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Source: pramana-mt · Machine translation by Gemini 3.8 Flash (2026-10-21) of in.bauddha.taisho.2088 · Machine output without human authorship: no copyright is claimed (CC0 1.0). The original text keeps its own…

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1.2

By the disciple of the Śākya of Mount Taiyi in Zhongnan

Now, the Great Tang has possessed the world for nearly forty years. Pure customs spread and decadent habits are reformed; civil virtue is cultivated and military achievements flourish. Thus, the lands of the green hills and the vermilion grottos have both been brought within the borders; the regions of the dragon sands and the wild-goose passes obediently comply with the civilising influence. Outstanding talents bow their heads, displaying the ceremonial insignia of paying court; they offer treasures and present tribute, manifesting the great virtue of embracing and pacifying [distant peoples]. Thus, both within and beyond the eight wildernesses, previous histories have expounded in full; yet the quarters of the Five Indias have from of old been rarely described. Could this not be a matter of the times? Even though King Mu of Zhou hunted in the west, he reached only as far as the Kunlun hills; though Shun and Yu toured in the south, they did not cross the vast ocean. The First Emperor of Qin drew borders extending in close breadth only to Lintao; Emperor Wu of Han opened frontiers with passes clearing the Iron Route. From then on, distant investigations were not detailed. For this reason, inquiring after the Way at Kongtong was confined to the region of Jiuquan; paying homage to the sage at Kunlun was truly only beside the Yumen Pass. As for the Weak Water and Lake Dongting, the Three Perils and the Nine Hills, the smoky beacon of Longle, and the sand barriers of the Li River, all are fully chronicled in the Documents of Xia, and all are charted in the province of Yong. When the Marquis of Bowang sought the river, the name of Bactria was first heard; when the Yellow Emperor journeyed in dream, the state of Huaxu was initially recounted. The General of Ershi struck Dayuan; the Marquis of Dingyuan opened the Iron Gate. Youyu entered Qin; Jin Midi served the Han. Their fame and glory spread over the Pamir mountains; the imperial virtue reached the Vulture Peak. Glorious were the imperial emissaries, and their retinues were numerous! Yet the records of local lands, the customs suited to the people, the historical changes in manners, and the marvels of mountains and rivers—though recorded on silk—offered almost nothing worthy of note. Is this not because the journeys were far and those who visited were few? Sifting through the facts, even when there were tales, they all traced back to travellers and were certainly not seen with one's own eyes; following and vying with one another, falsehoods were taken for authentic records. How do we know this to be so? Thus, gazing westward toward the Red District from the source of the River at Jishi, or looking eastward toward the Divine Continent from the celestial pillar of Kunlun, all beyond the Singing Sands is called barbarian lands; what use is far-fetched calculation, transmitting empty words on yellowed bamboo? From this we know that accounts of Shendu were only reached through repeated translation, and texts such as the Tales of the Divine and Extraordinary can certainly be judged accordingly. Since the Buddhist teachings travelled east, their glorious light has illuminated the Han. Through ten dynasties, the transmission has lasted nearly six hundred years. Light carriages have continuously connected, thoroughly observing every quarter; more than a hundred states have submitted to the transforming influence, scaling mountains to offer tribute and turning toward the sun to pay homage to the king. Yet earlier and later transmissions and records conflict and differ: holy traces are rarely described, and designations cause much confusion. Upon tracing back the cause of this, the fault lies with the translators. Formerly, under the Sui dynasty at the Translation Bureau of the Shanglin Garden in the Eastern Capital, the śramaṇa Yancong composed the Records of the Western Regions in one work of ten chapters. It extensively laid out local customs but was sparing on Buddhist matters; it succeeded in broad hearing, but fell short of the faithful root. In my humble view, the eight aspects manifest the path, the three vehicles refine and transform; what is established by the four postures invariably accords with capacities, and what is covered by the two adornments all takes wise understanding as its ancestor. Now, the holy traces and spiritual forms crowd into the realm of Huaxu; the divine radiance and auspicious shadows suffuse the universe. It is necessary to elucidate the shapes and measures to arouse the mind and spirit. In the Zhenguan era, I once joined the ranks of the translation bureau; the Western Records that were separately produced contain full details. But because paper and ink easily become verbose and mirror-like scrutiny is hard to exhaust, and because the legacy of the Buddha is what the assembly of Śākya together takes refuge in, I have therefore epitomised the main outline into a concise single roll to pass on to future students, introducing it as such.

