大乘起信論義疏 1

English (machine translation) 1

Language: English

1.1

Composed by the Śramaṇa Huiyuan of Jingying Temple.

The Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna is a wondrous treatise that proclaims and reveals the ultimate, profound principle. It is a sharp blade that cuts down heterodoxy, a deep abyss that rejects shallowness, and a victorious banner that establishes correctness. For this reason, the Buddhas and dharmakāya bodhisattvas all take this teaching as their essence, while pṛthagjanas and the two vehicles take this principle as their nature; transformation from an ordinary person to a sage is in no case accomplished without it. Therefore, to indicate the pre-eminence of this teaching, crossing beyond the great ocean and Mount Sumeru, on the Iron Ring Mountains within the city of Laṅkā, in the palace of the ten-headed rākṣasa, the Sage of the Śākyas taught this Dharma. This indicates that it transcends the sphere of the three vehicles, just as [explained by] the author of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkopadeśa. That treatise master asks: "Why did [the Buddha] dwell on this Vulture Peak to preach this Dharma?" He explains: "It is to designate the pre-eminence of this ekayāna Dharma, designating it by means of the place." Furthermore, it is asked in the Daśabhūmivyākhyāna: "Why was this Dharma gate taught in the palace of maṇi jewels in this Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven?" He explains: "It is to designate the pre-eminence of the Dharma gate of the ten grounds, because it is of superior measure." Here it is also like this. Although the teachings spoken in a single dispensation are numerous, in essence there are only two: first, the Śrāvakapiṭaka; second, the Bodhisattvapiṭaka. The teaching of the śrāvaka Dharma is named the Śrāvakapiṭaka; the teaching of the bodhisattva Dharma is named the Bodhisattvapiṭaka. How is it known that the Buddha's teachings are only two? There are both events and texts. As for the events: after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, Kāśyapa and Ānanda compiled the three piṭakas at Rājagṛha, which is called the Śrāvakapiṭaka; Mañjuśrī and Ānanda compiled the Mahāyāna at the Iron Ring Mountains, which is called the Bodhisattvapiṭaka. Thus we know that the Buddha's teachings do not go beyond these two. As for the texts: the Nirvāṇa Sūtra states, "Among the twelve divisions, only the Vaipulya division is upheld by bodhisattvas; the remaining eleven divisions are upheld by śrāvakas." In the Bodhisattvabhūmi, it is also explained in the same way. Below it also states, "The sūtras teach the path of transcending suffering for śrāvakas and bodhisattvas." Those who compiled the scriptures compiled the two piṭakas: expounding śrāvaka practices is the Śrāvakapiṭaka, and expounding bodhisattva practices is the Bodhisattvapiṭaka. Thus we know that what was taught does not go beyond these two. They are also called Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna, or the half-word and full-word teachings. Though the names differ, their meaning is not distinct. Within these two piṭakas, each is divided into three: namely, sūtra, vinaya, and abhidharma. As for the three piṭakas of the Hīnayāna: scriptures such as the four Āgamas are the Sūtrapiṭaka; the five divisions of the vinaya are the Vinayapiṭaka; and the abhidharma and the Tattvasiddhi-śāstra are the Abhidharmapiṭaka. As for the three piṭakas of the Mahāyāna: scriptures such as the Nirvāṇa Sūtra and Avataṃsaka Sūtra are the Sūtrapiṭaka; scriptures such as the Sūtra of Pure Vinaya and Vaipulya are the Vinayapiṭaka; and treatises such as the Daśabhūmi and Bodhisattvabhūmi are the Abhidharmapiṭaka. Now, this treatise is subsumed under the Bodhisattvapiṭaka between the two piṭakas, and is the third, the Abhidharmapiṭaka, among the three piṭakas. It is also called the Mātṛkāpiṭaka, translated here as "realm of practice"; it is also called the mayi, translated here as "mother of practice." What is clarified in this treatise takes the principle of the eight consciousnesses as essence and the practice of the Dharma as principal theme. The bodhisattvas, relying upon this principle, are able to give rise to cultivation, and relying on cultivation, they accomplish virtue; therefore it is called the Bodhisattva-mātṛkāpiṭaka.

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As for what is called "great" (mahā): nothing can surpass it, hence it is designated as great. Since it is called the ultimate, how could there be anything superior to itself? Therefore it is named great. As for what is called "vehicle" (yāna): carrying [beings] across is its meaning. There are two kinds of vehicle: first, the Dharma; second, practice. As for the vehicle of Dharma: it can carry others through its function, but has no meaning of carrying itself; that is the principle-Dharma. As for the vehicle of practice: it carries oneself and carries others; therefore it is named a vehicle. Now, in this treatise, it fully clarifies both principle and practice; therefore there are two kinds of vehicle. In general, it is also named the ekayāna, because there is no different goal; it is also named the buddhayāna, because it is what the Buddhas ride. Although these names differ, their reality does not change; therefore it is called Mahāyāna. As for what is called "awakening" (qi): establishment is its meaning. As for what is called "faith" (xin): decisive certainty is its meaning. This faith has two interpretations: one says that within the stations of the ten faiths, it causes one to give rise to the verified faith in the truly permanent. The other says that it means the teacher of the wondrous Dharma preaches this to exhort faith. The author of the treatise, being an incomplete person, and the Dharma he expounds being of profound and ultimate principle, feared that beings would not comply and would make it an occasion for affliction; therefore he said: "Toward the Mahāyāna Dharma that I expound, you should awaken faith and not slander it." Thus at the end of the treatise, having stated, "Now, according to my ability, having spoken in dhāraṇī summary," [he says] one should respectfully believe. If a person can have faith in this Dharma, their merit will be inexhaustible. Why is that? Because the principle is inexhaustible. If a person slanders it, they will incur great sin and suffering. The intent from beginning to end is the same; how could it allow for divergence! Just as in the Bodhicittotpāda-śāstra the "Exhortation Chapter" is established at the beginning: in order to expound the six perfections, it first exhorts generating the mind for cultivation. Here it is also like this: in order to expound the profound principle, it first exhorts awakening faith.

