大般涅槃經疏 10

English (machine translation) 10

Language: English

10.1

Compiled by Master Guàndǐng of Zhāng'ān under the Sui

10.2

Re-edited by the monk Zhànrán of Tiāntái under the Tang

'Four' is a number; 'reliance' means to depend upon. All the world depends upon them to obtain benefit, hence they are called the 'four reliances'. Depending is of two kinds: 1. Depending on one's own Dharma to obtain benefit; 2. Depending on others to obtain benefit. If one only depends on the Dharma without also depending on the person, it is not called reliance. If one depends on the person, one also gains the Dharma. The text says: 'Four persons appear in the world; their safeguarding, upholding, establishing, and benefiting have powerful significance.' Therefore, the four reliances are established, answering the earlier question: 'How does one attain the vast to serve as a reliance for the multitude?' 'Vast' is the Dharma. 'One who attains' is the person. If one simply discusses the vast, it can also be relied upon, but does not necessarily entail a person; whereas if one has attained the Dharma, the person must possess the Dharma. The previous question asked about the person who attains the Dharma, and now the answer concerns the person who attains the Dharma; therefore, we know that the name 'four reliances' is established based on persons. Furthermore, in the past, persons were mixed in truth and falsity, so one relied on the Dharma to select persons; now, dharmas are conflated between Hinayāna and Mahāyāna, so one relies on persons to select dharmas. Now, one relies on correct persons to grasp the correct Dharma; therefore, based on four persons, the Chapter on the Four Reliances is established. Furthermore, in the past, when relying on the Dharma to select persons, the person lacked the Dharma and the Dharma was also not pervasive, like abandoning this and going to that in search of empty space. Now it is made clear that the person directly upholds the Dharma, not abandoning this and going to that; therefore, the Chapter on the Four Reliances is established based on the four persons. This is explaining the chapter using the meaning of the four siddhāntas. Question: The Tathāgata is the correct person; why not manifest the Tathāgata's image? The four fruits are not correct persons; why manifest the image of the four fruits? Answer: Although the Buddha is the correct person, these appear after the Buddha's [parinirvāṇa], so they cannot manifest the Tathāgata's image. The four fruits are not [the supreme] correct persons, but the four fruits are true fields of merit, their transformative path is easily practiced, and it is suitable to manifest this image. Question: If other images are difficult, why does the Śūraṅgama speak of manifesting various forms? Answer: Generally speaking, all are manifested; specifically, the four fruits are preserved. There is the Tathāgata acting as the Tathāgata, the Tathāgata acting as the four reliances, the four reliances acting as the Tathāgata, the four reliances acting as the four reliances, the four reliances acting as the four fruits, the four fruits acting as the four fruits, and the four fruits being unable to act as the four reliances. Although there are various meanings, we now adopt one perspective: that is, the four reliances manifest as the image of the four fruits. Question: If the Tathāgata acts as the four reliances, can the four reliances be taken as one single reliance? Answer: Above, the single characteristic was opened into four characteristics, and the four characteristics were combined into a single characteristic; opened, there are a hundred liberations; combined, there is only the Tathāgata's nirvāṇa. Now, from nirvāṇa, the four reliances are opened forth; combined, it is still the Buddha acting as the four reliances. Question: Why was it first instructed to rely on the Dharma, and later instructed to rely on persons? Answer: When the Buddha first appeared in the world, heterodox persons were very numerous, so he had people rely on the correct Dharma to select against heterodox persons. Later, there were no heterodox persons, only lesser dharmas, so he had people rely on correct persons to select against lesser dharmas. It is also because the earlier people were sharp, so they relied on the Dharma, while later people are dull, so they rely on persons. Ultimately speaking, one relies on both person and Dharma. The text says: 'That which relies on the Dharma is the dharmatā; the dharmatā is precisely the Tathāgata.' Formerly, the stages and practices of the four reliances were explained differently. Master of the Daśabhūmika: Before the thirty minds is the disciple stage; the thirty minds are the teacher stage. From the first bhūmi upwards is the second reliance, all being teacher stages. Masters of the Harivarman's Satyasiddhi: Before the sixth mind of the ten abodes is the disciple stage; from the seventh abode upwards is the teacher stage of the first reliance. They also say before the twelve minds is the disciple stage, and the thirteenth mind is the teacher stage of the first reliance. They saw that in the Avataṃsaka, the thirteenth mind is the master, guide, honored, and supreme. They also say before the seventeenth mind is the disciple stage, and from the eighteenth mind upwards is the teacher stage of the first reliance. They also say before the nineteenth mind is the disciple stage, and the twentieth mind, the final mind of the path-species, is the teacher stage of the first reliance. Mādhyamika masters: The ten faiths are none of them teacher stages; from the initial mind of the ten abodes up to the sixth abode is the teacher stage of the first reliance; from the seventh abode to the seventh bhūmi is the stage of the second reliance; the eighth and ninth bhūmis are the stage of the third reliance; the tenth bhūmi is the stage of the fourth reliance. Speaking in terms of differentiation: the first has afflictions and lacks nirvāṇa; the last has nirvāṇa and lacks afflictions. Speaking in terms of non-differentiation: the first and the last both have afflictions and both have nirvāṇa. However, the Daśabhūmika masters represent the distinct meaning; the Mādhyamika represents the perfect meaning; the Satyasiddhi establishes reliances within the thirty minds without severing distinct delusions, succeeding in neither distinct nor perfect. Now, taking the stages before the bhūmis where distinct delusions are not yet severed as the first reliance, and the severing of distinct delusions on the bhūmis to form three reliances, is the distinct meaning; taking the ten faiths as the first reliance, and the thirty minds and ten bhūmis where distinct delusions are severed to form three reliances, is the perfect meaning. Regarding the perfect meaning, we further make common and distinct divisions: the common is that the forty minds together constitute the four reliances; the distinct is that the ten faiths are the first reliance, the first to sixth abodes are the second reliance, the seventh to ninth abodes are the third reliance, the tenth abode is the fourth reliance, and the rest follow this pattern. Others explain that the first reliance has disciple and teacher stages. Now we say this is not so: the four reliances are universally teacher stages, because they can serve as a reliance for the world; they are universally disciple stages, because they propagate the Buddha's Dharma. Speaking distinctly, the first reliance is solely disciple, the final reliance is solely teacher, and the intermediate ones are both teacher and disciple, and so on.

