface; because the teachings and capacities differ, it is called the specific preface. Furthermore, in the present Buddha's single lifetime, the Hinayāna, Mahāyāna, Distinct, and Perfect teachings all place 'Thus' at the start, hence it is called common; each sūtra has different occasions and origins, hence it is called specific. Moreover, all sūtras place 'Thus' at their opening, which uniformly serves as words encouraging faith. In the common preface, there are five or six elements, depending on the combination or division of the teacher and the place. 'Thus' is the principle that was transmitted. 'I have heard' is the person who transmitted it. 'At one time' is the time when the transmitter transmitted what was transmitted, matching capacity to principle. 'The Buddha' is the master from whom it was received. 'Dwelling' is the place where it was heard. 'The assembly' are the companions who directly received it. Verifying one another in turn, they urge faith that it is not false, desiring that future generations may follow it without confusion. Furthermore, the beginnings of both Hinayāna and Mahāyāna sūtras urge faith; faith in the Mahāyāna and faith in the Hinayāna, Mahāyāna and Hinayāna must differ. If they were not different, there would be no distinction between Hinayāna, Mahāyāna, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect; if they are different, how are they distinguished? We will now explain it briefly: If one says that the two matters of what can transmit and what is transmitted are similar, calling this 'Thus', and that what can transmit and what is transmitted are nothing other than this, calling this 'is so' (śraddhā)—this is the meaning of faith according to the Tripiṭaka teaching. If one says that understanding coalescing with the real is 'Thus', and that body reduced to ashes and wisdom extinguished is 'is so'—this is the meaning of faith according to the Shared teaching. If one says that according with capacity is 'Thus', and that phenomenal adversity accords with principle is 'is so'—this is the meaning of faith according to the Distinct teaching. If one says that the realm of māras is itself the realm of buddhas is 'Thus', and that a single color or a single fragrance is nothing other than the middle way is 'is so'—this is the meaning of faith according to the Perfect teaching. 'Thus' being so, 'I have heard' and the rest can be understood analogously. Therefore Nāgārjuna says: 'One who has faith says, "This matter is thus"; one who lacks faith says, "This matter is not thus."' If one has faith in the first three, one has faith in the 'Thus' of the various provisional skillful means; if one has faith in the latter one, one has faith in the 'Thus' of the perfectly integrated single reality. These common and specific prefaces are used by all masters and are commonly heard in the world, so there is no need to speak of them extensively; they are fully set forth as in the Lotus Sūtra Commentary. Here we only preserve the single sense of classifying according to teachings; the rest all follow that model. Now, clarifying the five phrases of the common preface, they can also serve as prefaces to the five chapters: 'Thus' prefaces the convocation; 'I have heard' prefaces the giving; 'at one time' prefaces the practice; 'the dwelling place' prefaces the meaning; and 'hearing together' prefaces the function. As for 'Thus' prefacing the nirvāṇa assembly: Non-difference is called 'Thus' (ru); the absence of negation is called 'is so' (shi). If one does not attain 'Thus', difference is definitively different, and negation is definitively negated. For one who comprehends this meaning, difference is non-different, and negation is non-negated. From the listing of the assembly down to dung beetles, their strange species and varied forms have mixed and tangled karmic retributions; banner rubies illuminate the Brahmā realm, and canopies cover the trichiliocosm, the immense and the tiny tipping toward one another, the subtle and the gross mutually contrasting. If viewed with the eyes of oxen and sheep, there would be nothing but mutual contradiction—how could this be attained as 'Thus'? For one who attains 'Thus', knowing that the Great Beings of the Dharmakāya perform the śūraṅgama manifesting in various ways, realizes that difference is non-different, and therefore calls it 'Thus'; knowing that negation is non-negated, therefore says 'is so'. One should know that it is clear that 'Thus' serves as the preface to the convoked assembly. As for 'I have heard' prefacing the giving of nirvāṇa: What I formerly did not hear, I now get to hear—seeing the eight hu of non-glutinous rice grains suffuse the great assembly, hearing that the retributions of the two givings are equal and without distinction, and hearing the newly realized four virtues of the letter 'I', the secret buddhadhātu, and various flavors of the Dharma, previously unheard but now heard; therefore one knows that 'I have heard' prefaces the giving of nirvāṇa. As for 'at one time' prefacing the practice of nirvāṇa: Practice at one time is not sequential practice; realization at one time is not before-and-after realization. The text says: 'There is yet another practice which is the practice of the Tathāgata, not a sequential practice, which in a single thought-moment is able to fully manifest bodies across the five destinies.' This is realization at one time; one should know that 'at one time' prefaces the practice of nirvāṇa. As for 'the dwelling place' prefacing the meaning of nirvāṇa: A place is a refuge where one's body comes to rest, signifying that buddhadhātu is the supreme and ultimate ground. Driving out heterodoxy and leading the evil toward that Kuśinagara, neither withered nor flourishing, tranquil and extinguished in between; whether for others or oneself, reaching the ultimate and stopping there—one should know that 'the dwelling place' prefaces the meaning of nirvāṇa. As for 'hearing together' prefacing the function of nirvāṇa: Spirits of mountains, forests, rivers, and oceans, and kinds such as oxen, sheep, crickets, and scorpions form the assembly that heard together; one thus knows that the three sons are taught equally and together constitute three fields, where both good and evil are gathered in, and both heterodox and orthodox are delivered. Therefore the assembly that heard together prefaces the function of nirvāṇa.