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Question: Why must one first exhort the awakening of faith? This faith is the very entry point into the Buddha-Dharma. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra says: "Faith is the source of the path and the mother of merits." Moreover, a treatise says: "The faithful mind is like hands. A person with hands who enters the ocean can pick up treasures at will; a person without hands, although encountering a treasure trove, cannot pick them up." The faithful mind is also like this. If there is a person of faith who enters the treasures of the Buddha-Dharma, cultivating according to their capacity, they will attain the joy of liberation; if there is a person without faith, although they encounter the Buddha-Dharma, they will obtain nothing in vain. Therefore one must awaken faith.

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As for what is called "treatise" (śāstra): it is a term that distinguishes it from the Buddha's sūtras. Speaking generally, everything is a treatise, as in the treatises of the five sciences; everything is a classic, as in the five classics. Speaking specifically, what the Buddha spoke is named a sūtra; what another person spoke and the Buddha endorsed is also named a sūtra, as with the Vimalakīrti, the Śrīmālā, and so forth. If, after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, sages themselves compose works to explain the Buddha's sūtras, they are named treatises; what ordinary people compose are named expository essays. Now this treatise was composed by a bodhisattva after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, so it is named a treatise. A treatise is where host and guest engage in dialogue, and because of this it is a treatise; therefore it is called the Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna.

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As for "Composed by Bodhisattva Aśvaghoṣa": this is to state the name of the treatise master. It is also an explanation of the banner, as in Nāgārjuna's treatise commentary: "As for why the bodhisattva composed this treatise: after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, during the era of the True Dharma, the Great Sage was not long gone, and people's capacities possessed deep faith; thus there were no divergent heresies. After seven hundred years, the Great Sage was long gone, the assembly of holy disciples had followed the Buddha into nirvāṇa, and people's capacities possessed shallow faith. Because the world was in decline, non-Buddhist divergent heresies competed in arising in the world: namely, the Green-Eye ṛṣi produced the Gandha-śāstra in twenty fascicles, taking past absence of cause as its doctrine; the Yellow-Head ṛṣi produced the Chanda-śāstra, taking spontaneity as its doctrine; as well as the eighteenth school of the Vaiśeṣika-śāstra. At that time, there was a śramaṇa disciple of Śākya named Dharmaśreṣṭhin. To refute the non-Buddhists, relying on the Western śramaṇas of the Great Vibhāṣā-śāstra and the Sarvāstivāda, he extracted two hundred and fifty lines of verse and composed a four-fascicle abhidharma. However, because people's capacities were shallow and their minds dull, they could not uphold the Great Vibhāṣā-śāstra; yet the four fascicles were so concise that they could not grasp the essential meaning. Therefore it was necessary to extract from within the Dharmatrāta-mahā-śāstra, relying on the tenets of the Western śramaṇas and the Sautrāntika tenets, adding two hundred and fifty lines of verse, extracting them to compose the eleven-fascicle Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya-śāstra." Therefore the beginning of that treatise states: "The extremely concise is difficult to understand, while the extremely extensive causes wisdom to withdraw. Now I shall speak moderately, adorning it with an extensive explanation of meaning." These two treatise masters both proclaimed the teaching of existent marks in order to turn back divergent vehicles, taking causes and conditions as their doctrine. Although they clarified the principle of emptiness, they merely fabricated fixed natures upon phenomena without settling the essence of dharmas. "Furthermore, eight hundred or nine hundred years later, Harivarman appeared. Although treatises had previously been composed to eliminate heretical non-Buddhists, because they contemplated existent marks, they could not attain the noble path. Relying on the tenets of the śramaṇas of this region in the Vibhāṣā and the tenets of the Dharmaguptaka, he composed the twenty-fascicle Tattvasiddhi-śāstra. In that extensive treatise, he exclusively proclaimed the teaching of marklessness, clarifying the two emptinesses of persons and dharmas, and taking the attainment of the path through contemplating emptiness as doctrine. Although these three treatise masters composed treatises and propagated them, they still spoke of the matters of names and marks of the six consciousnesses, not designating the ultimate principle; yet people competed in studying these treatises, grasping them as ultimate, propagating them widely in the world, about to obscure the great intent of Muni. Therefore, Bodhisattva Aśvaghoṣa again appeared; pitying sentient beings who were carried away into non-human currents, and lamenting that the Buddha's ultimate intent had submerged, he relied on the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra to compose the one-fascicle Awakening of Faith. Although its text is brief, its meaning is entirely comprehensive. It takes the eternal presence of the eight consciousnesses as essence, and cultivation and entry as principal theme. Practicing to eliminate the delusion of the sixth and seventh consciousnesses entirely through cultivation, uprooting the attachments of people to the ultimate root source, it explains that the eighth and ninth consciousnesses are true and therefore serene, pointing out the place of entry for those who have lost their way." Such was the intention behind its composition.