10.5

This chapter is divided into eight parts:

10.6

1. Indicating names and characteristics; 2. Discerning benefits; 3. Clarifying the time of appearance; 4. Discussing the planting of causes; 5. Determining offenses and merits; 6. Exhorting offerings; 7. Distinguishing the true from the false; 8. Harmonizing the present and the past.

10.7

The first section has three parts: 1. Stating the heading and praising; 2. Enumerating the items and praising; 3. Showing the characteristics and praising. In stating the heading: within the great nirvāṇa there are four kinds of persons; these four all attain the dharma of nirvāṇa, hence they are called persons within nirvāṇa. If they all attain the Dharma, why does the first reliance fully possess the nature of afflictions? Now it is explained that attaining the Dharma has many kinds: the first reliance attains the Dharma in resemblance; the latter three attain the Dharma in truth; when truth and resemblance are discussed together, all abide in nirvāṇa. Here, the virtues of these four persons in their own practice and in transforming others are universally praised. In places where the Buddha's Dharma exists, not allowing other conditions to cause disturbance is called 'able to protect'. In places where the Buddha's Dharma does not exist, being able to cause it to flourish and be revealed is called 'establishing'. In both places, whether existing or not, being able to sustain it is called 'mindfulness'. These three phrases are the virtues of one's own practice. In places where the Buddha's Dharma exists, being able to cause it to increase is called 'able to bring much benefit'. In places where the Buddha's Dharma does not exist, being able to cause people to see and hear it is called 'sympathy'. Serving as a reliance in both places, whether existing or not: this phrase is now interpreted as praising the virtue of benefiting others.

10.8

Second, from 'What are the four?' onwards, is enumerating the items and praising. 'Fully possessing the nature of afflictions' being called the first: judging according to the distinct teaching, it is the thirty minds; judging according to the perfect teaching, it is the stage of the ten faiths. In both of these two stages, common delusions have been severed, so one cannot speak of fully possessing the actual matters of afflictions; both suppress distinct delusions, whose matters do not arise while their nature still remains, hence it is said to 'fully possess the nature of afflictions'. Next, 'the two fruits being called the second': judging according to the distinct teaching, it is from the first bhūmi to the sixth bhūmi; judging according to one distinct perspective of the perfect teaching, it is from the first abode to the sixth abode. By the standard of the common shared vehicle, from the stage of seeing to the stage of attenuation, they have not yet departed from desire. By the standard of the Mahāyāna, on the seventh bhūmi there are also those who have not yet departed from the physical fleshly body, and so on. 'The third fruit being the third reliance': judging according to the distinct teaching, it is the eighth and ninth bhūmis; judging according to one distinct perspective of the perfect teaching, it is in the stage of the eighth abode. By the standard of the Hīnayāna, one does not return to the desire realm; by the standard of the Mahāyāna, at the stage of the seventh bhūmi one does not return to the three realms, and so on. The fourth fruit is understandable. If judging in detail according to the perfect teaching, and so on.

10.9

From "What is called..." onward is praising [them] by showing their characteristics, which comprises two [parts]: first, showing the characteristics of the four persons; next, generally praising their virtues. The first passage itself comprises four [parts]. The characteristics of the first person comprise three: first, the characteristic of the path of suppression; second, the characteristic of cultivating practice; third, the characteristic of their stage. First, as for the path of suppression: the afflictions have not yet been eliminated, and therefore it is called "possessing the phenomena [of affliction]"; [yet] they have already been suppressed, with only the substance of delusion remaining, and therefore it is called "[affliction-]nature"; thus it is the path of suppression. Next, as for the characteristic of cultivating practice: practicing while suppressing delusion does not go beyond oneself and others; self-practice does not go beyond the two trainings of morality and wisdom; transforming others does not go beyond giving rise to goodness and destroying evil; spoken of in summary, it does not go beyond the two kinds of wisdom: provisional and real. Skillfully knowing expedient means is provisional wisdom; secret Dharmas are real wisdom; this can be seen by consulting the text. The eight awarenesses of great beings come from the Sutra of the [Buddha's] Bequeathed Teaching: few desires, contentment, solitude, diligence, correct mindfulness, correct concentration, correct wisdom, and not indulging in frivolous discourse. Few desires is the path, many desires is not the path, up to: not indulging in frivolous discourse is the path, indulging in frivolous discourse is not the path (and so on). Third, the characteristic of their stage comprises three: first, setting aside the noble with the ordinary; next, setting aside the ordinary with the noble; thereafter, determining their stage by setting aside the fruit with the cause. First, being ordinary and not noble means being a bodhisattva and not a buddha. Not being the eighth person is explained using the shared stage: the eighth person belongs to the path of severance, whereas the first refuge belongs to the path of suppression, so [this person] is not the eighth. Furthermore, counting from back to front, the stage of the eighth person is the eighth, so it says "not the eighth person."