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Having finished assigning the five prefaces respectively, we will further explain how each single preface prefaces all five chapters. The assembly does not go beyond the eight buddhas; the eight buddhas being non-different from the present Buddha is called 'Thus', and there being none who are not buddhas is called 'is so'. The two givings being without difference is called 'Thus', and entering the secret treasury together is called 'is so'. Being the practice of the Tathāgata is called 'Thus', and one practice ubiquitously encompassing [all] is called 'is so'. Being identical in the one buddhadhātu is called 'Thus', and the essence of the meaning being non-dual is called 'is so'. Heterodoxy and evil being non-dual is called 'Thus', and there being none surpassing this is called 'is so'. One should know that 'Thus' commonly prefaces all five chapters.

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'I have heard' is also like this: Formerly, I heard that the four assemblies were not the eight buddhas; now, I hear that the eight buddhas are precisely the four assemblies. Formerly, I heard of the superiority and inferiority of beginning and end, and the shifting among the five fruits; now, I hear that the two givings are without difference, and both are equally permanent and joyful. Formerly, I heard that rivers meander and do not go straight to the ocean; now, I hear that the continent of Godānīya is like a straight cord. Formerly, I heard that the fleshly eye does not even see emptiness, let alone being able to see the nature; now, I hear that those who learn the Mahāyāna, although possessing fleshly eyes, are named as having the buddha-eye, and the buddha-eye sees the nature clearly and distinctly. Formerly, I heard that good and evil are as distinct as the Jing and Wei rivers, and that heterodoxy and orthodoxy take different tracks; now, I hear that the timingila and the divine turtle are together in the water. This is how 'I have heard' commonly prefaces all five chapters.

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'At one time': At one time receiving the convocation of sound and light; at one time gathering at the śāla grove; at one time revealing the Tathāgata's secret treasury; at one time hearing the permanent giving of nirvāṇa; at one time hearing and upholding it with veneration; at one time abiding in the secret treasury and entering the meaning of nirvāṇa; at one time having heard the two characters 'permanent abiding', awakening parents, ancestors of seven generations, and all sentient beings, whether enemies, kin, good, or evil. This is how 'at one time' commonly prefaces all five chapters.

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'Dwelling place': The convocation of sound and light all turning toward the Buddha's dwelling place; the Buddha bestowing the Buddha's dwelling place upon the assembly of that time; initiating the practice of nirvāṇa from the Buddha's dwelling place; seeing that the Buddha's dwelling place is indeed seeing the meaning; and leading and gathering the heterodox and evil by means of the Buddha's dwelling place. This is how 'the dwelling place' commonly prefaces all five chapters.

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Together seeing and hearing the sound and light of permanent abiding is 'Thus', not being heard by other skillful means; therefore, it is hearing together the final questions and answers on permanent life, physical color, strength, and peaceful, unhindered eloquence; hearing together the practice straight as a cord in Godānīya; hearing together the meaning of the secret treasury in the western sea; and hearing together the function of the buddhadhātu in the heterodox and evil. This is how the assembly that heard together commonly prefaces all five chapters.

