維摩經義疏 2.8

2.8

The name “upāya” has both separate and combined [meanings]. As for the separate: the realm upon which sentient beings base themselves is called the “means” (fang, direction/domain); the method by which the ultimate person adapts and transforms [them] is called the “expedient” (bian, accommodating). Indeed, prescribing medicine according to the disease and conferring accommodation relying on the means, presenting both the capacity [of beings] and the teaching, it is therefore called upāya (fangbian). As for the combined [meaning]: in the Sanskrit pronunciation it is called upāyakauśalya, which is translated here as “expedient superior wisdom” (fangbian shengzhi). Upāya is the designation for skillful means; superior wisdom is the name for decisive judgment. However, provisional skill is threefold: first, bodily provisional skill, adapting to beings to manifest forms; second, verbal skillful means, expounding the teaching in accordance with capacities; third, mental skillful means, marvelously fathoming both the disease and the medicine. Question: Relying on what meaning and function does this chapter discern upāya? Answer: Speaking generally, the skillful means of the three karmas are all upāya; speaking specifically, it takes precisely the manifestation of illness as upāya. The five hundred elders were companions of equal standing with Jingming in the city of the Dharma, yet while the other people had already arrived, the layman did not come, precisely because he had an illness. However, this illness of his was not a real karmic retribution, but rather skillful means for the sake of beings; hence it is called upāya. My master, the Venerable Lang, said: “Yet to regard having an illness as an illness is not upāya; regarding being without illness as being without illness is also not upāya; to be without illness and yet ill, or to be ill and yet without illness, is also not upāya; being ill yet without illness, or being without illness yet ill, should be upāya. If the root is not yet correct, it is therefore said to be not so. If it is neither ill nor not ill, yet able to be ill and not ill, this indeed is upāya. Why is this so? Because being neither ill nor not ill, it is therefore called reality; manifesting illness yet not being ill is the provisional, skillful, marvelous function, able to propagate the Way and benefit people; hence it is called upāya.” Since neither ill nor not ill, and able to be ill and able to be not ill, distinguishes the provisional and the real, so too neither coming nor not coming, and able to come and able to not come, and the ten thousand meanings are all of this kind. “At that time, in the great city of Vaiśālī.” In this sūtra there are two locations and four assemblies. The initial gathering in the Āmrapālī Grove has already concluded above; now this is the first assembly in the ten-foot-square chamber. It differs from the previous one in having ten distinctions: First, the difference of place: above was the place of the Āmrapālī Grove; now it is the place of the ten-foot-square chamber. Second, the difference of the teaching master: above, the Buddha was the teaching master; now, the bodhisattva is the teaching master. Third, the difference of teaching: above elucidated the causes and effects of the pure land; now it discerns the causes and effects of the dharmakāya. Above was purifying the Buddha-land; now it is bringing sentient beings to maturation. Fourth, the difference of the assembly of followers: above comprehensively explained the assembly of both monastic and lay, hidden and manifest; now there is only the lay assembly. Fifth, the difference of benefits attained: above comprehensively explained the benefits, great and small, shallow and deep; now it only discerns the shallow benefit of generating the aspiration [for bodhi]. Sixth, the difference between general and specific: above was merely Śākyamuni’s temporary transformation; now it comprehensively narrates Jingming’s skillful means from beginning to end. Seventh, the difference of monastic and lay: above explained the upāya of renouncing household life; now it explains the skillful means of residing in lay life. Eighth, the difference of guest and host: above explained Śākyamuni temporarily staying in the Āmrapālī Grove as a guest; now it discerns Jingming’s longstanding residence in Vaiśālī as the host. Ninth, the difference of illness and non-illness: above explained the upāya of non-illness; now it explains the skillful means of manifesting sickness. Tenth, the difference of time and occasion: above explained the initial gathering in the Āmrapālī Grove; now it narrates the events of the occasion of upāya. Concerning this single assembly, it opens into two sections: first, the historical preface; second, the main exposition. Each of the two passages has four [parts]. The four of the first section are: first, clarifying the place; second, indicating his status; third, presenting his name; fourth, praising his virtues. “The great city of Vaiśālī” is the first passage. “There was an elder” is the