續高僧傳 4.5

4.5

釋玄奘。本名褘。姓陳氏。漢太丘仲弓後也。子孫徙於河南。故又為洛州緱氏人焉。祖康北齊國子博士。父慧早通經術。長八尺明眉目。拜江陵令。解纓而返。即大業末年。識者以為剋終。隱淪之候故也。兄素出家。即長捷法師也。容貌堂堂儀局瓌秀。講釋經義聯班群伍。住東都淨土寺。以奘少罹窮酷。携以將之。日授精理。旁兼巧論。年十一誦維摩法華。東都恒度便預其次。自爾卓然梗正不偶朋流。口誦目緣略無閑缺。覩諸沙彌劇談掉戲。奘曰。經不云乎。夫出家者為無為法。豈復恒為兒戲。可謂徒喪百年。且思齊之懷。尚鄙而不取。拔萃出類。故復形在言前耳。時東都慧日盛弘法席。涅槃攝論輪馳相係。每恒聽受昏明思擇。僧徒異其欣奉美其風素。愛敬之至師友參榮。大眾重其學功弘開役務。時年十五與兄住淨土寺。由是專門受業。聲望逾遠。大業餘曆。兵饑交貿法食兩緣投庇無所。承沙門道基化開井絡法俗欽仰。乃與兄從之。行達長安。住莊嚴寺。又非本望西踰劍閣既達蜀都。即而聽受阿毘曇論。一聞不忘見稱昔人。隨言鏡理又高倫等。至於婆沙廣論雜心玄義。莫不鑿窮巖穴條疏本幹。然此論東被弘唱極繁。章鈔異同計逾數十。皆蘊結胸府聞持自然。至於得喪筌旨。而能引用無滯。時皆訝其憶念之力終古罕類也。基每顧而歎曰。余少遊講肆多矣。未見少年神悟若斯人也。席中聽侶僉號英雄。四方多難總歸綿益。相與稱讚逸口傳聲。又僧景攝論道振迦延。世號難加人推精覆。皆師承宗據隅隩明銓。昔來攝論十二住義。中表銷釋十有二家。講次誦持率多昏漠。而奘初聞記錄片無差舛。登座敘引曾不再緣。須便為述狀逾宿構。如斯甚眾不可殫言。武德五年。二十有一為諸學府。雄伯沙門講揚心論。不窺文相而誦注無窮。時目神人。不神何能此也。晚與兄俱住益南空慧寺。私自惟曰。學貴經遠義重疎通鑽仰一方未成探賾。有沙門道深。體悟成實學稱包富。控權敷化振網趙邦。憤發內心將捐巴蜀。捷深知其遠量也。情顧勤勤每勸勉之。而正意已行誓無返面。遂乃假緣告別。間行江硤。經途所及。荊楊等州。訪逮道隣莫知歸詣。便北達深所委參勇鎧。素襲嘉問縱洽無遺。終始十月資承略盡。時燕趙學侶相顧逢秋。後發前至。抑斯人也。沙門慧休。道聲高邈。行解相富。夸罩古今。獨據鄴中昌言傳授。詞鋒所指海內高尚。又往從焉。不面生來。相逢若舊。去師資禮事等法朋。偏為獨講雜心攝論。指摘纖隱曲示綱猷。相續八月領酬無厭。休又驚異絕歎撫掌而嗟曰。希世若人。爾其是也。沙門道岳。宗師俱舍闡弘有部。包籠領袖吞納喉襟。揚業帝城來儀群學。乃又從焉。創迹京都詮途義苑。沙門法常。一時之最。經論教悟。其從如林。奘乃一舉十問皆陳幽奧。坐中杞梓拔思未聞。由是馳譽道流。擅聲日下。沙門僧辯。法輪論士。機慧是長。命來連坐。吾之徒也。但為俱舍一論。昔所未聞。因爾伏膺。曉夕諮請。岳審其殷至。慧悟霞明。樂說不窮。任其索隱。覃思研採。晬周究竟。沙門玄會。匠剖涅槃。刪補舊疏。更張琴瑟。承斯令問。親位席端。諮質遲疑煥然祛滯。僕射宋公蕭瑀。敬其脫頴。奏住莊嚴。然非本志。情栖物表。乃又惟曰。余周流吳蜀。爰逮趙魏。末及周秦。預有講筵。率皆登踐。已布之言令。雖蘊胸襟。未吐之詞宗。解籤無地。若不輕生殉命。誓往華胥。何能具覿成言。用通神解。一覩明法。了義真文。要返東華。傳揚聖化。則先賢高勝。豈決疑於彌勒。後進鋒頴。寧輟想於瑜伽耶。時年二十九也。遂厲然獨舉。詣闕陳表。有司不為通引。頓迹京臯。廣就諸蕃。遍學書語。行坐尋授。數日便通。側席面西思聞機候。會貞觀三年時遭霜儉。下勅道俗逐豐四出。幸因斯際徑往姑臧。漸至燉煌。路由天塞。裹糧弔影。前望悠然。但見平沙。絕無人徑。迴遑委命。任業而前。展轉因循。達高昌境。初奘在涼州講揚經論。華夷士庶盛集歸崇。商客通傳。預聞蕃域。高昌王麴文泰。特信佛經。復承奘告。將遊西鄙。恒置郵馹。境次相迎。忽聞行達。通夕立候。王母妃屬。執炬殿前。見奘苦辛。備言意故。合宮下淚。驚異希有。延留夏坐。長請開弘。王命為弟。母命為子。殊禮厚供。日時恒致。乃為講仁王等經及諸機教。道俗係戀。並願長留。奘曰。本欲通開大化遠被家國。不辭賤命忍死西奔。若如來語。一滯此方。非唯自虧發足。亦恐都為法障。乃不食三日。僉見極意。無敢措言。王母曰。今與法師一遇。並是往業因緣。脫得果心東返。願重垂誡誥。遂與奘手傳香信誓為母子。麴氏流淚執足而別。仍勅殿中侍郎。齎綾帛五百匹書二十四封。并給從騎六十人。送至突厥葉護牙所。以大雪山北六十餘國皆其部統故。重遺達奘開前路也。初至牙所。信物倍多異於恒度。謂是親弟。具以情告。終所不信。可汗重其賄賂。遣騎前告所部諸國。但有名僧勝地。必令奘到。於是連騎數十。盛若皇華。中途經國道次參候。供給頓具倍勝於初。自高昌至於鐵門。凡經一十六國。人物優劣奉信淳疎。具諸圖傳。其鐵門也即鐵門關。漢之西屏。入山五百。旁無異路。一道南出險絕人物。左右石壁竦立千仞。色相如鐵故因號焉。見漢門扇一竪一臥。外鐵裏木加懸諸鈴。必掩此關寔惟天固。南出斯門。土田溫沃花果榮茂。地名覩貨羅也。縱千餘里廣三千餘。東拒葱嶺西接波斯。南大雪山北據鐵門。縛芻大河中境西流。即經所謂博叉河也。其境自分為二十七國。各有君長信重佛教。僧以十二月十六日安居坐其春分。以斯時溫熱雨多故也。又前經國凡度十三至縛喝國。土地華博。時俗號為小王舍城。國近葉護南牙也。突厥常法。夏居北野。花草繁茂放牧為勝。冬處山中用遮寒厲。故有兩牙王都。城外西南寺中有佛澡罐可容斗許。及佛掃帚并以佛牙。守護莊嚴殆難瞻覩。奘為國使躬事頂戴。西北不遠有提謂波利兩城。建塔淩虛。即爰初道成獻[麩-夫+少]長者之本邑。髮爪塔也。又東南行大雪山中七百餘里至梵衍國。僧有數千學出世部。王城北山有立石像。高百五十尺。城東臥佛長千餘尺。並精舍重接。金寶莊校晃曜人目。見者稱歎。又有佛齒舍利。劫初緣覺齒長五寸許。金輪王齒長三寸許。并商那和修鉢。及九條衣絳色猶存。又東山行至迦畢試國。奉信彌勝。僧有六千。多大乘學。其王歲造銀像舉高丈八。延請遐邇廣樹名壇。國有如來為菩薩時齒長可寸餘。又有其髮引長尺餘。放還螺旋。自斯地北民雜胡戎。制服威儀不參大夏。名為邊國蜜利車類。唐言譯之垢濁種也。又東南七百至濫波國。即印度之北境矣。言印度者。即天竺之正名猶身毒賢豆之訛號耳。論其境也。北背雪山三陲大海。地形南狹如月上弦。川平廣衍周九萬里。七十餘國依止其中。時或乖分略地為國。今則盡三海際同一王命。又東雪山至那伽羅曷國。即布髮掩泥之故地也。詳諸經相意有疑焉。何則討尋本事。乃在賢劫已前。蓮花定光名殊。三佛既非同劫。頻被火災。何得故處今猶泥濕。若以為虛。佛非妄語。如彼諸師各陳異解。有論者言。此實本地。佛非妄也。雖經劫壞。本空之處願力莊嚴如因事也。並是如來流化。斯迹常在不足怪矣。故其勝地。左則標樹諸窣覩波。即靈塔之正名。猶偷婆斗藪婆之訛號耳。阿育王者。此號無憂。恨不覩佛。興諸感戀。絓是聖迹皆起銘記。故於此處為建石塔。高三十餘丈。又有石壁佛影。蹈迹眾相。皆竪標記。並如前也。

Shi Xuanzang originally had the given name Yi and was of the Chen clan. He was a descendant of Zhonggong, magistrate of Taiqiu under the Han. His descendants relocated to Henan, so he was also a native of Goushi in Luozhou. His grandfather Kang was an Erudite in the Directorate of Education under the Northern Qi. His father Hui early on mastered the classics and arts; he was eight feet tall, with clear eyes and fine eyebrows. He was appointed magistrate of Jiangling, but untied his seal-ribbon and returned home; this was during the final years of the Daye reign era. Discerning people believed that this was because he foresaw his end and it was an omen for living in reclusion. His elder brother Su had become a monk, namely Dharma Master Changjie. Majestic in appearance, with exceptional dignity and bearing, he lectured on and explicated scriptural teachings and ranked among the best. He resided at Jingtu Temple in the Eastern Capital. Because Xuanzang suffered hardship and cruelty in his youth, he took him in and looked after him. Every day he taught him subtle