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In this treatise there are three sections clarifying its meaning: first, paying homage to the Three Jewels; second, from "The treatise says: There is a Dharma" onward, setting forth what is composed; third, the final two verses, concluding with a general pariṇāmanā. Why are there these three sections? When one wishes to undertake a great task, one cannot treat it lightly; therefore one first pays homage to the Three Jewels. Next, one sets forth the task undertaken. Because the undertaking is completed, one dedicates all merit in making vows; hence third, it concludes with a general pariṇāmanā.

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Within the first section, there are three parts: first, a general explanation of the differences in paying homage at the beginning of various treatises; second, the intent of taking refuge and paying homage at the beginning of a treatise; third, interpreting according to the text. As for the differences in paying homage at the beginning of a treatise: some fully pay homage to the Three Jewels, as in the Da zhidu lun, this present treatise, and so forth; some revere only the Buddha and the Dharma, as in the Daśabhūmivyākhyāna and so forth; some revere only the Buddha, as in the Bodhisattvabhūmi and so forth. All of these have their reasons. The reason for fully paying homage is that they are the complete field of merit. Why revere only the person and the Dharma? Because one relies on the Dharma to accomplish the person, one must pay homage to the Buddha; the Dharma is the principle explained, so one must pay homage to the Dharma. Why revere only the Buddha? Because the Buddha is the master of the teaching, one must pay homage to the Buddha; the others are not the master of the teaching, so paying homage [to them] is set aside.

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Regarding the intent of veneration, there are six kinds of intent: first, acknowledging [one's] indebtedness to that upon which the composition of the treatise relies and paying homage; second, requesting and receiving empowerment and protection; third, generating faith in sentient beings; fourth, observing the propriety of respectful conduct; fifth, indicating supreme excellence; sixth, inspiring sentient beings' mindfulness of the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha. First, regarding acknowledging indebtedness to that upon which the composition of the treatise relies and paying homage: if the Buddha had not preached the sūtras, there would now be nothing to preach; if that Dharma did not exist, the treatise would have nothing upon which to rely; if the Saṅgha had not transmitted it, one would not have heard it oneself. It is through relying on these three that the present treatise can arise, and therefore one must pay homage to them all. Second, regarding requesting protection: without the power of empowerment, how could one be capable of expounding such profound principles? It is essential to have the Buddha's empowerment to be able to expound this Dharma. Just as when the Bodhisattva Vajragarbha wished to expound the Dharma-gate of the ten stages, he was empowered with the four types of competent knowledge and the forty unimpeded eloquence talents. Thus, in the evil time of the final Dharma age, transmitting and transforming is not easy; without the empowering protection of the awe-inspiring power of the Three Jewels, there would be no way to be unobstructed of oneself, and therefore one must pay homage in order to request assistance. Third, regarding generating faith: the treatise author is by nature an inadequate person; when he composes a treatise to explain sūtras, many people would not believe it. He must take refuge and pay homage to show that there is a tradition followed and an authority established, only after which people will place their trust; therefore, he bows his head in homage. Fourth, regarding the propriety of respectful conduct: just as in worldly life a filial child or a loyal minister will certainly report to his sovereign or father whenever he undertakes anything. The bodhisattva is like this, revering the Three Jewels more than father and sovereign; now, when wishing to compose a treatise to explain the sūtras, how could he not pay homage and report the composition of the treatise? Therefore, he must take refuge and pay homage. Fifth, regarding indicating supreme excellence: as the Tattvasiddhi-śāstra says, 'The Three Jewels are an auspicious realm; placing them at the head of the treatise brings out the excellence of the treatise, and therefore one first pays homage.' Sixth, regarding inspiring sentient beings' mindfulness of the Three Jewels: as the Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya says, 'In order to cause sentient beings to generate the resolve to seek after, understand with faith, contemplate, make offerings to, and take refuge in the Three Jewels, one bows the head in homage to them.'