second, indicating his status. “Named Vimalakīrti” is the third, presenting his name. “He had already made offerings to immeasurable Buddhas” is the fourth, praising his virtues. Kumārajīva said: “This chapter’s recounting of Jingming’s virtues was not the original intention of the compiler of the sūtra. His wisdom and eloquence were constantly praised by the World-Honoured One; therefore the compiler of the sūtra, wishing to preserve the memory of the man from afar and to propagate his teachings on the Way, relied upon what he had heard to narrate his virtues.” Concerning the passage praising his virtues, it divides into two distinct parts: first, praising his original virtues; second, extolling his trace functions. “He had already made offerings to immeasurable Buddhas”: about to narrate his virtues, he therefore first clarifies the source of his virtues. The source of his virtues is precisely the root of virtue; hence he first praises the original [virtues]. “Deeply planting wholesome roots”: the former praised external conditions; this extols internal causes. Establishing virtues before past sages, his wholesome roots were therefore deeply planted. That which is called “wholesome” is meritorious karma serving as the root of bodhi; hence it is called the “root.” “Attaining the forbearance of the non-arising of dharmas”: the former praised merit; now it extols wisdom; this is the two adornments of merit and wisdom. Because the Tathāgata’s illumination of it is already exhaustive, he receives the designation of wisdom; because the bodhisattva’s seeing of it is not yet exhaustive, but he is merely able to bear it without backsliding, it is appropriately designated as forbearance. “Unobstructed in eloquence, playfully roaming in supernatural powers”: since he is endowed with the two adornments, he is therefore able to preach the Dharma with eloquence to generate wisdom in them, and to playfully roam in supernatural powers to generate merit in them. Since the bodhisattva is endowed with the two adornments, he causes beings to equally obtain merit and wisdom. Furthermore, above, elucidating merit and wisdom praised his mental karma; unobstructed eloquence praised his verbal karma; manifesting transformations through supernatural powers extolled his bodily karma. Question: Does this praise five supernatural powers or six supernatural powers? Answer: It possesses both meanings. Having attained the forbearance of the non-arising of dharmas, the fetters of the three realms are exhausted, so in comparison to the two vehicles, it is spoken of as six; compared to the Tathāgata, residual habit-energies are not yet overturned, so it is spoken of as five. “Attaining all dhāraṇīs”: this has two powers: first, being able to retain the wholesome so that it is not lost; second, being able to hold back the unwholesome so that it does not arise. According to Kumārajīva’s view, it takes wisdom directly as its substance. The function of wisdom is inexhaustible; in its sense of illuminating, it is prajñā; in its sense of recollecting, it is called retention (dhāraṇī). “Acquiring fearlessness”: because he has the efficacy of being able to retain, and is further endowed with the virtues that are retained, he is therefore fearless before the assemblies. “Subduing the afflictions and enmities of Māra”: the former praised what he attained; now it extols what he has abandoned. The four Māras fatigue us, and are therefore called enmities. “Entering deep Dharma-doors”: all dharmas are extremely profound and have immeasurable doors; since his attainment of liberation is complete, he enters them all skillfully. “Skilled in the perfection of wisdom, thoroughly comprehending upāya”: that he is able to enter the Dharma-doors is because he is endowed with the two wisdoms. Reaching the shore of real wisdom is being skilled in the perfection of wisdom; deploying it without fixed limitation is thoroughly comprehending upāya. “Accomplishing great vows”: a bodhisattva has two virtues: first, practice; second, vows. Hitherto his practice has been praised as complete; now his vows are recounted as fulfilled. As for great vows, briefly spoken, they are like the three great vows of Śrīmālā; fully expounded, they are like the forty-eight vows of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life. As for why vows must be clarified, the Dazhidulun says: “Practice is like the movement of a cart; vows are like the driver.” Because the two support each other, they must both be brought to completion. “Clearly understanding the direction of the minds of sentient beings, and also able to distinguish the sharpness and dullness of their faculties”: since practice and vows are accomplished, he is therefore able to understand the activities of the minds of the six destinies and the sharpness and dullness of the faculties of the three vehicles. “Having long been fully matured in mind regarding the Buddha Way, decisive in the Great Vehicle”: the former praised his downward knowing of sentient beings; this clarifies his upward awakening to the Buddha Way. Because