principles and covered subtle treatises as well. At the age of eleven, Xuanzang recited the Vimalakīrti and the Lotus Sūtra. When regular ordinations took place in the Eastern Capital, he was chosen to take his place among them. From then on, he was remarkably upright, not mingling with ordinary associates. His mouth reciting and his eyes perusing, he hardly ever rested or neglected his studies. Seeing the novice monks engaged in frivolous talk and jesting, Xuanzang said, "Does the scripture not say: 'Those who leave the household do so for the sake of the unconditioned Dharma'? How can you continually indulge in children's games? It can truly be called wasting a whole life in vain. Even the aspiration to emulate the worthy is considered lowly and not to be taken if it does not stand above the crowd and surpass the ordinary; how much more should this be reflected in one's deeds before words!" At that time, Huiri Temple in the Eastern Capital was flourishing with Dharma lectures. The Nirvāṇa Sūtra and the Mahāyānasaṃgraha were taught in continuous succession. Xuanzang always attended and listened, reflecting and discerning from dusk to dawn. The saṅgha marveled at his joyful dedication and praised his pure style; their respect and affection reached the utmost, and teachers and friends all shared in his glory. The assembly valued his scholarly dedication and excused him from labor duties. At the age of fifteen, he lived with his brother at Jingtu Temple. From this point on, he specialized in receiving teachings, and his renown spread ever farther. In the waning years of Daye, war and famine alternated; the conditions for both Dharma and sustenance were cut off, and there was nowhere to take refuge. Hearing that the śramaṇa Daoji was disseminating the teaching across the Jingluo region, revered by both monastic and lay, Xuanzang and his brother followed him. Traveling, they reached Chang'an and stayed at Zhuangyan Temple. Yet this was not what he had hoped for. Venturing west across the Jian'ge Pass, they reached the capital of Shu. There he listened to and received the Abhidharma treatises; having heard them once, he never forgot them, matching the praised masters of old. Following the words, he reflected on the principles, surpassing his peers. As for the Mahāvibhāṣā, the extensive treatises, and the subtle meanings of the Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya, there was nothing whose deep recesses he did not fathom, distinguishing the branches from the trunk. However, the transmission of this treatise to the east was extremely broad, and the varying commentaries and digests numbered over several dozen; yet he retained them all naturally in his mind as soon as he heard them. When it came to grasping the meaning beyond the words, he could quote and apply them without hesitation. People at the time all marveled that his retentive power was rare in all of history. Daoji would often look at him and sigh, "In my youth I visited many lecture halls, but I have never seen a youth of such spiritual comprehension as this man!" Those listening in the assembly all hailed him as a hero. With many troubles in all four directions, people flocked together to Mian and Yi, praising him and spreading his fame by word of mouth. Moreover, the śramaṇa Sengjing's exposition of the Mahāyānasaṃgraha shook Katyāyana's fame; in the world it was regarded as unsurpassable, and people esteemed his refined analyses. All followed lineages of transmission and established their doctrines, clearly determining obscure points. Formerly, concerning the meaning of the twelve abodes in the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, there were twelve traditions that analyzed and explicated its internal and external aspects. During the lectures, their recitations were mostly dim and confused; yet when Xuanzang first heard them, his recording did not err in the