10.10

The characteristics of the second refuge also comprise three: first, the characteristic of realization; second, the characteristic of practice; third, the characteristic of stage. First, in the characteristic of realization, "if one attains the true Dharma" means the realization of the path of severance. Distinct delusion having already been eliminated, the buddhadhātu is then revealed and accords with the Dharma; because it is attained through the path of cultivation, it is called "attaining the Dharma." Next, in the characteristic of practice, "accepting and upholding the true Dharma" means giving rise to practice from the real, just like the practice of the path of cultivation in the Lesser Vehicle; it also does not go beyond self-practice and transforming others. However, in the practicing of the path of realization, the mind is purely Dharma without anything that is not Dharma; therefore it says that there is no possibility that the Buddha would allow the keeping of impure things (and so on). Third, from "this is named" downward is the characteristic of stage. This is slightly difficult. The old [interpretation] said: they have not yet attained the concentrations of the form and formless [realms]. Furthermore, discussing it in terms of the four patiences, they have only attained the suppression and conformity [patiences] and have not yet attained the non-arising and quiescent [patiences]. We now clarify: if we go by the former person, it should also be discernible; distinguishing the latter by the former, this is the second person; distinguishing the former by the latter, they have not yet attained the second and third dwelling-places. By analogy with the Lesser Vehicle, the Buddha is the first, Śāriputra is the second, and Ānanda is the third. Here, distinguishing from the latter to the former, the Buddha is the first, the fourth refuge is the second, and the third refuge is the third. This person has not yet attained such second and third dwelling-places and is named a bodhisattva; thus, being at the causal stage, they have already received the prophecy and are certain to attain the fruit. This person severs ignorance and perceives the buddhadhātu, and when conditions ripen, they will be able to accomplish the path through the eight aspects; therefore it says they have already received the prophecy. None of the three interpretations from of old can be understood. Héxī said: the latter person receives their designation from the first person; the fourth from the third, the third from the second, the second from the first; this is named the first person, which is why they have not yet attained the second and third dwelling-places. Master Guān said: combining the ordinary and noble, the two persons together make up one refuge, but only the first refuge has not yet attained the second and third dwelling-places. According to the Ekottarika-āgama, the first and second fruits are collected together as the person of the second refuge. The first fruit has not yet attained the second, and the second fruit has not yet attained the third, revealing that both of these two fruits have something not yet attained, and sharing the same exertion, they thus constitute one refuge. This explanation is easy to see and differs from the other masters. We now clarify: if one relies on the Perfect Teaching, the person of the first refuge has already severed universal delusion and departed from the three realms for good; how could the second refuge not have attained the dwelling-place of the form and formless realms? If one relies on the Distinct Teaching, the first refuge before the stages has also severed universal delusion and long since passed beyond the three realms; one should not take the form and formless [realms] as the second and third, nor should one take the first fruit as the first dwelling-place and the sakṛdāgāmin as the second dwelling-place.

10.11

The characteristics of the third person also comprise three: first, the characteristic of realization; second, the characteristic of practice; third, the characteristic of stage. First, the characteristic of realization mostly shows in brief the purity of the three karmas. From "not slandering the true Dharma" onward is purity of speech; from "and [not] being defiled by adventitious afflictions" onward is purity of mind; from "not concealing relics" onward is purity of body. Covered by bones and flesh, the dharmakāya is concealed, which is called the tathāgatagarbha. Now the dharmakāya is revealed and the relics are not concealed, which is purity of body. Not discoursing on a self reiterates purity of speech. Receiving a body without worms reiterates purity of body. Being without fear when facing death is purity of mind. Next, from "What is meant by an anāgāmin?" onward clarifies the characteristic of practice, named "non-returning." What was spoken of above refers to what follows the fourth fascicle. Not returning to the desire realm, up to not returning to the three realms, is the outgoing practice. Being able to enter the desire realm without being defiled by the faults and afflictions of the twenty-five realms of existence is the returning practice. Benefiting beings in going and returning is circulating throughout. Third, from "is named a bodhisattva" onward determines the characteristic of stage.

10.12

The characteristics of the fourth refuge also comprise three: first, the characteristic of realization; second, the characteristic of stage; third, the characteristic of practice. Although this is not in the same sequence as before, the three meanings are identical. The first passage's saying "severing all afflictions" means slaying both thieves of universal and distinct [delusion], clarifying that their cause has perished. "Casting off the heavy burden" means not receiving the two types of birth, fragmented and transformative, clarifying that their fruit is eliminated. "Attaining one's own welfare" means attaining what the Buddha attains. "Having accomplished what was to be done" means reaching the tenth stage. With learning and practice completed to the utmost, this is called "worthy of offerings." Abiding in the tenth stage determines the stage and reveals its locus. Third, from "attaining unfettered wisdom" downward is the characteristic of practice. Attaining unfettered wisdom is the characteristic of self-practice. Entering in accordance with what is wished is the characteristic of the practice of transforming others. Becoming a buddha as soon as one desires to conclude the unfettered wisdom.

10.13

From "These are named the four persons" onward, the second part generally praises the merit of the four persons' self-practice and transforming of others.