1.4

Gazetteer of the Śākya in one work and eight chapters:
Chapter 1: The Borders
Chapter 2: The Encompassing Domain
Chapter 3: Centre and Periphery
Chapter 4: The Traces Left Behind
Chapter 5: Travels and Itineraries
Chapter 6: Extent and Scope
Chapter 7: Periods and Abiding
Chapter 8: Characteristics of the Teaching

1.5

Looking up and examining: when the Buddhas descend spiritually, they cannot be sought through forms and appearances; yet appearing and concealing in accord with capacities, they may thus be described in words and writings. However, for those who study the teachings, grasping the overall outline comes first; pursuing branches and leaves will ultimately lead to no profound achievement. Therefore, at the head of the chapters, I mark out their general import.

1.6

The Borders
The Encompassing Domain
Centre and Periphery
The Traces Left Behind

1.7

Gazetteer of the Śākya, Chapter 1: The Borders

1.8

The land ruled by the Buddha is called the Sahā-lokadhātu, which in ancient translations of the sūtras was rendered as Sahā. What is called in the sūtras the Land of Endurance means that the people of this land have strong memories and forceful mindfulness, are able to endure suffering and joy, and are fit to be vessels for the Way; therefore, the Buddha rules over it. Examining this border: it is encircled by the Iron Mountains; outside the mountains is space, and space cannot be measured. Beneath the mountains is earth; beneath the earth is gold; beneath the gold is water; beneath the water is wind. This wind is solid, surpassing vajra. Evoked by the common karma of sentient beings' mental power, it can sustain the world and keep it from collapsing. Beyond the wind is simply empty space. Measuring this circumference from bottom to top, it reaches the end of the formless [realm], which is called Bhavāgra. As for the drawing of its boundaries in terms of length and breadth, it ultimately cannot be measured in miles. Take, for instance, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom: if a large stone were dropped from the heavens of the form realm, it would take 18,383 years to reach the ground. Measuring these directions, above and below, this is called the land ruled by one Buddha (that is, taking the Cakravāḍa of the great thousand [worlds] as the territory of its borders).

1.9

Gazetteer of the Śākya, Chapter 2: The Encompassing Domain

1.10

Examining [the matter]: the lands encompassed within the Cakravāḍa iron mountains of the Sahā-lokadhātu number in the tens of thousands of millions. How is this known? What we inhabit today is but a single country. In each country there is a Mount Sumeru, which is what the sūtras call Mount Sumeru. Standing within the great ocean, resting on the surface of the golden wheel, it rises half out of the ocean, eighty thousand yojanas high. The sun and moon revolve around its waist. Outside it, seven golden mountains encircle it, and between them are oceans of water endowed with the eight virtues. Beyond them, the salty sea is boundless in breadth. Beyond the sea is a mountain made of iron encircling it on all four sides. In the ocean, the habitable places are roughly four. Distinguishing the directions according to Mount Sumeru: the eastern continent is named Videha; the southern continent is named Jambudvīpa; the western continent is named Godānīya; the northern continent is named Kuru. These four continents are also called the four states of existence; they are where humans dwell and where the Buddha rules. Accordingly, extending laterally to the Cakravāḍa, within the ocean there are only four continents. From Mount Sumeru up through the twenty-eight heavens, together with one sun and one moon, constitutes one country. Taking this as a unit and counting up to one thousand, enclosed by Cakravāḍa, is called a small-thousand world. Taking this small-thousand and counting up to one thousand, enclosed by Cakravāḍa, is called a medium-thousand world. Taking this medium-thousand and counting up to one thousand, enclosed by Cakravāḍa, is called a great-thousand world. Examining this trisāhasramahāsāhasralokadhātu: within it, the four continents, the king of mountains, the suns and moons, up to Bhavāgra, exist in tens of thousands of millions of places. All are encompassed by the Buddha, and all comply with his civilising voice.