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Furthermore, the five prefaces preface the three dots: 'Thus' generally prefaces the three dots being neither vertical nor horizontal, neither parallel nor distinct, and only then is called 'Thus'; 'I have heard' prefaces prajñā; 'at one time' prefaces liberation; 'dwelling place' prefaces the dharmakāya; and 'hearing together' prefaces the three dots not being empty.

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Furthermore, as for the five prefaces prefacing the four virtues: 'Thus' generally prefaces the four virtues; 'I have heard' prefaces bliss; 'at one time' prefaces purity; 'dwelling place' prefaces permanence; and 'hearing together' prefaces the self (and so on). By this example, the five prefaces preface the essential meanings of the sūtra, all conforming to this without further extensive explanation; consider other examples accordingly.

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'I have heard': the self of self, the self of non-self, the non-self of self, and neither self nor non-self. Hearing hearing, hearing non-hearing, non-hearing hearing, and neither hearing nor non-hearing. The three kinds of 'I have heard' are the meanings of skillful means heard formerly; the perfect discussion of 'I have heard' as neither self nor non-self, and neither hearing nor non-hearing, is the correct intention of the present sūtra.

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'At one time': 'One' as a numerical direction is merely a worldly meaning; emptiness as 'one' is the meaning of the two vehicles; true and conventional coalescing into 'one' is the bodhisattva's meaning. One is all, all is one, neither one nor all, yet one and yet all—the latter 'one' is the correct intention of the present sūtra. 'The Buddha at one time' has three bodies and four meanings. The latter meaning applies to the present [sūtra], as can be known by conforming to the above.

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'Dwelling place': Fully stated, it should be Kuśinagara. This is untranslated; or translated as 'Corner City', because it has three corners. When the Avataṃsaka says 'south of Corner City', that is this very city. Or it is called 'Straw-Raincoat Grass City', or called 'Mao-Grass City', named because this city was covered in thatch grass. Or it is called 'City of the Ṛṣis'; in ancient times, the ṛṣis had long lifespans and the people respected them, so they named the dwelling place after the persons. The country was also named after the persons, hence it is called the country of Kuśi.

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'Birthplace of the Mallas': The Mallas among men had the strength to match a thousand men, numbering three hundred thousand in all. Banding together as a clan, they were subject to no ruler; maintaining themselves by law, they were neither violent nor disorderly—they were precisely the gentry (shi), hence it is called their birthplace.

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Aciravatī: This is translated as 'Golden Sands'. It is south of the city, twenty zhang in width, or said to be forty zhang in width.

1.28

The 'Twin Śāla Trees' translates as 'firm and solid'. There were two trunks in each direction, eight trunks in all four directions, all fifty feet high, four withered and four flourishing. Below, their roots were interconnected; above, their branches joined together. In joining they resembled entwined boughs, while their flourishing and withering resembled yields of mutual deference. Their leaves were lush, their blossoms like carriage wheels, their fruit as large as jars, their sweetness like honey, complete with colour, fragrance, and flavour. Because of these eight trees, it was collectively called one grove, signifying firmness and solidity. Regarding this single city, there are various ways of seeing. If one sees it as made of earth and stone, it is the dwelling place of humans—the worldly meaning. If one sees it as impermanence, suffering, emptiness, arising and passing away, it is the dwelling place of the two vehicles. If one sees it as the place of giving rise to the bodhimind, the place of encountering past buddhas, the place of vows, the place of cultivating concentration, and so forth, it is the dwelling place of bodhisattvas. If one sees it as the four virtues complete, ultimate, fully endowed, manifested to people out of compassion: the grass-built city represents permanence, the wrestlers represent self, the auspicious river represents purity, and between the trees represents bliss. Furthermore, each single matter represents the four virtues: that the city cannot be destroyed represents permanence, its abundance represents bliss, warding off enemies represents self, and being without hardships represents purity. That the wrestlers are subject to no one represents permanence, their peace of mind represents bliss, their physical strength represents self, and their pleasing appearance represents purity. As for the river, its constant flowing represents permanence, its golden sands represent purity, its refreshing coolness represents bliss, and its auspicious fortune represents self. As for the trees, a lower passage says: 'The eastern pair represents permanence, the southern pair represents bliss, the western pair represents self, and the northern pair represents purity. Moreover, the paired luxuriant growth represents permanence, the cool shade represents self, the flowers represent purity, and the fruit represents bliss.' If one can discern the four virtues generally and specifically, that is the dwelling place of the buddhas. If it is held that those who heard together are mortal beings seen by ordinary persons; if held that they are noble ones seen by the two vehicles; if held that they are seen by bodhisattvas who have ascended the bhūmis; if held that they are eight of the nine buddhas, that is, seen by the buddhas. If one grasps this meaning, one should interpret each and every phrase below in this manner.