10.14

From "Kāśyapa addressed the Buddha" onward, the second part clarifies the benefits of taking refuge: dispelling demonic heterodoxies externally and purifying fetters and karmas internally, their ultimate efficacy and wondrous function benefit the world. In the text there are two parts: first, teaching the śrāvakas to subdue [the demons]; second, not teaching the bodhisattvas to subdue [the demons]. In the first round there are questions and answers. The question comprises three: first, proclaiming non-reliance; second, explaining non-reliance; third, concluding. Proclaiming non-reliance is as in the text. In the explanation, "Ghoṣila" translates as "sweet sound." The Buddha's reply comprises two: first, approving the question and bidding him examine; second, directly subduing the demons. The Buddha is an external condition; internally there must be faith and wisdom. Wisdom illuminates the heterodox and erroneous, while faith accepts the true Dharma. Toward the Buddha one still needs faith and wisdom, how much more so toward the rest! Directly subduing the demons comprises two: first, the metaphor; next, the application. The metaphor comprises three: first, the metaphor of the demons coming; next, the metaphor of the demons being subdued; third, the metaphor of the demons retreating. The thieving dog is a metaphor for the demons; the house is a metaphor for the Buddhadharma. Entering at night is a metaphor for the decline of the true Dharma, with the disciples giving rise to ignorance constituting the night; fascicle six calls it the "thieving dog." Next, from "the maidservants of that house" downward directly metaphors subduing the demons. Among the three vehicles, the śrāvakas are the most inferior, hence metaphorized as maidservants. Depriving them of life means binding them with the five bonds so that demonic falsities cannot operate, which is like depriving them of life. Third, from "the thieving dog hearing" downward is the retreat of the demons. From "You all..." downward is the application of the metaphor. Applying the three metaphors above can be examined. The five bonds has two explanations: first, binding with five corpses; second, binding in five places. The five corpses represent the five kinds of impure visualizations, suppressing the demon of attachment. The five bonds represent the five-gate visualizations, suppressing the demon of views. The demon of views is the thief; the demon of attachment is the dog.

10.15

From "Kāśyapa addressed the Buddha" onward is the second part: not teaching the bodhisattvas to subdue the demons. This section has questions and answers. The question comprises two: first, clarifying that relying on the Dharma is sufficient in itself; second, clarifying why one would need to rely on persons. The Buddha's reply comprises three: first, approving the question; next, answering directly; third, praising. Approving the question is as in the text. Next, directly answering comprises three: first, the Dharma; second, the metaphors; third, concluding. The Dharma explanation further comprises two: first, proclaiming the two heading topics; next, explaining both the lesser and the greater. Although śrāvakas have divine vision, it is [still] fleshy; they cannot penetrate the principle and are ensnared by the demons, which is why they must be taught. Although bodhisattvas have fleshy vision, it is [already] buddha-vision, illuminating everywhere without exception; the realm of demons is itself the buddha, which is why they are not taught (and so on). Second, the metaphors comprise three: first, the metaphor of the Buddha teaching the śrāvakas; next, the metaphor of the Buddha not teaching the bodhisattvas; third, the metaphor of the bodhisattvas teaching the śrāvakas. The first metaphor has an opening and an application. The opening metaphor has three: namely, teaching expedient means, teaching the arising of mindfulness, and teaching the destruction of the enemy. First, in the expedient means, "brave and strong" is a metaphor for the buddhadhātu; "timid and weak" is a metaphor for the śrāvakas. Śrāvakas constantly rely on the Buddha. The four stations of mindfulness are like the bow, the five good roots are like the arrows, spiritual penetrations are like the lance, and the five bonds are like the snare. Next, from "furthermore addressing [him], saying..." onward is teaching the three superior mindfulnesses. Being fearless is teaching morality; looking at others is teaching concentration; being brave and strong is teaching wisdom. From "If sometimes there are people..." onward is destroying the enemy. This also comprises three: namely, the demons coming, the demons being subdued, and the demons retreating. The demons lack wisdom, hence it says they "have no guts." They transform into the marks and characteristics, feigning an appearance of strength. Heterodox concentration is the bow, heterodox wisdom is the knife, and worldly skills are the weapons. Shouting loudly in the battle array means expounding the five truths, the six aggregates, the nineteen realms, the thirteen entrances, and so on. From "You, against these, rightly subdue such sorts" downward is the retreat of the demons. From "Good son" onward is the application of the metaphor. It only applies the latter two, not the first one. Firm diligence applies to teaching the three superior mindfulnesses above. From "Good son" downward is the second part: not teaching the bodhisattvas to subdue the demons. The text comprises three: first, not teaching them to subdue; next, explaining why they do not subdue; third, showing it through metaphors. First, hearing the profound sūtras means hearing that the realm of demons as such is identical to the buddha realm; for this reason they are not taught to subdue. Internally riding the Great Vehicle and externally relying on the Buddha's power, the demonic hordes and thieves are like fireflies seeing the sun, thereby losing their majestic brilliance; this explains the intention behind not subduing. The metaphorical explanation can be examined.

10.16

From "Furthermore, good son" downward, the third is the metaphor of bodhisattvas teaching śrāvakas. There are metaphors and applications. The metaphors comprise four: first, the demons transforming the śrāvakas; second, the śrāvakas receiving their transformation; third, the four refuges subduing the demons; fourth, the śrāvakas returning to the fundamental and again being able to give rise to the [bodhi-]mind. The demons use their powers of spiritual penetration to effect transformations, just like a great dragon lacking a mind of loving-kindness. These evil demons collect and transform the śrāvakas, like wishing to harm people. Looking with the eyes is a metaphor for spiritual penetrations; blowing breath is a metaphor for heterodoxy. From "Speaking next: therefore..." downward, the śrāvakas receive their transformation. Seeing the form means beholding their transformations; hearing the sound means hearing their eloquence; touching the body means being deluded by their arts; losing their lives means losing their roots of goodness. Third, from "There is a skillful spellcaster..." downward, the four refuges subdue the demons. The "skillful spellcaster" is the Dharma-power of the middle way of the Mahāyāna nirvāṇa. Fourth, from "Such ones..." downward, the śrāvakas return to the fundamental, up to giving rise to the mind. From "Śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas" downward is the application of the metaphor. It fully applies the four metaphors: first applying the śrāvakas receiving transformation; next applying the demons transforming the śrāvakas; third, from "those who learn the Great Vehicle" downward applies the four refuges subduing the demons; fourth, from "śrāvakas..." onward applies returning to the fundamental and advancing to give rise [to the bodhi-mind].