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Third, regarding following the text to explain it, within the text there are two parts: first, the initial two verses correctly clarify paying homage to the Three Jewels; second, the one verse following 'Desiring to cause' clarifies the intention behind composing the treatise. Within the first part, there are three: first, the single phrase 'surpassing conduct' clarifies the Buddha Jewel; second, the two phrases following 'true dharmatā' clarify the Dharma Jewel; third, the single phrase 'practicing in accord with reality, etc.' clarifies the Saṅgha Jewel. Within the first, there are two phrases: first, one verse clarifies the nirmāṇakāya; second, one phrase clarifies the dharmakāya. The words 'take refuge' are the author's words expressing a complete mind of reverence. Within the internal direct reward, the life-faculty is essential; therefore, adducing this essential life and subordinating it to the Three Jewels is called taking refuge. In order to express completion of mind, it is like bowing the head to the Buddha's feet in bodily action, both in character and interpretation. 'Life' (ming) means to report. The word 'all' is an unrestrictive term. The words 'ten directions' adduce location to clarify that the revered Buddha Jewel is omnipresent across the ten directions; therefore, it adduces the phrase indicating that all directions are relied upon. This is the spatial sense. In terms of the temporal sense, one should say the three periods of time, but the meaning implicitly suggests this from both sides. The word 'supreme' is the first title among the ten titles of the nirmāṇakāya Buddha; because it is not identical to the common crowd, it is called supreme. Riding the path of reality to come and attain correct enlightenment—how could it not be supreme? The words 'activity of all-knowledge' are the two virtues of merit and wisdom in the nirmāṇakāya Buddha. Because merit is fulfilled, he is worthy of offerings by all people; because all-inclusive wisdom is fulfilled, he is called correctly and completely knowing; among the ten titles, three titles are briefly adduced. That sūtras mostly adduce these three titles is because they are the essence among the ten titles. The 'Introductory Chapter' of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra states: 'Today the Tathāgata, Arhat, Samyaksambuddha is about to enter nirvāṇa.' The Śrīmālā Sūtra also says this. This single phrase praises the merit of the name of the nirmāṇakāya Buddha. Next, the subsequent phrase praises the virtue of his physical body. The word 'form' refers to adorning his body with the thirty-two marks, and therefore it is called form. The word 'unimpeded' is a phrase praising its uniqueness. In ordinary beings, form has the meaning of material obstruction; the body of the Tathāgata, however, is unimpeded, and therefore it is called unique. The word 'sovereign' praises its excellence. Although a wheel-turning monarch is endowed with the thirty-two marks of a great man, he does not attain sovereignty, still suffering and lacking selfhood. The nirmāṇakāya Buddha is not like this; his sovereignty is limitless. This single phrase praises the physical body. Next, the subsequent phrase praises the virtue of mental activity. The words 'saving the world': 'saving' means covering; saving and covering gives rise to the good, which is bestowing joy, because of having obtained the cause of joy; this is loving-kindness. The words 'great compassion': 'compassion' means protecting; protecting stops evil, and compassion can pull out suffering. The mind of the nirmāṇakāya Buddha does not go beyond these two; this single phrase praises the virtue of mental activity. Next, the subsequent phrase jointly pays homage to the true body. The words 'and that': after paying homage to the nirmāṇakāya Buddha, also paying homage to the true [body] is why it is called 'and'. In contrast to this nirmāṇakāya Buddha, because essence and function differ, it is called 'that'. The words 'essential body' refer to the dharmakāya Buddha; the accumulation of the myriad virtues is called body, and because the Dharma does not depend on anything else, it is called essence; alternatively, it can mean that upon which the adaptive application relies is the essence, and therefore it is called essential body. The word 'characteristics' refers to the saṃbhogakāya Buddha; it is the characteristics of the essence of Dharma, and therefore it is called saṃbhogakāya Buddha. This single phrase jointly clarifies the dharmakāya.

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Question: Why are the three virtues fully clarified in the adaptive [body], but only summarized in the true [body]? Answer: The nirmāṇakāya Buddha is indeed the master of the teachings, and therefore he is praised with particular breadth; the true body is not the master, and therefore it is only praised in summary. In principle, they should be treated equally.

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Having finished paying homage to the Buddha Jewel, below this clarifies the Dharma. The words 'dharmatā': this true existence with its own essence is called dharma, because it has the meaning of being filled with Buddha-dharmas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges; not changing is called nature, because the essential substance of the principle is eternal. The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa says: 'White stone has the nature of silver; yellow stone has the nature of gold; water has the nature of wetness; fire has the nature of heat; all sentient beings have the nature of nirvāṇa; therefore it is called dharmatā.' The words 'tathatā': this true emptiness has nothing false, and therefore it is called true; having nothing established, it is called suchness; this dharma transcends relativity and surpasses the hundred negations, and therefore it is called tathatā. Hence the Daśabhūmivyākhyāna says: 'The self-nature is originally empty.' 'Self-nature' corresponds to the preceding 'dharmatā', and 'empty' corresponds to 'tathatā'. The word 'ocean' derives its name from metaphor; it cannot be expressed by the dharma itself, so a supreme thing is adduced to illustrate it, being profound and difficult to reach the bottom of, just like a great ocean. Hence the Great Sūtra says: 'For example, the great ocean has eight inconceivable qualities.' The Nirvāṇa Sūtra is also like this. This single phrase praises the nature of principle. Next, the subsequent phrase treats practice and teaching together. The word 'measureless' is the utmost among numbers. This is not the 'measureless' among numbers in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra; because it is not countable, it is called measureless. The words 'meritorious virtues' mean what is attained through functional effort, and therefore they are meritorious virtues. 'Virtue' (de) means 'attainment' (de). Being attained through cultivation and not countable, they are called measureless meritorious virtues. This is the dharma of practice. The word 'treasury' refers to the teaching; the teaching can contain the dharmas of principle and practice, and therefore it is called a treasury. Hence the text says 'the teaching of the three treasuries.' Alternatively, it can be the treasury of practice. The accumulation of measureless meritorious virtues is called a treasury; the dharma of principle is like an ocean, the dharma of practice is like a treasury, and the dharma of teaching is absent. Why is it absent? The teaching has no separate essence, taking voice and sound as its essence, and therefore it is not paid homage to. These two phrases clarify the Dharma Jewel. Next, the subsequent phrase praises the Saṅgha Jewel. The words 'in accord with reality' mean dispelling the heterodox and grasping the orthodox, and therefore it is said 'in accord with reality.' The words 'cultivating practice' mean being in a state that is not yet fully complete and studying to advance toward excellence, and therefore it is called cultivating practice. The word 'etc.' means that this kind is not single, and therefore it says 'etc.' Next, the subsequent verse clarifies the intention behind composing the treatise. Herein there are two: first, a half-verse dispels the heterodox; second, a half-verse establishes the orthodox. The words 'desiring to cause sentient beings' clarify those for whose sake it is written, not for oneself, but exclusively for sentient beings. Because it is the mental activity of composing the treatise, it says 'desiring.' Because they are formed of evil dharmas and receive birth everywhere, they are called sentient beings. Next, the subsequent phrase clarifies what is to be eliminated. The words 'eliminate doubt': vacillation is called doubt; correct faith as an antidote is called eliminating. Why eliminate it? Sentient beings do not attain the noble path and give rise to various afflictions all because of doubt; therefore it must be eliminated. 'Eliminating' means dispelling. The words 'abandon heterodox attachments': sentient beings, on account of the view of self, hold heterodox attachments; now by bringing forth the correct meaning, heterodox attachments are abandoned. 'Abandoning' means leaving behind. Why abandon them? The view of self is the root of all afflictions; if there is no view of self, the afflictions have nowhere to abide.