1.29

Concerning the audience who heard together, there are also two parts: first, the gathering of the assembly; second, their deportment. As for the first passage, I personally suggest: according to our school's intention, one must take the fifty-two assemblies as those who heard together; therefore, 'hearing together' heads the fifty-two. Here, the monks stand at the beginning, hence it says 'heard together'. 'Hearing together' comprises five items: accompanying, praise, category, assembly, and number. The present text lacks the word 'assembly', but in principle it should be there.

1.30

'Accompanied by' means together with. The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa explains 'together' by means of the seven uniformities: one place, one time, one precept, one mind, one view, one path, and one liberation. The monks shared these seven uniformities with the Buddha, hence it says 'the Buddha was accompanied by'. If explained according to the Tripiṭaka teaching: the sixteen-foot Buddha and the monks shared the same place in Kuśinagara, the same time of nirvāṇa, the same moral precepts of discipline, the same mind of meditative concentration, the same view of taintlessness, the same path of nirvāṇa, and the same liberation with residue—all seven being identical with the Buddha, hence it says 'together'. If explained according to the Shared Teaching, five are identical and two differ. How so? The wisdom that understands phenomena realizes emptiness directly in form, not emptiness through the annihilation of form; this view differs from the Mahāyāna path, and does not differ from the narrow path; the paths are not the same, so one should know that two differ. If explained according to the Distinct Teaching, the seven items such as the time and place of the Buddha of the exalted and distinctive body cannot be seen by the previous two [kinds of] monks; just as lighting a candle for a blind man, of what benefit is it to one without eyes? Precepts, mind, view, path, and liberation are to the previous two [kinds of] monks like playing music for a deaf man; of what benefit is it to one without ears? This Buddha is not together with the previous two [kinds of] monks. The monks in this [teaching] are not even together with the previous Buddha, how much less with [these] monks? If explained according to the Perfect Teaching, the Buddha's seven uniformities are all the Buddha's realm; they are shared only with the bodhisattvas of the Perfect Teaching, and shared with those who abide in the śūraṅgama[-samādhi] and manifest the appearance of monks; they are not even shared with the previous three buddhas, how much less with [ordinary] monks? When it now speaks of 'together', it is because all are great provisional manifestations and their definitive revelation has already been completed.

1.31

'Great' is the praise of their virtue. The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa says: 'Mahā translates as great, numerous, and superior. Being reverenced by heavenly kings and great persons, it is called great; being conversant with the four Vedas and the three pitakas, it is called numerous; surpassing the ninety-five kinds [of heterodox views], it is called superior.' This is an explanation according to the Tripiṭaka teaching. Being reverenced by the worthy and noble ones, it is called great; penetrating the dharma-gates of analytical and phenomenological [emptiness], it is called numerous; surpassing the two liberations of mind and wisdom through the analysis of phenomena, it is called superior—this is an explanation according to the Shared Teaching. Being reverenced by those in training and those beyond training, it is called great; penetrating the great and small dharma-gates, it is called numerous; surpassing śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, it is called superior—this is an explanation according to the Distinct Teaching. Being reverenced by the seven expedients, it is called great; penetrating the provisional and real dharma-gates, it is called numerous; serving as leaders among the definitely determined assembly, it is called superior—this is an explanation according to the Perfect Teaching. The great provisional manifestations and definitive revelation are as before.