slightest. Ascending the seat to introduce and quote them, he never had to look twice. Explaining as needed, his presentation surpassed long-prepared compositions. Instances like this were so numerous they cannot be fully recounted. In the fifth year of Wude, at the age of twenty-one, before various academies of learning, he lectured and propagated the Abhidharmahṛdaya for prominent śramaṇas. Without glancing at the text, his recitation and exposition flowed endlessly. At the time, they regarded him as a spiritual man, saying, "Were he not spiritual, how could he achieve this?" Later, he resided with his brother at Konghui Temple in south Yi. He thought to himself: "In learning, what is valuable is reaching far; in principle, what is important is thorough penetration. To drill and seek only in one region falls short of fathoming the profound." There was the śramaṇa Daoshen, who comprehended the Tattvasiddhi and whose learning was acclaimed as comprehensive. Holding authority and spreading the teaching, he shook the land of Zhao. Xuanzang's heart was stirred, and he resolved to leave Ba and Shu. Changjie deeply understood his far-reaching aspirations; though bound by deep affection, he continually encouraged him. With his proper intention already resolved, Xuanzang vowed never to turn back. Thereupon he feigned an excuse to take his leave and traveled along the Yangtze Gorges. In the course of his journey, he passed through prefectures such as Jing and Yang. Seeking Dao-lin, he could not determine where to find him, so he went north to Daoshen's place and joined Shen's disciple Yongkai. Having long admired Daoshen's fine reputation, he absorbed everything without omission. In the space of ten months, he had completely received his teachings. At that time, scholars of Yan and Zhao looked at each other in the autumn season, finding that he who started later had arrived first; indeed, such was this man. The śramaṇa Huixiu had a lofty reputation; rich in both practice and understanding, he outshone past and present. Residing alone in Ye, he expounded and transmitted the teachings, and wherever his eloquence pointed, the lofty minds within the seas yielded. Xuanzang went to follow him as well. Though they had never met before, upon meeting it was as if they were old acquaintances. Setting aside the etiquette of teacher and disciple, they treated each other as Dharma companions. Huixiu gave him solitary lectures on the Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya and the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, pointing out subtle obscurities and thoroughly demonstrating the fundamental guidelines. For eight consecutive months, Xuanzang received and responded tirelessly. Huixiu was astonished, deeply sighed, clapped his hands, and exclaimed, "If there is a rare person in this world, it is surely you!" The śramaṇa Daoyue was an authority on the Abhidharmakośa and propagated the Sarvāstivāda school. Embracing the essentials and holding the key points, he propagated his work in the imperial capital, and scholars flocked to him. Xuanzang went to follow him as well. When he first arrived in the capital to examine the paths and gardens of doctrine, the śramaṇa Fachang was the foremost of his time; his teachings on sūtras and treatises drew followers like a forest. Xuanzang asked ten questions at once, all posing deep and abstruse points; the distinguished minds in the assembly had never heard of such profound thoughts. Because of this, his fame spread among the followers of the Way, and his reputation rang out under the sun. The śramaṇa Sengbian was a master debater of the Dharma wheel, excelling in quick intellect; he invited Xuanzang to share his mat, saying, "He is of our kind!" Yet because the single treatise of the Abhidharmakośa was something Xuanzang had not heard previously, he devoted himself to it, consulting Daoyue day and