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Question: If so, why in the Abhidharma is the view of self not considered an affliction? Explanation: This is said with respect to sentient beings of the desire realm who, on account of the view of self, give rise to the cultivation of path practices; therefore this statement was made, but it is not the genuine principle.

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Next, the subsequent two phrases clarify establishing the orthodox. The words 'generate correct faith in the Mahāyāna': 'correct' has the meaning of not being crooked; the rest of the meaning is explained as before. Why generate this faith? Below, the intention is stated: 'so that the Buddha-seed may not be cut off.' One who establishes faith and cultivates practice can attain the eternally abiding fruit of Buddhahood; hence the sūtra says, 'One who generates a mind of faith is born into the family of all Buddhas,' already having planted the Buddha-seed. Among the four kinds of true sons in the Śrīmālā Sūtra, the first true son is precisely this matter; because he succeeds to the Buddha's position, he is called a true son. This concludes the first section.

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Next, the second part directly sets forth the composition itself. Herein there are three: first, the introductory section; second, from the section on establishing the doctrine onward, establishing the main section; third, from the section on encouraging practice and its benefits onward, transmitting and maintaining it for future ages. A treatise must have a reason for being composed, and therefore the preface is first clarified; once the reason and preface have arisen, what is to be expounded should be brought forward, and therefore the main section is clarified second; when a noble one composes a treatise it is to benefit the various kinds [of beings], and once the composition of the treatise is complete, he praises its excellence and encourages learning so that it will not be discontinued, and therefore the section on transmission and maintenance is clarified third.

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Regarding the initial preface, it is distinguished through two gates: first, clarifying the difference between sūtras and treatises in making a preface; second, following the text to explain it. Regarding their difference: the characteristics of the preface in a sūtra and in a treatise are different, but their intent is identical. Regarding their difference in characteristics: prefaces in sūtras are generally of two kinds: first, the preface certifying faith; second, the preface that initiates [the teaching]. Regarding certifying faith: Ānanda received the Buddha's transforming teachings and wished to transmit them to later ages, so he first said 'Thus have I heard from the Buddha' to certify that it can be trusted, which is called the preface certifying faith. Regarding that which initiates: because the Tathāgata was about to expound the Dharma, he first manifested various marks to attract the assembled beings with whom he had affinity, gathering the assembly and initiating the teaching, which is called the initiating preface. For a treatise author making a preface, it is not like this; there are not two prefaces. Why is this so? The treatise author composes the treatise out of his own intention, not transmitting the Buddha's words; unlike Ānanda who directly transmitted the Buddha's words, he has no words such as 'Thus have I heard' to certify faith. Furthermore, the treatise author does not manifest marks before composing the treatise; unlike the original preaching of the Tathāgata, the Great Sage, there is no initiation. He merely recounts his intention as a preface, and therefore they are different. Regarding their identical intent: both sūtras and treatises are alike in desiring to state the beginning of the orthodox [teaching], and therefore they are called identical.

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Regarding "explaining according to the text": within the text there are two parts. First, a general presentation; second, from the question "For what reason..." onward, a specific presentation of the intention. Within the first part there are two: first, a general exhortation to give rise to faith; second, from "there are five parts" onward, a general division of the text's sections. As for "The treatise states": these are the words spoken when Bodhisattva Aśvaghoṣa expounded the Dharma. As for "There is a dharma": this is the dharma that is taught, namely the seventh and eighth consciousnesses. As for "can give rise": it can appropriately give rise [to it]. As for "mahāyāna": this is a foreign word. In translation into this land, mahā means "great" and yāna means "vehicle". The words "Great Vehicle" (Mahāyāna) are as explained previously. As for "root of faith": faith is the root of all practices; therefore it says one should give rise to the root of faith in the Mahāyāna. Why is that? Because faith in this dharma is faith in the Mahāyāna, which is the most supreme immediate cause for affecting [the attainment of] Buddhahood. Therefore a sūtra says: "Furthermore, there is a direct cause, which is called the mind of faith, the Śūraṅgama, and so forth." Faith is the direct cause of the saṃbhogakāya Buddha; the Śūraṅgama is also called Buddha-nature, which is the direct cause of the dharmakāya Buddha. As for "Therefore, one should...": this is a concluding summary and explanation. Next, the second part divides the text. "It is said that there are five parts": this is a general citation. "The section on reasons", and so forth, are the specific explanations. The titles of the text are self-evident.