10.17

From "Furthermore..." onward is the third part: concluding. It comprises three: first, concluding on behalf of the śrāvakas; next, concluding that bodhisattvas are not taught; third, concluding both meanings together.

10.18

Third, from "This Mahāparinirvāṇa..." onward is the passage of praise. It turns back to praise the persons and Dharma of the bodhisattvas: first, praising the persons and Dharma of the present; next, praising the persons and Dharma of the future.

10.19

From "At that time the Buddha addressed" onward is the third [section], explaining the time when the four reliances appear. When it is the proper time, they are effective; when it is not the proper time, they are of no benefit. If the Buddha is in the world and the true Dharma is still flourishing, with virtues abundant and the Way plentiful, what need is there to trouble others to assist in propagating it? If after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa the true Dharma weakens and decays, then lacking physician and lacking medicine, there must be treatment and rescue, and only then are the four reliances drawn upon. The text has three parts: first, the Buddha speaks generally of the time; second, Kāśyapa asks specifically; third, Kāśyapa evaluates and discerns. As for speaking generally of the time, the period after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa generally comprises the true, semblance, and final [Dharma ages]; this is speaking generally of the time. Next, from "Kāśyapa said to the Buddha" down is the specific inquiry about the time. There are questions and answers. The questions are twofold: first, regarding how long after the parinirvāṇa will be the time of non-conformity with the Dharma; second, regarding how long after the parinirvāṇa will be the time of rescuing in conformity with the Dharma. Next, from "The Buddha told" onward, the Buddha answers the two questions. As for the "latter forty years," the eighty years of the true Dharma are divided into earlier and later, and this refers to the latter forty years. The sūtras explain this differently. One says: the true and semblance [Dharma] are each a thousand years. One says: each is five hundred years. One says: the true Dharma is five hundred and the semblance Dharma is one thousand; or it is said the true Dharma is one hundred, or it is said eighty. This is because conditions vary between thick and thin, resulting in accounts that are either protracted or brief. In the earlier forty years, being still close to the Buddha, those who conformed to the Dharma were many; in the latter forty years, being slightly further from the Buddha, there were still those who had seen the Buddha. As the *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa* says, Upagupta saw a nun of a hundred and twenty years of age, and asked about the Buddha's physical marks and the monks' decorum. One should know that in the latter forty years there were still people who had seen the Buddha; it is feared that in the latter period, when non-Dharma arose, there was much slander. One explanation says: of the five hundred years of the true Dharma, subtracting four hundred and twenty years, the eighty years are taken and divided into earlier and later; during the earlier forty years it was widely circulated, and during the latter forty years it sank into the earth. Another says: this is not so. One hundred and sixteen years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, the king held a great assembly and different schools raised distinct views. Upagupta was unable to reconcile them, and at that time the Buddha's Dharma slightly deteriorated. How could it only sink into the earth after four hundred and sixty years? One should know that Kāśyapa and Ānanda upheld the Dharma for forty years, no different from when the Buddha was present; in the latter forty years, as the Sage became day by day more distant, it had already turned thin and corrupt. Moreover, later in the text Kāśyapa asks the Buddha: "After sinking into the earth for forty years, when will it emerge again?" The Buddha answered: "When the true Dharma is about to perish, with eighty years remaining, it will emerge again in the earlier forty years, and past this it will sink again." This directly corresponds to the statement of the flourishing and sinking after four hundred and twenty years of the true path. Yet another explanation says: the Buddha attained the Way at thirty; if a person who was ten years old awakened to the Way, by the time of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa he would be sixty years old, having seen the Buddha from beginning to end and being able to harmonize the Great and Small [Vehicles]. For forty years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, his holding of the teaching was no different from when the Buddha was present. Beyond this, those who had not seen the Buddha from the beginning could not put things in order, and gave rise to views of annihilationism and eternalism; hence it is said to have "sunk into the earth." As for not speaking of someone a hundred and thirty years old, being advanced in years and their faculties ripe, they could not rectify things, and so it is not mentioned. Question: The ten-year-old saw the Buddha's beginning; Kāśyapa and Ānanda were born on the day the Buddha attained the Way, so they did not see the beginning—how could they uphold the Dharma as if the Buddha were present? Answer: As for these two persons, Kāśyapa was the eldest son, and Ānanda attained the samādhi of the Buddha's awakening; they are not comparable to other people (and so forth).