night. Daoyue saw his sincere devotion and his intellect as bright as the dawn clouds; his delight in expounding was boundless, letting Xuanzang probe the depths as he wished. Xuanzang meditated deeply and collected its teachings, mastering it thoroughly in a full year. The śramaṇa Xuanhui was skilled at analyzing the Nirvāṇa Sūtra, revising old commentaries and tuning the strings anew. Xuanzang, hearing of his fine reputation, sat directly before his seat, questioning him on doubts, and all obscurities were brilliantly dispelled. Song Gong Xiao Yu, Vice Director of the Right, respected his outstanding talent and petitioned for him to reside at Zhuangyan Temple. Yet this was not his original aspiration; his mind dwelt beyond worldly matters. He then reflected again: "I have traveled through Wu and Shu, and reached Zhao and Wei, ending in Zhou and Qin. Wherever there were lecture halls, I attended them all. Though the teachings already spread are kept in my breast, for doctrines not yet spoken, there is no place to resolve their keys. If I do not disregard my life and sacrifice myself, vowing to go to Huaxu, how can I see the full, established words to penetrate spiritual understanding? Once I behold the luminous Dharma and the true texts of definitive meaning, I must return to the Eastern Land to spread and propagate the holy transformation. Then how could the former sages and eminent ones have had to resolve their doubts with Maitreya, or future keen minds need to cease their reflections on the Yogācārabhūmi?" At that time he was twenty-nine years old. Thereupon, acting with resolute determination alone, he went to the palace gate to submit a memorial. The officials would not forward it. Stranded in the capital area, he broadly approached foreigners of various regions to learn their scripts and languages. Walking and sitting, he sought instruction, and within a few days he had mastered them. Sitting upright and facing west, he waited for an opportunity. In the third year of Zhenguan, a frost caused famine, and an imperial decree permitted monastics and laity to disperse in all four directions in search of plentiful food. Xuanzang, taking advantage of this opportunity, went straight to Guzang and gradually reached Dunhuang. His path led through the Heavenly Barrier. Packing provisions and pitying his own shadow, he looked ahead into the boundless distance: seeing only flat sands and completely lacking human tracks, anxious and committing his life to destiny, he advanced according to his karma. Stage by stage, he reached the border of Gaochang. Earlier, while in Liangzhou, Xuanzang had expounded sūtras and treatises, and Chinese and barbarian elites and commoners had gathered in great numbers to revere him. Merchants transmitted the news, so it was heard in the barbarian regions beforehand. Qu Wentai, the King of Gaochang, had extraordinary faith in Buddhist scriptures; hearing of Xuanzang's announcement that he would travel to the western regions, he constantly stationed relay posts to welcome him at the border. Hearing suddenly that he had arrived, the king stood waiting through the night. The queen mother and royal consorts held torches before the palace. Seeing Xuanzang's hardships and hearing him recount his intentions, the entire palace wept, marveling at this rare occurrence. They invited him to stay for the summer retreat and earnestly requested him to propagate the Dharma permanently. The king addressed him as a brother, and the queen mother addressed him as a son, offering extraordinary etiquette and lavish provisions day and night. Thereupon Xuanzang lectured on the Benevolent King Sūtra and other teachings suitable for the capacities. Both monastics and laity grew attached, all wishing for him to remain permanently. Xuanzang said, "My original desire was to open up the great conversion far and wide to bless my home country. Disregarding my