1.32

'Monk' (bhikṣu) refers to their category. They are called bhikṣus because of three meanings: Neither looking upward nor downward, neither sideways nor into corners, begging successively for alms to maintain a pure livelihood, they are therefore called 'almsmen'. Restraining the seven limbs by precepts, chaining the monkey of the mind by meditation, fearing the wolf of impermanence, and subduing the fat of defilement, this is called 'destroyer of evil'. Practicing these three dharmas, the heavenly Māra is vexed and poisoned, worrying that they will escape his realm, and further fearing they will deliver others, and is therefore grieved and frightened; this is called 'frightener of Māra'. This is the meaning according to the Tripiṭaka. Fully understanding all dharmas as neither upward nor downward, neither sideways nor into corners, to nourish the life of wisdom, and knowing that evil is not evil and that there is also no knower, this is called 'destroyer of evil'. Attaining neither fear nor joy, being without fear and joy, this is called 'frightener of Māra'. This explains the meaning of a bhikṣu of the Shared Teaching. Progressing from shallow to deep through successive stages, seeking the joy of the Dharma of the middle way with discernment, this is called 'almsman'. Successively destroying the five entrenchments, this is called 'destroyer of evil'. Fearing karma because of defilements, fearing aggregates because of karma, fearing heavenly Māra because of aggregates, this is 'frightener of Māra'. This explains the meaning of a bhikṣu of the Distinct Teaching. In all dharmas there is the nature of peace and bliss, called the true milk-porridge; nourishing oneself with this, within the nature of peace and bliss there is purely the Buddha-Dharma and no evil to be destroyed, which is called 'destroyer of evil'. Māra's suchness is the Buddha's suchness, which is called 'frightener of Māra'. This explains the meaning of a bhikṣu of the Perfect Teaching. According to the various sūtras, all have the word 'assembly' (saṃgha); a harmonious union of four or more persons is called an assembly. The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa speaks of four kinds of saṃgha: precept-breaking, mute sheep, conscientious, and genuine. The latter two saṃghas are qualified for the one-hundred-and-one karmans, whereas the former two are not fit. The stage of warmth and so forth are the conscientious, and the four fruits are the genuine; these are the assembly of the Tripiṭaka teaching. The stage of dry wisdom and the stage of nature are the conscientious, and those from the eighth person upward are the genuine; these are the assembly of the Shared Teaching. The thirty minds are the conscientious, and the ten stages (bhūmis) are the genuine; this is the assembly of the Distinct Teaching. The ten faiths are the conscientious, and the forty-one stages are the genuine; this is the assembly of the Perfect Teaching. The remaining two kinds of monks exist in every teaching, and evil admits of no distinction, so they are not explained separately. The conscientious and the genuine further have four meanings: first, initiators; second, supporters; third, the intended audience; fourth, those forming karmic affinities. Explaining them collectively, it therefore says 'assembly' (and so forth).

1.33

'Eighty billion hundred-thousand' refers to the number. It is either simply the persons, or counts persons and emptiness of phenomena, or counts dharma-gates, or counts the dharmatā (and so forth).

1.34

Next, 'surrounding [him] before and behind' refers to their deportment. It is either the stirring of capacity through the reverence of the three karmas, or the stirring of capacity to enter emptiness through the four gates, or the stirring of capacity to enter the provisional through the four gates, or the stirring of capacity to enter the middle through the four gates.

1.35

From 'On the fifteenth day of the second month' onward is the second specific preface, which is precisely the summons and invitation. The text has three parts: first, explaining that which summons; second, explaining those who are summoned; third, concluding the summons. That which summons also has three: first, summons by voice; second, summons by light; third, summons by movement. Summons by voice has six points: first, the time of the voice represents the Dharma; second, the time of the voice accords with the capacity; third, the origin and branch of the voice; fourth, the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the voice; fifth, the voice has stimulus and response; sixth, praising and announcing within the voice.

1.36

First, from 'the second month' onward, that the time of the voice represents the Dharma: the second month is the time of mid-spring. 'Mid' means middle, which represents the middle way. The fifteenth day is the time of the full moon; fullness represents perfect permanence. Therefore, the day of the full moon at the mid-season represents the perfectly clear Dharma of the middle way.

1.37

Next, from 'when approaching nirvāṇa' onward, the time of the voice accords with the capacity: the capacity for the Path has matured at this time, brooking no delay and no passing beyond the time of approaching and attending. A lower passage says: 'The roots of goodness of the sages of the Fragrant Mountain, the wrestlers of Kuśinagara, Cunda, and Subhadra have matured', therefore he proclaimed nirvāṇa, enabling them to enter the secret treasury. The Lotus Sūtra says: 'To those who should be saved through extinction, he manifests extinction and saves them.' This is precisely the meaning.