1.18

Next, the second part presents the intention behind composing [the treatise]. Here there are two: first, directly presenting the intention; second, from "Question: In the sūtras..." onward, addressing objections, wherein the commentator distinguishes and analyzes. Within the first there are two: first, a question; second, an answer. As for "For what reason is this treatise composed?": this asks about the intention behind its composition. Next is the direct answer. Here there are three: first, a brief presentation; second, from "What are the eight?" onward, a specific explanation; third, from "For such reasons..." downward, a concluding explanation. Within the specific explanation there are two: first, a general presentation of the intention; second, from the third [reason] downward, identifying the persons for whom it was composed. Within the first, as for "to cause sentient beings to be freed from suffering": the reason sentient beings are constantly in the three bad destinies and perpetually experience suffering is due to delusion regarding the principle. Since they do not know what is right and wrong, they perform evil actions and are constantly in the three bad destinies, like a person in their own home with no time of departure—which is deeply pitiable. Therefore, the Bodhisattva composed this treatise to reveal the true ultimate principle and show them right and wrong, the place of liberation from suffering. As for "to attain ultimate bliss": the reason sentient beings do not attain bliss is because they do not know that good practices are what ought to be practiced. Therefore, the Bodhisattva expounds various good practices to lead sentient beings to know how to practice, enter in, and attain the bliss of nirvāṇa. Why is it not attaining the bliss of humans and devas? Because it is not ultimate and is entirely impermanent; thus he does not lead them to attain that. As for "not seeking worldly fame, profit, or respect": this has two meanings. First, spoken from the perspective of the Bodhisattva: "My bringing sentient beings to be freed from suffering and attain bliss is not to seek fame or profit, nor to avoid others' censure or slight." Second, regarding the sentient beings for whom it is made: "The Dharma I expound is not to lead them to seek worldly respect, but solely to lead their minds to seek the realization of unexcelled bodhi; therefore I expound this Dharma." Next, clarifying the dharma that is revealed. As for "wishing to explain the fundamental meaning of the Tathāgata": this identifies the principle expounded as not being inexplicit. Below, its intention is revealed: "so that all sentient beings may understand without error." Whether clinging to the heterodox as orthodox, clinging to the delusive as real, or clinging to the provisional as definitive meaning—all these are errors. Next, the second part identifies the persons for whom it is made. Here there are three: first, persons who possess good roots; second, those who are shown the skillful means to dispel karmic [hindrances], who are persons without good roots; third, from "showing the cultivation of cessation and insight" onward, clarifying ordinary beings and the two vehicles. Within the first, one has deep faith and the next has slight faith. As for "sentient beings whose good roots are perfected": from the [bodhisattva] lineage upward, they partially attain the stage of the sage's realization of faith. How is this known? Because in the four propositions on Buddha-nature, it is for persons of good roots. As for "sentient beings whose good roots are slight": these are people of the ten faiths, because of their subtle faith. Next, the second [category] is persons without good roots. As for "showing skillful means": this refers to repenting of faults, paying homage to the Buddhas, and so forth according to this treatise. As for "dispelling evil karma": this is the karmic hindrance. As for "well guarding the mind": this is the retribution hindrance. As for "keeping far away from folly and arrogance to escape the snare of heterodoxy": this is the defilement hindrance. Folly and arrogance are the five dull fetters; the snare of heterodoxy is the five sharp fetters. All these three hindrances are eradicated. In the Hīnayāna Dharma, defilements are merely suppressed and the other two cannot be eliminated; in the Mahāyāna Dharma, all three hindrances are severed. Next, the third [category] benefits ordinary beings and the two vehicles. Here there are two: first, a general explanation of ordinary beings and the two vehicles; second, a specific explanation. As for "cultivating cessation and insight": cessation is samādhi; insight is wisdom. As for "to counteract the mental faults of ordinary beings and the two vehicles": ordinary beings have the fault of clinging to existence, while the two vehicles have the fault of clinging to non-existence. Because ordinary beings cling to existence, he leads them to cultivate samādhi; for the people of the two vehicles, he leads them to cultivate wisdom. Next, the second is a specific explanation. Here the first is with respect to ordinary beings, and the latter is with respect to the two vehicles. As for "the skillful means of single-minded mindfulness": this is samādhi. As for "being born before the Buddha and not regressing in faith": the benefit attained is not vain. Just as being born in a pure land, where one constantly sees the Buddha's face and perpetually hears the wondrous Dharma, one's mind of faith grows stronger and is not lost to regression. Next, clarifying the two vehicles: as for "showing benefits": these are the benefits of wisdom. Because the benefits of wisdom are not vain, he encourages cultivation.

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Next, the third part summarizes the intention. Alternatively, among these eight reasons, the first is general and the latter seven are specific explanations. Within the specific explanations, the first directly explains the chapter heading of freeing from suffering, while the latter seven are the specific explanations of the chapter heading of attaining bliss. Sentient beings' freedom from suffering essentially depends on understanding the principle, while sentient beings' attainment of bliss is due to practice; the foremost of good practices is the mind of faith. The remaining meanings are as above.

1.20

Next, the second part, "for those who have difficulties in understanding", re-analyzes [the matter]. Here there are two: first, a question; second, an answer. Within the answer there are three: first, brief; second, extensive; third, a conclusion. In the first there are two clauses: first, the persons for whom it was made; next, the person relied upon. As for "Sentient beings' faculties and practices are not equal": the mental capacities of sentient beings who receive the Way are uneven. Faculties pertains to the past, while practices is based on the present; past faculties and present inclinations differ in depth and shallowness, hence they are called unequal. As for "the conditions for receiving and understanding differ": in the past it was the ultimate sage, and the one who expounded the sūtras was the Buddha; today the treatise author is an incomplete person, hence it says the conditions differ. Since it is said that the one relied upon differs and those for whom it is made are unequal, why should it not be expounded again?