10.20

Next, from "Good man" onward, answers regarding the person conforming to the Dharma who is able to rescue. The text has two parts: first, directly answering; second, praising and encouraging. The direct answer also has two parts: first, appraising the Small and the Great [Vehicles]; second, directly explaining the rescue. First, the appraisal consists of presenting the metaphors and matching the metaphors. Presenting the metaphors has four parts: first, illustrating the Great; second, illustrating the Small; third, concluding with the depreciation; fourth, concluding with the praise. Within this praise: nonglutinous rice illustrates permanence, sugarcane illustrates bliss, rock sugar illustrates self, and clarified butter illustrates purity; foxtail millet and barnyard grass illustrate impermanence and so forth. Matching the metaphors is as in the text. Second, from "Good man" down directly explains the rescue by the four reliances. First is the metaphor, then the matching. The metaphor has three parts: first, describing conversion by the Small Vehicle; second, conversion by the Great Vehicle; third, the Small accepting conversion by the Great. In the first passage: persons of the Small Vehicle each have their retinue and have territory they rule over, hence it is said, "like a king." Conversion by the Small is biased and bent in small practices, like being in deep mountains and falling into the pit of the unconditioned, hence it is called an "evil place." Though they have sugarcane, they begrudge it and do not eat it, fearing it will be exhausted: this is conversion by the Small. Exclusively pursuing small practices hinders the Great Path; though they have the great teaching, seeking it with a mind attached to existence as they uphold, read, and recite it is compared to begrudging it. Because of having attachments, it is compared to fearing it will be exhausted. Second, "there is a king of another country" is the rescue by the four reliances. Governing with the Great Dharma as king, he is therefore called a "king." As for "carried by wagons": an event-based explanation is that they are carried by wagons, sūtras and treatises being given to them. Another says: converting them through supernatural powers so that the Great Vehicle is widely propagated is compared to being carried by wagons. Another says: illuminating them through expedient wisdom so that they attain understanding. Master Xīnghuáng says: propagating the path through one's own person is compared to being carried by wagons. Now it is explained that instructing them through great practices is why it says "carried by wagons." Third, when that king obtained them, he immediately accepted conversion by the Great. Next, from "these four kinds of persons" down matches the metaphors, matching only the latter two meanings. Through five kinds of faults, it matches the hoarding out of greed and stinginess above. Doing it for profit corresponds to hell; doing it for reputation corresponds to hungry ghosts; using the understanding of the Dharma to increase self-conceit corresponds to asuras; doing it for the sake of reliance corresponds to animals; doing it for trade corresponds to the worldly intellect, rhetorical acuity, and externalist practices. Next, from "Furthermore, good man" down is praising and encouraging: first, praising the sūtra; second, encouraging the person. The king reaching the deep mountains and being able to make the deep mountains level illustrates the sūtra reaching crooked views and being able to make crooked views vastly straight. The ground is adamantine (vajra), illustrating that opening the principle of the Small Vehicle is itself the principle of the Great Vehicle. The person is adamantine, illustrating that opening the person of the Small Vehicle reveals them to be a great bodhisattva.

10.21

From "Kāśyapa said to the Buddha" onward is the third [section], evaluating and discerning the time. There are questions and answers. The import of the question says: when it sinks into the earth for forty years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, does it sink permanently, or will it flourish once again? Next, in the Buddha's answer, where it says "the remaining eighty years": one says that only when eighty years of the true Dharma remain, it flourishes in the earlier forty years, and after the latter forty years it then perishes. Another explanation says: of the one thousand five hundred years of the true Dharma, when eighty years remain before its perishing, the earlier forty flourish and the latter forty perish.

10.22

From "Kāśyapa further said to the Buddha" down is the fourth [section], revealing the four reliances through the depth of planting roots. Indeed, the profound sūtra's subtle meanings are not easily heard, still less directly expounding and distinguishing the mysterious subtleties for the assembly, pointing the way and broadcasting them, expanding and contracting the cosmos—this is not something that those of light purpose can accomplish. Approaching the text, there are two parts: first, the question; second, the answer. The initial question has three parts: first, citing the evil time; second, seeking good persons; third, requesting an answer. The evil time has four phrases: proper precepts and proper teachings both perish, while evil people and evil dharmas both flourish. These four phrases correspond to the time of chaos in the five turbidities. How so? The perishing of the true Dharma is the turbidity of views; the breaking of proper precepts is the turbidity of lifespan; the increase of non-Dharma is the turbidity of afflictions; the absence of sentient beings who conform to the Dharma is the turbidity of sentient beings; the time itself is the turbidity of the kalpa. Seeking good persons has six phrases: believing is called receiving; not forgetting is called upholding; facing the text is called reading; reciting from memory is called chanting; transmitting the text is called copying; transmitting the meaning is called expounding. These are the five kinds of Dharma masters. They are also the three karmas: receiving and upholding are mental; reading, chanting, and expounding are vocal; making offerings and copying are physical. One who can practice the three karmas in conformity with the Dharma during the chaos of the five turbidities—he requests an answer regarding this matter. Now the answer has three parts: first, praising the question; second, directly answering; third, encouraging. The first is as in the text. Second, in directly answering, citing the nine rivers, an old explanation says: encountering one Buddha and making one vow causes one grain of sand to drop; though one encounters many Buddhas, if one does not make a vow, no sand drops; though one arouses the aspiration, if one does not see a Buddha, no sand drops either; though one sees one Buddha and arouses the aspiration many times, only one grain of sand drops; though one arouses the aspiration once and sees many Buddhas, still only one grain of sand drops. With such a count bringing it to the full measure of one Gaṅgā, this constitutes one Gaṅgā. The difference between the Hiraṇyavatī and the Gaṅgā is that the Hiraṇyavatī is north of Kuśinagara and is smaller even than the Bhadrā. The Gaṅgā flows into the Eastern Sea and is the greatest among the four rivers; hence it differs from the Hiraṇyavatī. If considered in terms of practitioners: with the Hiraṇyavatī, one merely hears without slandering; with one Gaṅgā, there is the addition of faithful joy; with two Gaṅgās, there is the addition of reading and reciting; with three Gaṅgās, one expounds the shallow meaning; with four Gaṅgās, one part is added; with five Gaṅgās, eight parts are added; with six Gaṅgās, twelve parts are added; with seven Gaṅgās, fourteen parts are added; with eight Gaṅgās, all sixteen parts are fully complete. At four Gaṅgās, progressing from delusion to attain understanding is difficult. At five Gaṅgās, progressing from understanding to attain further understanding is easy. From six Gaṅgās onward, it becomes increasingly deep and subtle and therefore difficult, just as advancing in officialdom to Grand Commandant is easy, but reaching Chancellor is difficult. This is still difficult to understand. As for the sixteen parts: it is like sixteen ounces making one pound in the mundane world. Master Xiānhuì says: the Hiraṇyavatī is the stage of the disciple, the eight Gaṅgās are the stage of the teacher, pairing two by two with the four reliances (and so forth). Kāishàn and Yěchéng say: all nine Gaṅgās belong to the stage of the first reliance. From the Hiraṇyavatī to two Gaṅgās is the initial mind of the lineage of practice-nature; from three Gaṅgās to five Gaṅgās is the intermediate mind of the lineage of nature-endowment; from six Gaṅgās to eight Gaṅgās is the latter mind of the lineage of path-nature. This too is extremely difficult to understand. If the Buddha Dharma in its entirety is weighed as one pound, then a person of the first reliance would have exhausted the Buddha Dharma completely—what would there be left to do upon reaching the third and fourth reliances? If the first reliance is weighed as one pound, then this is merely the dharma of the first reliance itself, so what does it have to do with the Buddha Dharma? Now we explain: from the Hiraṇyavatī to three Gaṅgās constitutes one part of the first reliance; eight parts constitute the second reliance; twelve and fourteen constitute the third reliance; sixteen constitutes the fourth reliance. The text says: "Fully understanding, exhausting its flavor (and so forth)." Third, from "If there is one who initially generates the aspiration" onward is the encouragement. The above explanation of encountering Buddhas through nine Gaṅgās is profoundly deep and remote; fearing that contemporary sentiments might be depressed and discouraged, it further guides and encourages them. As long as one generates the aspiration, in the future one will surely be able to protect, uphold, and establish [the Dharma].