1.11

Gazetteer of the Śākya, Chapter 3: Centre and Periphery

1.12

Now, the realm under the Dharma King's dominion is encompassed within the great thousand [worlds]. If based on the established capital, this continent is where he constantly abides; hence this one continent lies in the ocean south of Mount Sumeru. Its extent by water and land is 240,000 li from east to west, and 280,000 li from north to south. Again, according to the treatises, three sides are equal in measure, being two thousand yojanas, while the southern side is three and a half yojanas. Thus it is broad in the north and narrow in the south, resembling a human face. Furthermore, according to mundane records, the area inhabited by people is 116,000 li from east to west, and its distance from north to south is roughly the same. As for its fixed capital, Kapilavastu, the country where the Buddha was born, should be the centre. It is said to lie within the fourfold Cakravāḍa; hence the sūtra says: 'It is the centre of the three thousand suns and moons and the twelve thousand heavens and earths.' Through the spiritual power of the Buddha, he is not born in peripheral lands, because the land there is tilted. In Central India, beneath the tree where the Tathāgata attained enlightenment, there is a vajrāsana used to support the Buddha. Based on this discussion, one may determine the centre in relation to the other heavens and earths. As for this continent, the meaning of 'centre' is explained through five matters. The five are: name, mileage, seasons, waters, and people.

1.13

Regarding the name: all call the Western Regions the Middle Kingdom, and it is also called Central India. When the renowned worthies of this land conversed at Tuangui, they also referred to the Western Realm as the Middle Kingdom. If it were not the centre, both mundane and sacred accounts would not call it the centre. Formerly, under the Song dynasty, He Chengtian of Donghai was famous for his wide erudition and was foremost among the talented. He asked the śramaṇa Huiyan: 'What calendar system does the Buddha's country use to be called the centre?' Huiyan said: 'In the country of Tianzhu, on the summer solstice, there is no shadow at noon; this is what is called the level centre of heaven and earth. In the Central Plains of this country, when measuring with the sundial gnomon, there are fractional residues. Consequently, the calendars of the Three Dynasties had large and small [months] and intercalations, and by accumulating calculations there were constant deviations in the seasons, which clearly shows this is not the centre.' He Chengtian had no words to counter this. When Emperor Wen heard of it, he ordered Ren Yu to study it [under him].

1.14

Now, as marked out by the eight difficulties, peripheral lands are excluded from salvation; to transcend the mundane and enter the sacred, one must begin in the Middle Kingdom. Therefore, Bactria personally received his voice and form, while the Eastern Floriate late received the traces of his teaching. The principle and numbers are naturally so.

1.15

Second, concerning mileage: this continent is broadly divided into three portions. In the two portions to the north, the land is vast and people are scarce; it is inhabited by the Xiongnu, who are unfit for the practice of the Way. The one portion to the south extends to the three seas; the people are mostly keen and bright, fit to receive the sacred transformation. Therefore, based on the supremacy of the Way, the Great Sage established his capital there. Thus Chengguangzi states: 'Central India is 58,000 li to Zhendan in the east (Zhendan is the name for the Divine Continent, as designated by the people there); 58,000 li to the Golden Land in the south; 58,000 li to the country of Akuja in the west; and 58,000 li to Lake Anavatapta on the Lesser Gandhamādana in the north.' Looking at this overall encompassment and taking the distant and the near, they are equal in distance, thus determining the centre. Its principle is easily apparent.

1.16

Third, concerning the seasons: south of the Snow Mountains is called the Middle Kingdom. It is open and level, with winter and summer mild and harmonious; plants and trees constantly flourish, and flowing frost does not fall. As for the other peripheral borders, how could they even be mentioned?