1.21

Next is the extensive explanation. Here there are three: first, explaining the superiority of the condition and the superiority of those for whom it was made; middle, explaining the decline; last, explaining those suited to the teaching. As for "When the Buddha was in the world": this indicates the superiority of the time. "Sentient beings had sharp faculties": this is the superiority of those for whom it was made. From "the person capable of expounding" onward: this presents the superiority of the one relied upon. As for "the activities of form and mind were superior": form is the thirty-two marks, which is physical activity; mind is great compassion and great loving-kindness, which is mental activity. As for the activities being superior: the fruit is designated by the cause; because the activities are superior, the fruit elicited is superior. As for "with a single proclamation of the complete voice, different types understood equally": this is verbal activity. The Tathāgata with a single voice presents both the great and the small simultaneously; according with their capacities they understand equally, and the preaching does not miss their capacities; thus the Buddha does not expound the Dharma in vain. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra says: "The Tathāgata with a single voice proclaims the Dharma, and sentient beings understand each according to their capacity." All three activities are superior, hence it says the condition is superior. As for "then there was no need for treatises": this concludes the explanation of sharp faculties. Because of dull faculties, one composes treatises to explain the sūtras and only then attains awakening and understanding. Because of sharp faculties, they understood as soon as the Buddha spoke, so there was no need for treatises.

1.22

Next, the second part explains the decline. As for "If after the Tathāgata's parinirvāṇa": this presents the decline of the times. As for "there may be sentient beings": those for whom it was made are unequal. There are two pairs and four propositions, namely those with capacity and those without capacity. The first two propositions are those with capacity; the latter two propositions are those without capacity. In the first [pair], broad hearing with little understanding, and little hearing with much understanding, form one pair. From "Or there may be sentient beings who lack their own mental capacity" downward, it clarifies those without capacity. Here there are two propositions: first, due to lack of capacity, those who hear broadly and attain understanding; in the second proposition, due to lack of capacity, those who hear broadly do not attain it, but whose minds delight in concise text and attain much understanding—these form one pair. From "A treatise such as this" downward, it clarifies those truly suited to the teaching. This is like the fourth person before. The text of this treatise is concise, yet its meaning is exhaustive; therefore it says, "because it completely subsumes the vast, profound Dharma and boundless meanings of the Tathāgata." It is not the narrow and small principle of the Hīnayāna, hence it says vast. Only a Buddha can fathom it, hence it says profound Dharma; the principle is limitless, hence it says boundless. "One should expound this treatise" concludes the presentation of the intention for composing it. The initial introductory section is concluded.

1.23

From the "Section on Formulating the Meaning" onward, the second part explains the main exposition section. Here there are three: first, the Section on Formulating the Meaning; middle, the Section on Explanation; last, the Section on Cultivation and Faith. Why are there these three sections? There are two reasons: first, the sequence of expounding the Dharma. One who wishes to expound the Dharma first sets down the principle and thesis, hence first formulating the meaning. The thesis having been broadly determined, to distinguish and demonstrate it, next is the second: the Section on Explanation. The intention in expounding the Dharma is not merely empty preaching; because practicing as taught yields benefit, once the expounding of the Dharma is complete, next is the third: the Section on Cultivation and Faith. Second, according to those for whom the Dharma is expounded, due to the three faculties there are three segments: namely superior, middling, and inferior. For superior faculties, the Section on Formulating the Meaning is expounded; for middling faculties, the Section on Explanation is expounded; for inferior faculties, the Section on Cultivation and Faith is expounded. For superior and middling persons, expounding the Dharma in this way is acceptable, but why not expound it extensively for inferior persons? When the principle and Dharma are expounded to superior and middling persons, they immediately attain awakening and understanding; persons of inferior faculties do not attain awakening and understanding, so practices are shown to encourage their cultivation, and only then can they enter. Because their practice is inferior, they are made to enter through practice; hence it is not expounded extensively. In the first [section] there are three: first, presenting the chapter heading; second, directly explaining the meaning; third, a concluding summary. Next, stating the Section on Formulating the Meaning presents the chapter heading. "Formulating" means establishing the thesis; as for "meaning", having profound reasons is designated as "meaning". How could the ultimate principle of the Mahāyāna be of shallow origin? Hence it has profound reasons. From "Mahāyāna" onward is the direct explanation. Here there are two: first, formulating two chapter headings; later, explaining the two chapter headings. Mahā means "great" and yāna means "vehicle". This meaning was extensively explained previously. As for what is called "dharma": its intrinsic essence is called dharma; since the principle does not rely on anything else, it is called intrinsic essence.

1.24

Question: The ten thousand phenomena do not exist [as separate substances] preserving their distinct self-natures; because within the virtue of bliss there is no arising and ceasing, it is called "permanence." Everything being like this, why do they not depend on each other?

Explanation: Because the ten thousand phenomena are of one essence and have no different essence, and because the essence of bliss is not different and has no separate essence of permanence, it is said that they do not depend [on each other].

Objection: If so, when the function of tangible solidity is taken as the function of a pillar, there being no other function of a pillar, should this pillar also not depend on anything else?