10.23

From "Good sons, there are evil monks" onward is the fifth [section], explaining the sins and merits of faith and slander. Above, from the Hiraṇyavatī onward, there was only faith; here, prior to the Hiraṇyavatī, there are the sins and merits of faith and slander, encouraging merit in order to block sin. The text has two [parts]: first, explaining the causes and effects of sin and merit; next, encouraging merit and concluding with the [four] refuges. The first text explains four things: first, the marks of slander. The Buddha is the teacher and father of all sentient beings. When he enters nirvāṇa, humans and devas suffer in grief, and even venomous scorpions cherish benevolence—there are none who do not yearn for him in devotion. Evil persons alone say, "His extinction is delightful!" This is the first evil. Having few desires, being content, upholding the prohibitive precepts, and being fully endowed with dignified comportment is what is called the Saṃgha. Abandoning all these is the second evil. The Mahāyāna Dharma is the teacher of the sages and worthies, yet they alone reject it and do not believe in the Three Jewels; these are the marks of slander. From "Good sons, you should now" onward, next is explaining the marks of faith. Personally producing good in the two existences, and converting others to eliminate evil in the two existences—raising one side covers the other; these are the marks of faith. From "If there are those who do not believe" onward, third is explaining the retribution of persons who slander. "In this present life" onward is the present retribution; "after life ends" onward is the rebirth retribution; "lifetime after lifetime constantly dwelling" onward is the subsequent retribution. From "If furthermore there is a person" onward, fourth is explaining the retribution of persons with faith. "Their originally received form" onward is transforming the hindrance of retribution; "just like mist and dew" onward is transforming the hindrance of karma; "like a person leaving the household life" onward is transforming the hindrance of affliction. Many kinds of metaphors are established. If taken as a metaphor of the great precepts, it is a metaphor for the true understanding of the ten stages. If taken as a metaphor of the ten precepts, it is a metaphor for the semblance understanding prior to the stages. As with the intent in [the chapter on] Cunda, here it is taken as a metaphor of having no precepts. Starting from an ordinary person, upon generating the mind [for awakening], one immediately ascends to the ten abidings; although afflictions have not yet been severed, by speaking of the fruit within the cause, this is the transformation of the hindrance of afflictions. Above, the evil person is treated horizontally in terms of the three retributions; here, the good person is treated vertically in terms of the three hindrances: it is merely an interlocking, mutually illuminating exposition. Second, from "There may be sentient beings" onward, encourages merit and concludes with the [four] refuges. This text is extremely broad: regardless of whether one is a disciple or not a disciple, or whether it is based on good or evil, as long as one can generate the mind to hear a single verse, one approaches the cause of bodhi. If greedily hoping for offerings can be generating the mind based on the three poisons, how much more so the merit of planting good across nine Gaṅgās and [relying on] the four refuges? That is to say, being able to believe. Throughout, it serves as a mirror and warning regarding the causes and effects of slanderers.