humble life, I braved death to flee to the west. If, as the Tathāgata said, I linger in this land, not only would I undermine my initial purpose, but I fear it would become an obstacle to the Dharma entirely." He then fasted for three days. Seeing his extreme determination, no one dared say another word. The queen mother said, "Our meeting today with the Dharma master is entirely due to karmic conditions from past lives. If you fulfill your wish and return east, we hope you will deign to instruct us again." Thereupon she exchanged an incense token with Xuanzang by hand, vowing to be mother and son. Qu Wentai wept, clasped his feet, and parted with him. The king then ordered an Gentleman of the Palace Attendance to take five hundred bolts of damask and silk and twenty-four letters, and provided sixty mounted escorts to accompany Xuanzang to the tent of the Yabghu Qaghan of the Göktürks. Because the more than sixty kingdoms north of the Great Snowy Mountains were all under his command, the king dispatched him with generous gifts to open the road ahead for Xuanzang. When he first arrived at the tent, the gifts were twice as many as usual. The Qaghan thought he was the king's actual brother, and though Xuanzang explained the truth, he would not believe it. The Qaghan valued the gifts and sent riders ahead to inform the kingdoms under his rule that wherever there were famous monks or sacred sites, Xuanzang must be allowed to visit. Thereupon, with several dozen horses riding in sequence, the retinue was as magnificent as an imperial envoy's. Along the way, kingdoms came to pay respects, and provisions and rest stops were doubly superior to the beginning. From Gaochang to the Iron Gate, he passed through a total of sixteen kingdoms. The quality of the people and the sincerity of their faith are recorded in detail in maps and biographies. The Iron Gate is the Iron Gate Pass, the western barrier of the Han. Entering the mountains for five hundred li, there is no other road; a single path leads south, an absolute precipice devoid of human life. On the left and right, stone walls stand sheer for a thousand fathoms, with the color and appearance of iron, hence the name. One can see the leaves of the Han gates, one standing and one fallen, iron on the outside and wood within, hung with many bells. Closing this pass truly makes it a natural stronghold. Exiting this pass to the south, the soil is warm and fertile, and flowers and fruits flourish; the land is called Tokharistan. It extends over a thousand li from north to south and more than three thousand li from east to west, bordered on the east by the Congling Mountains, on the west by Persia, on the south by the Great Snowy Mountains, and on the north backed by the Iron Gate. The great river Vakṣu flows westward through its middle, which is the Vakṣu River mentioned in the scriptures. The territory is divided into twenty-seven kingdoms, each with its own ruler who reveres and honors the Buddha's teachings. The monks begin their retreat on the sixteenth day of the twelfth month, sitting through the spring equinox, because at this time it is warm and rains frequently. Traveling forward through thirteen more kingdoms, he reached the kingdom of Balkh. The land is expansive and flourishing, and people call it the Little Rājagṛha. The kingdom is close to the Yabghu's southern tent. By Göktürk custom, they live in the northern wilds in summer, where grasses and flowers flourish, which is excellent for grazing; in winter they live in the mountains to ward off the severe cold. Hence they have two tent capitals. Outside the city, in a monastery to the southwest, there is the Buddha's washing basin holding about a dou, as well as the Buddha's broom and tooth relic. Guarded and adorned, they are very difficult to view. As a state guest, Xuanzang personally paid homage to them on his head. Not far to the northwest are the