Explanation: It is not analogous. A pillar has no [independent] substance; the name "pillar" is merely designated upon the four subtle atoms, so its dependence on others is evident. Within true reality, within the single essence, myriad aspects are distinguished according to meaning; if you raise one and search for its essence, it is precisely that essence. The ten thousand [aspects] are also like this: in the one it is the complete essence, and in the ten thousand it is the complete essence. Why would it need to take another's function as its own or another's essence as its own within that? Within this true reality, within the single essence, the myriad meanings conditionally aggregate with one another and do not abandon or separate from one another. Therefore a sūtra says: "Just as father and mother are each distinct, they are called impermanent. Where there are 'this' and 'that', that is impermanence. The principle is a single essence and has no 'this' or 'that'; therefore it is serenely permanent." A sūtra also says: "The Dharma I preach is neither one nor different. It is serenely permanent; because it is not like a nominal composite unity, it is said to be not one; because it is not like real entities having distinct substances, it is said to be not different." Therefore, it is distinct.

1.25

What is called "significance" (artha) is named in accordance with phenomena. Although the essence is of a single flavor, it differs in myriad ways according to its significance; yet the essence and its significance are not distinct. Since there is no single [fixed] nature, it is precisely thusness; and since there is no lack of natures, its meanings are differentiated. These two are the essential character of the ultimate principle.

1.26

Below, the second part is the direct explanation of the chapter headings. Herein there are two: first, explaining the chapter heading of "Dharma"; second, explaining the chapter heading of "significance." The first has two parts: first, the direct explanation; second, from "Why is this?" downward, the further explanation. The first part has three clauses: first, revealing the essence of the Dharma; second, from "this mind" downward, clarifying its function; third, from "relying on this" downward, clarifying the intention of establishing the doctrine. "What is called Dharma" resumes the previous chapter heading. As for "the mind of sentient beings": because they take birth according to dharmas, they are called "sentient beings." This is with respect to ordinary beings. If spoken of generally, the coming together of many dharmas to arise is called "sentient beings." This applies universally to the noble ones as well. "Mind" refers to the mental dharma, selected among the three aggregates of dharmas by excluding form and non-manifesting [action]. This mind is precisely the reality within sentient beings, and is therefore called the true mind.

1.27

Question: Why is the mind the principle?

Answer: Because the principle is not manufactured by things, it is called the "principle." Because it is not wood or stone, but a consciousness endowed with spiritual awareness, it is called "mind."

1.28

"This mind encompasses all mundane and supramundane [dharmas]": such a principle is the essence within all dharmas; because function returns to essence, it says "encompasses." Although functions are numerous, they do not exceed defilement and purity: defilement is mundane, and purity is supramundane. From "Relying on this mind" downward clarifies the establishing of the doctrine: because of this mental principle, it clarifies the doctrine based on this. "Revealing the significance of the Mahāyāna" means expounding the meaning of the Great Vehicle. From "Why is this?" downward clarifies the further explanation. The reason why this mind is the essence of mundane and supramundane dharmas is explained by that previous second clause. It is explained through two meanings: The first meaning says that "the aspect of this mind as tathatā" is the ninth consciousness. Because the ninth consciousness is the essence of all dharmas, it says: "because it directly reveals the essence of the Mahāyāna." "The aspect of this mind as arising and ceasing through causes and conditions" is the eighth consciousness. The eighth consciousness transforms according to conditions; because it accords with defiled conditions, it is "the aspect of arising and ceasing through causes and conditions." How is this known? In the text it says: "because it directly reveals the essence, attributes, and functions of the Mahāyāna." Function is the primary meaning, while essence and attributes follow along with it. Within the one mind, being beyond words and separated from conditions is the ninth consciousness; transforming in accordance with conditions is the eighth consciousness. Thus the mental dharma mentioned above has these two meanings. Because this eighth consciousness is the root of following conditions, it is the fountainhead of all mundane and supramundane dharmas; hence it is said to "encompass." Earlier, it only spoke of eight consciousnesses, but in the subsequent further explanation, it clearly reveals two consciousnesses; hence it speaks of essence and function. Regarding the eighth consciousness, it gathers the essence into the function; hence it is said to be "function." Mind arises and ceases; above, it fully clarified both "defiled and pure" functions, but in the explanation, it only clarifies the function of according with defilement. Therefore the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra says: "There are two things that are difficult to comprehend: the intrinsically pure mind is difficult to comprehend, and that mind being defiled by afflictions is difficult to comprehend." Its statement "intrinsically pure" is just like this mind as tathatā, originally non-dual. As for "the greatness of function," functions are of two kinds: first, defiled; second, pure. Within each of these two functions, there are also two kinds. The two within defilement are: first, the function of supporting; second, the function of dependent origination. As for the function of supporting: this "true mind" can support false defilements; if this truth did not exist, the false could not be established. Therefore the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra says: "If there were no ālayavijñāna, one would not plant the seeds of manifold sufferings, the seven dharmas of consciousness would not abide, and one could neither revile suffering nor joyfully seek nirvāṇa." As for the function of dependent origination: the preceding function of supporting, although it is within defilement, does not itself produce defilement, but merely serves as the foundation. Now, together with the false, it causes conditions to aggregate and give rise to defilement, just as water aggregates into waves following the wind; therefore, it neither increases nor decreases. The explanation states: this very dharmadhātu revolving through the five destinies is called a sentient being. Such is the defiled function. The pure function also has two kinds: first, revealing function according to conditions; second, active function according to conditions. As for revealing function: the essence of the true consciousness is originally obscured by the false; through the cultivation of counteragents, false defilements subsequently cease. Although its essence is originally pure, according to conditions it can be said to become newly purified and revealed. Therefore it is spoken of as the naturally pure dharmakāya Buddha, non-fabricated cause and effect; this is called revealing function.

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大乘起信論義疏 — Classical Chinese