1.17

Fourth, concerning waters: in the centre of this continent is a great lake named Anavatapta, translated into Chinese as 'Without Fever'. This is what the sūtras call Lake Anavatapta. It lies south of Mount Gandhamādana and north of the Great Snow Mountains, situated atop a mountain summit, inaccessible to ordinary mortals. The lake is eight hundred li in circumference, its four shores adorned with jewels. Directly south, on level ground, lies the dwelling of the hells; hence the vajrāsana is offset five thousand li to the east. Furthermore, directly south of the lake aligns with the tip of the continent; its north aligns with the Miluo Valley, and further north aligns with the Thousand Springs north of the Pamirs. Directly above in the sky, it aligns with the Pole Star. Now, looking at the fifth [star], it seems tilted to the west. Moreover, one inch in heaven corresponds to one thousand li on earth; the Thousand Springs is over eight thousand li from the capital, which corresponds to less than one foot in heaven. The lake is less than one thousand li north to the country of Bolor; to the southeast, the country of Kulūta, and to the southwest, the country of Kaśmīra, are each over one thousand li away. Now, the four seas form the reservoirs, the ultimate destination of the waters. Thus, this single lake divides into four rivers, each following the terrain to flow into one sea. Therefore, east of the Pamirs, the waters flow into the Eastern Sea; south of Dakṣiṇa, the waters flow into the Southern Sea; west of the Snow Mountains, the waters flow into the Western Sea; north of Daqin, the waters flow into the Northern Sea. Because the land is high and the source of waters flows out from it, this is the centre; lying on the seashore, peripheral lands can hardly claim this title. Moreover, the Buddhist sūtras are grand and broad, encompassing all matters thoroughly; the far-reaching vision of sages and worthies is by no means an empty fabrication. Everything listed above accords with geographical maps. However, the books and histories written in this Divine Continent contain an abundance of allegories, conjectures, and unsubstantiated claims. From time to time, they draw upon the Buddhist sūtras to broaden their classifications, but all are confused and corrupt; let us attempt to cite them. The Commentary on the Water Classic states: 'The Hill Without Heat is Mount Kunlun.' Again, the Account of Funan states: 'Mount Anavatapta is Mount Kunlun.' Again, the Classic of Mountains and Seas states: 'On the southern shore of the Flowing Sands, behind the Red Water and before the Black Water, there is a great mountain named the Kunlun Mound.' It also states: 'Six hundred li west of Mount Zhong, there is Mount Kunlun, from which five waters flow.' Examining the Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven: 'Chongshan is pronounced Zhong.' It also states: 'The Kunlun Mound within the seas lies in the northwest, below the Emperor; it is eight hundred [li] square and ten thousand fathoms high.' Furthermore, the Records of the Ten Continents states: 'The Kunlun Range is Mount Kunlun; in the Hai direction of the Northern Sea, one hundred and thirty thousand li from the shore.' These roughly point to Mount Sumeru in the Buddhist sūtras.

1.18

Furthermore, a mountain in the Eastern Sea is named Fangzhang; it is also called Kunlun.

1.19

It is also said that the Queen Mother of the West told King Mu of Zhou, "The mountain is three hundred and sixty thousand li from Xianyang, and thirty-six thousand li above the flat ground."

1.20

Furthermore, the Mu tianzi zhuan recounts that the Queen Mother of the West said it was eleven thousand one hundred li from the Chan and Jian rivers of the ancestral Zhou capital. The Shenyi jing states: 'Mount Kunlun has a bronze pillar; its height reaches the heavens and its circumference is three thousand li.' Mr. Rong's commentary says: 'On Zhuzhou, twelve thousand li southeast of Mount Kunlun, there is Mount Wuwai.' The Shiji states: 'Mount Kunlun is fifty thousand li from Mount Songgao and eleven thousand li high.' Guo Pu says: 'It is more than two thousand five hundred li high.' The Huainan[zi] says: 'It is eleven thousand one hundred li, fourteen paces, two feet, and six inches high.' The Daoist scripture Zaoli tiandi ji states: 'Mount Kunlun is four thousand eight hundred li high.' The Zhuanxing jiku jing states: 'It is nineteen thousand li high.' It also says: 'This mountain floats in flight.' It also says: 'Thirty li south of Mount Kunlun, there are successively a thousand Mount Kunluns, named a small chiliocosm.'