10.24

From "Good sons, you should make offerings" onward is the sixth [section], encouraging offerings. The text has two [parts]: first, encouraging offerings; next, debating the meaning. The first also has two: first, encouraging offerings; next, question and answer. In the first text: the great benefit of the four refuges and the deep causes across the nine Gaṅgās are difficult to encounter; hence offerings are encouraged. The next question contains two meanings: How does one recognize the field [of merit]? How does one make offerings? The Buddha's answer also has two: first, the direct answer; next, citing verses. In the first text: establishing the true Dharma is the mark of the field of merit. Héxī says: generating the mind to uphold the precepts, upholding the Mahāyāna, explaining it for others, protecting the Dharma, and so forth are the marks of the field of merit. The present text only explains protecting the Dharma, which subsumes the multitude of matters. "One should give up body and life" is the mark of making offerings, taking the heavy to eclipse the light. In the next verses: first, citing the verse on serving a teacher; next, citing the verse on serving a lord. Second, from "Kāśyapa addressed [the Buddha]" onward is debating the meaning. First is the question, next the answer. The question includes receiving the instruction, stating doubts, and requesting an answer. Receiving the instruction is as in the text. Next, stating doubts has three [parts]: first, three determinations; next, three objections; finally, three conclusions. From "However, those who have left the household life" onward are the three objections. If one follows the past teachings, none should be bowed to; if one follows the present meaning, all should be offered to. The two intents contradict each other, which is why an objection is raised. From "As the Buddha has said" onward are the two conclusions, as in the text. Some say there are three conclusions, taking "a precept-upholding monk is also called having an offense" as concluding that the ordained do not bow to the laity. Second, from "The Buddha told" onward is the answer. It has two: first, a brief answer; next, an extensive answer. The brief text is concise yet its meaning is broad. Why? "I spoke such verses for bodhisattvas, not for śrāvakas": this dispels the doubts regarding the three [determinations] and three [objections]. The extensive answer is lengthy, yet it exclusively clarifies that the precept-upholder pays homage, and does not state that there is guilt in breaking [precepts]; hence its intent is narrow. However, by answering this one clause, the remaining two are dispelled by analogy. Second, the extensive answer has three [parts]: first, adducing the time; second, setting up metaphors; third, conclusion. In the time there are also four: first, adducing the defilement of the time; second, explaining the rescue from defilement; third, harmonizing with defilement; fourth, explaining freedom from guilt. In the first text, "as I have said above" refers proximately to the preceding text. The preceding text was Kāśyapa's question, which, having received the Buddha's endorsement, becomes the Buddha's own speech. The destruction of the true Dharma is the defilement of views; the destruction of correct precepts is the defilement of lifespan; the increase of non-Dharma is the defilement of afflictions; the hiding of all sages and worthies is the defilement of sentient beings; accepting and keeping impure things is the defilement of the kalpa. Next, from "Among these four persons" onward is rescuing from defilement—that is, those capable of rescuing from defilement. When this person appears in the world, they put an end to disorder and restore righteousness, causing what is defiled among humans to be undefiled. Third, "seeing all the monks" refers to the cohort of evil and defilement. "Not investigating and punishing them" means temporarily harmonizing with the glare of defilement when the opportune moment has not yet arrived. Fourth, from "Good sons" onward concludes freedom from guilt. For such precept-breakers, whether young or lay, one must pay homage and make offerings. Next, from "Good sons" onward sets up metaphors. This also has two: first, the metaphor; next, the application. In the first metaphor, the text has three: first, making a metaphor for the time; second, making a metaphor for harmonizing with [them]; third, making a metaphor for investigating [them]. Here, since it both explains upholding and breaking, and opens up the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna, this narrative is required to unpack the text. The master who holds the Dharma is like a king; his conditions exhausting and his passing away is like [the king's] death; the crown prince is a metaphor for the disciples who transmit the conversion. The planting of goodness across the Hiraṇyavatī and one Gaṅgā being shallow and meager is why it says "infantile and young"; this is a metaphor for the time when the true Dharma is destroyed. The caṇḍāla is the seed that destroys the Dharmakāya and the life of wisdom. Having abundant wealth and treasures means the increase of evil karma. Having many retinues means the factions of precept-breakers. Usurping the royal throne means precept-breakers taking over the leadership. This is a metaphor for the flourishing of precept-breaking and the dominance of non-Dharma. The country's people, householders, and brahmins are metaphors for the three grades of precept-upholding persons. The superior grade distances themselves, hence they flee to another country; the middling grade does not go far, yet does not conform, hence it says "not wishing to look upon [him] with their eyes"; the inferior grade cannot move themselves, hence it says "like trees." Furthermore, trees are a metaphor for the superior grade, just as the young prince does not go far and is able to rectify [the realm]; this is a metaphor for the time when all sages are hidden and not apparent. From "Patrolling and guarding all roads" onward explains his exercising authority and power. Patrolling and guarding all roads is a metaphor for evil monks instituting restrictive networks and blocking the path of precept-upholding. Beating drums for seven days is a metaphor for establishing restrictive networks and opening the gates of heedlessness. The master of consecration (abhiṣeka): when one ascends the throne in foreign lands, they have seven generations of noble lineage fill a vase with the waters of the four seas and pour it upon the king's crown; he is called the state preceptor, like conferring the imperial seal here [in China]. Announcing the honorific title is a metaphor for seeking a karmācārya among the evil assembly to harmonize the Saṃgha and make the three proclamations: "This matter is upheld in this way." Dividing half the realm: the wūhuí corresponds to a director of the Saṃgha (sēngzhèng); the jiǎnhétuò corresponds to an administrator of the Saṃgha (sēngdū). Mutually performing karmans and holding disciples, yet none came—this is a metaphor for precept-upholding persons feeling ashamed to enter the evil assembly and not engaging in shared affairs. From "He further spoke these words" onward, he again exercises authority and power, and non-Dharma becomes increasingly rampant. If they are unwilling to act as karmācārya, they will elevate a precept-breaker to be master. The amṛta deathless medicine is fame, gain, offerings, and the necessities to secure oneself. Conforming to these are all metaphors for the time when non-Dharma is rampant.

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大般涅槃經疏 — Classical Chinese