no ordinary beings, two vehicles, or aberrant thoughts of acquisition intervene, it is called pure. Because non-dual correct contemplation manifests naturally of itself, it is therefore said to be matured. Being fully matured regarding the Buddha Way, he is permanently free from the three kinds of retrogression—of station, practice, and mindfulness—and is decisive in the Great Vehicle. “Able to deliberate skillfully in whatever he undertakes”: the wisdom of the three karmas is constantly present before him, and whatever he undertakes is without error. The Vibhāṣā says: “Generally clarifying, there are two kinds of people: first, those skilled in expounding the Dharma; second, those skilled in deliberation.” From “abiding in the deportment of a Buddha” onward: the Bodhisattva of the Stage of Equal Enlightenment in the Yingluo jing studies the deportment of a Buddha within a hundred kalpas, and therefore all his bodily movements, advances, and halts are just like a Buddha’s. “His mind was as vast as the ocean”: the ocean has five virtues: first, it is clear and pure, not retaining dead corpses; second, it produces many wonderful gems; third, when great dragons pour down rain in streams as thick as axle-trees, it receives it without overflowing; fourth, the wind and sun cannot dry it up; fifth, its profound depths are difficult to fathom. The mahāsattva’s mind is pure, not retaining the corpses of broken precepts; it produces the gems of luminous wisdom; when the Buddha preaches the great rain of Dharma, he receives it without overflowing; the wind and sun of demons and heretics cannot diminish it; and his wisdom is so deep that none can fathom it; hence it is said, “his mind was as vast as the ocean.” “Praised by all Buddhas, and revered by disciples, Śakra, Brahmā, and the lords of the world”: because he was endowed with the manifold virtues above, he was praised by all Buddhas and revered by humans and devas. Hitherto the text praised his pure virtues filling him within; now it extols his fine reputation overflowing without; this is an explanation of “Jingming” (Pure Name). “Wishing to liberate people, he resided in Vaiśālī by means of good upāya”: this is the second part, praising his trace functions. Praising the original is praising the real; praising the traces means praising upāya. Concerning the text, there are three parts: first, clarifying the upāya of the single body; second, discerning the upāya of multiple bodies; third, the general conclusion. The upāya of the single body has two parts: first, clarifying the upāya of residing [at home]; next, discerning the upāya of going out. Within the upāya of residing, it first clarifies gathering the secular by means of the Way; next, it discerns opening into the Way through the secular. “With immeasurable wealth he gathered the poor; with pure observance of the precepts he gathered those who violated the prohibitions; with the practice of patience and regulation he gathered the angry; with great vigor he gathered the lax; with single-minded meditative absorption he gathered the distracted; with decisive wisdom he gathered the ignorant”: this clarifies gathering the secular by means of the Way. Having personally practiced these six, he now further teaches others. Moreover, for the ultimate person there is no practice that is not practiced, nor is it six or not six; yet he manifests the practice of the six perfections in order to gather the sentient beings of the six flaws. “Though a white-robed layman, he observed the pure discipline and conduct of a śramaṇa”: this praises opening into the Way through the secular. Concerning the text, it clarifies four kinds of provisional and real: first, physical form; second, dwelling; third, person; fourth, objects. “Though a white-robed layman” is the provisionality of physical form. “Observing [the conduct of] a śramaṇa” uses the secularity of physical form to open into the reality of the Way. A śramaṇa is the general designation for one who has renounced household life. Here it means “diligent practitioner,” meaning diligently practicing manifold wholesome deeds to proceed toward nirvāṇa. Furthermore, a śramaṇa is called a kṣiṇa, or called a “person of the Way”; all are impoverished in the correct Way, and only I have severed poverty and attained the Way, hence called kṣiṇa. Furthermore, a śramaṇa means “putting the mind to rest,” putting to rest all minds of attainment, and reaching the original, pure source. Therefore the sūtra says: “Putting the mind to rest and reaching the original source, one is therefore called a śramaṇa.” “Though dwelling in a household, he was not attached to the three realms”: this clarifies the provisional and real of dwelling. As for the śrāvakas, their minds transcend the three realms, and their forms stay far from households. As for ordinary beings, their forms are in households, and their minds are defiled by the three realms. As for the mahāsattva, his body is in a household, hence differing from the lesser path; his mind transcends the three realms, thus distinguishing him from