1.21

The Huahu jing states: 'Mount Kunlun has nine tiers, each separated by nine thousand li.' It also says: 'It is one hundred million and five thousand li high.'

1.22

Though the two accounts of Confucianism and Daoism cited above differ in shape and measurement, neither goes beyond Kunlun. Looking for the near Kunlun, it is the land of Jiuquan in Western Liang, the place where King Mu met the Queen Mother of the West, as detailed in the maps and treatises of that region. As for the distant Kunlun, it lies between Mount Gandhamādana and the Snow Mountains (Himālaya). The source of the River (Yellow River) issues from there. Thus the Erya states: 'The River issues from the wastes of Kunlun.' Guo Pu's Tu zan states: 'Kunlun has three tiers, called the Pillars of Heaven; it is truly the spiritual mansion of the river source and waters.' If we examine the Yugong's statement, 'The River was channelled from Jishi,' it merely names it based on the place where the subterranean stream emerges. If one investigates the original source, there is indeed a precedent. Therefore, the Buddhist sūtras state: East of this Anavatapta Lake, there is a silver ox mouth from which issues the Gaṅgā River, which is what was anciently called the Heng River. Circling the lake once clockwise, it flows into the southeastern sea. To the south is a golden elephant mouth from which issues the Sindhu River, which is the ancient Xindu River. Circling the lake once clockwise, it flows into the southwestern sea. To the west is a vaiḍūrya horse mouth from which issues the Vakṣu River, which is the ancient Boxa River. Circling the lake as above, it enters the northwestern sea. To the north is a sphaṭika lion mouth from which issues the Sītā River, which is the ancient Sida River. Circling the lake as above, it enters the northeastern sea. Examining the Hetu, it says: 'Five thousand li east of Mount Kunlun is named Shenzhou; it is also called Chixian.' Furthermore, according to texts, the source of the River flows northeast out of the Qisha Valley in the Congling (Pamir Mountains) and divides into two waters. The northeast tributary passes the southern mountains of Khotan and emerges northwest of the kingdom. The great river also flows east, passing southeast of the city of Kabbhanda. It also passes west of the kingdom of Kashgar, and goes northeast to below the city. It also flows back more than five hundred li south of the kingdom to the south of the kingdom of Wuśa. It also goes northeast, six hundred and ten li north of the kingdom of Kashgar, to the Red Valley City (Chigu) on the border of Wusun. It also goes two hundred and seventy li east, passing south of the kingdom of Gumo. It also goes six hundred and seventy li east, passing south of the kingdom of Kucha. It also goes three hundred and fifty li east, passing south of the kingdom of Wulei. This is where the Protectorate of the Western Regions was based during the Han dynasty. It is two thousand one hundred and ten li southwest to Kashgar, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-five li southeast to the kingdom of Shanshan, and four hundred li northeast to the kingdom of Agni. The River also goes three hundred and forty li southeast, passing south of the kingdom of Quli. It also goes two hundred and forty li east, passing south of the kingdom of Heishan. This is two thousand six hundred and sixty li east to the Yumen Pass. The River also goes east, passing south of the cities of Liancheng and Zhubincheng, and north of the kingdom of Qiemo, joining the Zhishui. The River also goes east, passing through the territory of Loulan. It also goes east, passing south of the city of the kingdom of Shanshan, and traversing several hundred li northeast, it enters Lop Nor (Puchanghai). The eastern side of this sea is slightly north, one thousand three hundred li from Yumen. It is also three hundred li northeast from the Yangguan Pass. This River flows underground from Lop Nor for several thousand li south and slightly west, entering Mount Jishi among the Qiangshaodang tribe. Texts state: 'Mount Jishi is one thousand seven hundred and forty li from the wastes of Kunlun.' Some say that the subterranean stream runs thirteen thousand li. These various conjectures are difficult to investigate thoroughly. The River emerges from Jishi, winding southwest in nine bends, and flows jointly northeast through the land of Xizhi, which is the Bend of the River. It also enters the frontier northeast, passing south of Dunhuang and Zhangye; this is the source of the River. If we examine this factual record to seek the source of the River, only by tracing it to the site of Lake Anavatapta do we reach the ultimate source. Yet this lake is the dwelling of spirits, inaccessible to mortal humans; furthermore, it is in the domain of the Snow Mountains of northern India, adjoining to the south the Middle Country where the Buddha was born. Because its location is elevated and supreme, it is not a periphery.