two cities of Trapuṣa and Bhallika, where stūpas soar into the air; these are the home towns of the elders who first offered roasted flour when the Buddha attained the Way, where the stūpas for his hair and nail relics stand. Traveling southeast through the Great Snowy Mountains for over seven hundred li, he reached the kingdom of Bāmiyān. There are several thousand monks who study the Lokottaravāda school. In the mountain north of the royal city is a standing stone image, a hundred and fifty feet high. East of the city is a reclining Buddha over a thousand feet long. Both are housed in layered vihāras, adorned with gold and jewels, dazzling the eye. Those who behold them praise them. There are also tooth relics of the Buddha, a pratyekabuddha's tooth from the beginning of the kalpa about five inches long, and a gold-wheel-turning king's tooth about three inches long, as well as the bowl of Śāṇakavāsa and his nine-strip robe, whose crimson color still remains. Traveling east through the mountains, he reached the kingdom of Kapiśa. Their devotion is even greater. There are six thousand monks, mostly studying the Mahāyāna. Every year the king makes an eighteen-foot silver statue, invites people from far and near, and establishes many famous altars. In the kingdom there is a tooth from when the Tathāgata was a bodhisattva, about an inch long, and his hair, which can be pulled out to over a foot long and spirals back when released. North of this region, the populace is mixed with Hu and Rong barbarians; their dress and deportment do not conform to the Great Xia. They are called a border kingdom of the mleccha kind, translated in the Tang language as an impure race. Going southeast for seven hundred li, he reached the kingdom of Lampa, which is the northern border of India. As for the term "Yindu", it is the correct name for Tianzhu, whereas Shendu and Xiandou are erroneous transliterations. Regarding its territory, backed by the Snowy Mountains to the north and flanked by the great ocean on three sides, its shape is narrow in the south like a crescent moon. The plains are broad and expansive, ninety thousand li in circumference. Over seventy kingdoms reside within it. Sometimes they splinter into territories as separate kingdoms, but now they all obey the command of a single king throughout the reaches of the three oceans. Further east across the Snowy Mountains, he reached the kingdom of Nagarahāra, which is the old site where the Buddha spread his hair to cover the mud. Examining the marks in the scriptures, there are doubts about this: for if one investigates the past events, they took place before the Bhadrakalpa. Padmaprabha and Dīpaṃkara had different names, and the three Buddhas were not in the same kalpa; having repeatedly undergone fire destructions, how could the original place still be muddy and wet today? Yet if one considers it false, the Buddha does not speak falsely. Various masters offer different explanations. Some commentators say: "This is truly the original place, and the Buddha is not speaking falsely. Although it has undergone kalpa destructions, the adornment produced by the power of vows at the site of original emptiness is just as it was in the causal stage. These are all the flowing transformations of the Tathāgata; that these traces remain constant is not to be wondered at." Therefore, on the left of this sacred site, stūpas have been erected—stūpa is the correct name for a sacred pagoda, while toupo and dousoupo are erroneous transliterations. King Aśoka, whose name means "Free from Sorrow", lamented that he had not seen the Buddha, and was filled with longing; wherever there were holy traces, he erected monuments. Therefore, he built a stone stūpa here, over three hundred feet high. There are also the Buddha's shadow on the stone wall and various marks of his footprints, all marked with monuments, just as described before.