secular people. Furthermore, because his mind transcends the three realms, he constantly practices the Way; because his body dwells in a household, he constantly accords with the secular. “He manifested having a wife and children, yet constantly cultivated pure conduct (brahmacarya)”: this has two sentences, clarifying the provisional and real of the person. Conforming to the five passions of humans, he therefore manifested having a wife and children; differing from the ordinary spirit of humans, he therefore constantly cultivated pure conduct. Brahmā translates as pure, referring to conduct that is pure and free from desire. “He appeared to have a retinue, yet constantly delighted in detachment”: appearing to have external protection to subdue beings, he therefore had a retinue; being at home as if in the wilderness, he therefore constantly delighted in detachment. “Though wearing jewel ornaments, he adorned his body with the major marks and secondary signs”: this has two sentences, clarifying upāya in terms of material wealth; externally he wore secular ornaments, internally he cultivated the major marks and secondary signs. “Though he ate food and drank, he took the joy of meditation as his flavor”: externally he consumed worldly nourishment, internally he tasted the joy of meditation. “If he went to places of gambling and games, he invariably used them to liberate people”: hitherto the upāya of residing was praised; this praises the upāya of going out. Because his going forth and staying in were for the sake of people, both going out and residing benefited beings. Yi means go (board game). Wishing to stop games by means of games, he was therefore able to liberate people. “Accepting all heterodox paths, he did not destroy correct faith”: the mahāsattva conformed to those of different paths only because he wished to cause those of different paths to conform to himself; how could his correct faith ever be destroyed? “Though well-versed in secular classics, he constantly delighted in the Buddha-Dharma. Revered by all who saw him, he was foremost among recipients of offerings”: among all who saw Jingming, none failed to revere him, hence it says “revered by all who saw him.” Those with virtue were able to make offerings, and they further made offerings to Jingming; therefore it says “foremost among recipients of offerings.” “Upholding the correct law, he gathered both the elderly and the young”: in the records of foreign countries, three elders were established; those with virtue served as magistrates to settle village disputes and gather the elderly and the young. Jingming manifested upholding secular laws in order to open into the laws of the Way. “In all his business pursuits and partnerships, though acquiring secular profit, he did not rejoice in it”: for a mahāsattva of the dharmakāya, rubble and tiles are all precious gems. If it were so [that he simply gave them away], people would not value his beneficence; hence he manifested joining in the pursuit of profit; how could he have taken joy in it? “Roaming the four crossroads, he brought benefit to sentient beings”: roads opening in four directions are called crossroads. At key thoroughfares, he observed the capacities of all beings everywhere, transforming and benefiting them accordingly. “Entering government offices, he rescued and protected all”: government offices refer to legal officials. Guiding them with correct laws so that the people suffered no bias or injustice, he rescued and protected all. “Entering lecture halls, he guided [them] by means of the Great Vehicle”: in India there were many heterodox paths, each claiming superiority; therefore in that country there were separate debate halls to determine their merits. Those wishing to clarify their own doctrines beat drums to gather the multitude, went to the hall to seek debate, and the victor became the teacher while the vanquished became his disciple. When Jingming ascended this hall, he subdued the non-Buddhists, and then guided them by means of the Great Vehicle, becoming their teacher. “Entering all schools, he instructed and opened the minds of children”: just as Śākyamuni Bodhisattva entered school to speak Sanskrit script, and Brahmā descended to bear witness so that the multitude believed and accepted it—this is of that kind. “Entering brothels, he showed the faults of desire”: abroad, prostitutes set up separate villages, and anyone belonging to the gentry would not spare them a glance. The mahāsattva conformed to their desires, and afterward showed them their faults. “Entering wine taverns, he was able to establish their resolve”: wine leads to the loss of resolve and opens the door to heedlessness. “If among elders, he was honored among elders, preaching the superior Dharma for them”: from here onward is the second [part], clarifying the upāya of multiple bodies. Elders are like the prominent clans of the four surnames today. Ordinary people are easily swayed by authority, but difficult to lead by reason. The mahāsattva always assumed the position of honor among them, to spread a