1.38

Third, from 'by the Buddha's...' onward, the origin and branch of the voice: spiritual power is the origin, and the great voice is the branch. Tracing from the origin down to the trace, it causes all to awaken to neither origin nor branch. Furthermore, the wisdom of emptiness is the origin, the sarvākārajñatā is the origin, the jewel-like marks are the origin (and so forth). Fourth, from 'its sound...' onward, the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the voice: pervading everywhere is the horizontal, and reaching the Summit of Existence is the vertical. Another explanation holds: the Summit of Existence is merely the Brahmā world, that is, the Akaniṣṭha heaven; the Formless Realm has no body and should not hear sound, hence it is not the Summit of Existence. Someone cites the Benevolent King Sūtra, saying: 'The power of concentration of the Formless Realm can transform into clouds of fragrant flowers and the like to make offerings to the Buddha; why could it not transform into a body?' This too can be challenged. I now present three kinds of horizontal and vertical: first, horizontally covering the six destinies and vertically penetrating the three realms; second, horizontally covering the four modes of birth and vertically penetrating the three vehicles; third, horizontally covering the ten realms and vertically penetrating Equal Enlightenment. Hence we know that not only is Akaniṣṭha the Summit of Existence; if taken as the summit of the three existences, that is Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana; again, the summit of the three existences is the stage beyond training (aśaikṣa); there is yet another summit, which is Wonderful Enlightenment. Two summits are summoned, and one summit is petitioned. Since this meaning is so broad, how can it be compared merely to the Brahmā world? Fifth, from 'according to their...' onward, the stimulus and response of the voice: according with their types, the stimuli are not uniform; universally announcing, the response is not dual. That a non-dual voice responds to non-uniform stimuli is indeed inconceivable. Sixth, from 'Today...' onward, the praising and announcing of the voice also has two parts: first praising, then announcing. Praising causes them to revere; announcing causes them to grieve with longing. The first, praising, also has two parts: first, doubly praising the two virtues; second, doubly concluding the two virtues. The first praises internal virtue first, and external virtue second.

1.39

As for the first passage, internal virtues are immeasurable; praising only the three titles is because he wishes to elucidate three matters. First, praising the Tathāgata, as being completely identical with all buddhas, gives rise to their reverence, which is the father of the world. 'Worthy of Offerings' (Arhat) is the supreme field of merit, able to generate good karma, which is the lord of the world. 'Correct and Complete Knower' (Samyaksaṃbuddha) can destroy doubts and hindrances and generate their understanding of wisdom, which is the teacher of the world. Thus a lower passage says: 'From now on we have no lord, no kin, and nothing to look up to' (and so forth). Next, as for external virtues: external virtues are immeasurable; mentioning only the four equalities is because he wishes to elucidate that the original father, ruler, and teacher's original vows all fully possessed the four equalities; now bringing benefit, pulling out suffering and bestowing bliss, this is what is essential. Pity is great friendliness; compassion is great compassion; protection is great joy; regarding with impartiality is great equanimity. Next, from 'serving as...' onward is the concluding praise. It has two parts: first, 'serving as a refuge' concludes the three titles; second, 'serving as a dwelling for the world' concludes the four equalities.

1.40

Next, from "The Great Awakened One" onward is the notification. The word "notification" (gao) means to announce: first it announces to cause them to sever doubts, and next it announces to cause them to raise questions. The Great Awakened One of universal knowledge can sever the former doubts; the kindness and compassion of the four equalities will surely grant the later questions. When the later questions [are raised], then the path of teaching flows freely and nirvāṇa's giving is obtained; when doubts are severed, then the false is abandoned and the real obtained, and the new "i" character is then revealed. The great voice universally notifying is the prelude to setting forth the teaching—this meaning is clear. Previously, it fully praised the three titles; now it only announces [as] the Great Awakened One. The Great Awakened One is precisely the All-Knowing One (sarvajña). That the master is the ruler and the father is clear, so words need not be multiplied. Furthermore, Tathāgata is the first title, and Great Awakened One is the later title. Praising the first and notifying with the latter mutually invoke one side, and the meaning is comprehensive. If we distinguish according to the former, we should clarify the four meanings section by section; since the point is understood, it is naturally clear, so it is not repeated.

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大般涅槃經疏 — Classical Chinese