transformation that bent them like the wind. Since elders and prominent clans carry great weight and mostly occupy themselves with worldly teachings, he therefore preached the superior, supramundane Dharma for them. “If among householders, he was honored among householders, severing their greedy attachment”: the Dazhidulun says: “There are two kinds of householders (gṛhapati): first, householders who reside in dwellings, hence called householders; this is the general householder. Second, those who possess wealth of one hundred million are called householders.” Since they amass much precious wealth, their greedy attachment must be deep. Therefore the mahāsattva joined them in amassing wealth to sever their greedy defilement. “If among kṣatriyas, he was honored among kṣatriyas, teaching them patience”: Kumārajīva said: “Kṣatriya is a Central Asian sound containing two meanings: first, patience; second, anger. It means that these people have great power and influence, can generate great anger, endure pain and suffering, and are fierce and hard to subdue; hence it was taken as a clan name.” Sengzhao said: “Kṣatriya is the lineage of kings; here translated as ‘lord of the fields.’ At the beginning of the kalpa, humans ate the flavor of the earth, and subsequently ate naturally grown non-glutinous rice. Later, human dispositions gradually became deceitful, each marking boundaries and hoarding. They then set up one of virtue to impartially divide the fields. This was the beginning of kings; hence the name has been inherited.” Because of their lofty and autonomous status, they often have violent and rash dispositions and are unable to be patient and harmonious; hence he taught them patience. “If among brahmins, he was honored among brahmins, eliminating their arrogance”: brahmin is translated here as ‘external mind.’ At the beginning of the kalpa, seeing worldly people in greed, anger, and contention, they gave rise to revulsion and entered the mountains to seek the Way. Because their minds went outside ordinary people, they were called ‘external minds.’ Their caste has separate scriptures, handed down from generation to generation, taking the study of the Way as their occupation, either practicing austerities as householders or as renunciants. Mostly relying on their own arts of the Way, they are personally arrogant toward others. “If among ministers, he was honored among ministers, teaching them the correct law”: correct law refers to the correct law of governing a state. Having taught them the correct law of governance, he also assisted the times by means of the Way. “If among princes, he was honored among princes, showing them loyalty and filial piety”: since they are subjects, they should possess these two conducts. “If among inner officials, he was honored among inner officials, transforming and correcting the palace women”: Kumārajīva said: “They are not like the eunuchs of today. According to the laws of foreign countries, those who have been loyal and upright for generations, elderly, and endowed with virtue are employed as inner officials to transform and correct the palace women.” “If among commoners, he was honored among commoners, causing them to generate the power of merit”: because the power of merit of commoners is slight and shallow, he therefore used this to teach them. “If in the Brahmā heaven, he was honored among the Brahmā gods, instructing them with superior wisdom”: hitherto he displayed upāya among humans, using the superior to gather the inferior. This passage displays upāya among devas, residing in the superior to transform the inferior. Kumārajīva said: “In the Hīnayāna, the initial Brahmā heavens are three. The Miśrakābhidharma-hṛdaya explains only two, excluding the Brahmā King.” Kumārajīva also said: “In the Mahāyāna there are four; the remaining upper three stages are also like this.” This agrees with the chapter on rebirth in the Dazhidulun. Although the Brahmā King possesses the wisdom of dhyāna, it is not the essential path of liberation. Now he instructs them with the Buddha’s wisdom; hence it is called superior. “If among Śakra gods, he was honored among Śakra gods, manifesting impermanence”: the lord of devas resides in the Trāyastriṃśa palace, deluding himself with the five desires, looking east and forgetting the west, seeing west and forgetting the east, largely without thought of impermanence. The mahāsattva at times manifested fire breaking out, burning his palaces. “If among world-protectors, he was honored among world-protectors, protecting all sentient beings”: world-protectors are the Four Heavenly Kings. Each governs one direction, protecting his domain so that evil ghosts and spirits cannot harm sentient beings. “The elder Vimalakīrti used immeasurable upāya such as these to bring benefit to sentient beings”: this is the third part, the general conclusion. The dharmakāya responds fully, and its traces have no fixed direction; hence it is called immeasurable, and the above was merely a brief statement. Since it cannot be exhausted, a general conclusion was necessary.