1.23

Fifth, concerning people: they do not go beyond the ordinary and the holy. The supreme position of ordinary people is called a cakravartin (wheel-turning king); the supreme position of holy people is called a Dharma King. Truly, if these two kings are not born, so be it; but when born, they must reside in the centre. Furthermore, mountains, rivers, countries, and towns are the dependent retribution (environmental conditions) of people; when people are superior, their dependent retribution is superior. Therefore, these two kings reside there. Furthermore, the wheel-turning kings are four, governing the four continents respectively: the gold-wheel king extends to all four continents; the silver-wheel king governs three regions, excluding the one northern continent; the copper-wheel king governs two regions, excluding the northwest; and the iron-wheel king is in the south, excluding three continents. The term 'Jambudvīpa' is the Central Sanskrit pronunciation, translated into Chinese as 'residence of the wheel-turning king.' As for the scope of the four wheel-turning kings being universal or limited, though they differ, they must certainly dwell in the southern continent. Ancient translations of this continent called it the 'land of fine gold,' referring to the Jāmbūnada gold in the sea off the north shore of the continent. The golden radiance floats up from the sea. Beside it is a forest of jambu trees whose fruits are extremely large. Only those who have attained supernormal faculties can reach there. Now we state that the naming of this continent after the wheel-turning king simply puts forward both considerations. Moreover, this single continent is governed by four rulers. From the Snow Mountains south to the southern sea is called the Lord of Elephants. The land is hot and humid, especially suitable for elephants to dwell; thus the king secures his state by means of elephant troops. Their customs are ardent and impetuous, and they devote themselves to studying extraordinary arts; this is the country of India (Yindu). As for the name of India (Yindu), some call it Xiandou, some Tianzhu, some Shendu or Tiandu, and so on; all these are erroneous and corrupted transmissions. However, Yindu is the correct form; in Tang Chinese there is no translation for it. From the west of the Snow Mountains to the western sea is called the Lord of Treasures. The land adjoins the western sea and is especially abundant in rare treasures, but they make light of ritual and value commodities; this is the land of the Hu. From the north of the Snow Mountains to the northern sea, the land is cold and suitable for horses, and is called the Lord of Horses. Their customs are fierce and violent; they are cruel in slaughter and wear skins and wool; this is the country of the Turks (Tujue). From the east of the Snow Mountains to the eastern sea is called the Lord of Men. The land is mild and harmonious, and the customs practice benevolence and righteousness. They are attached to the soil and reluctant to move away; this is the country of Cīna (Zhina), which is what was anciently called Zhendan. The above four lords are listed each based on one continent. They divide the boundaries and rule as kings, determining the centre by the continent. Taking the wheel-turning king as correct, dwelling in the centre and ruling the periphery has remained unchanged from ancient times to the present. The various Confucian scholars of this land are bogged down in the teachings of Confucius; taking this as the centre and subsuming the rest as the periphery, they point specifically to Luoyang as the 'Middle Kingdom' (Zhongguo). This was stated merely with reference to Xuanyuan (the Yellow Emperor) and the Five Sacred Mountains; it is not yet an all-embracing comprehensive vision. Moreover, they point to the Western Barbarians and categorically call them Hu states. However, where the Buddha was born and wandered, south of the Snow Mountains, is called the Brāhmaṇa country; it is cut off from the Hu, and the script and language are different. Therefore, among the various brāhmaṇas of the Five Indias, the script is divine script and the language is divine language. It is said that when the kalpa was first formed, Brahmā gods descended; because of tasting the fat of the earth, there came to be human beings. Handed down from their original speech and script, the divine method has not been broken. Therefore, among their customs, many serve the heavens, because their birth has an origin. The Hu are originally Western Rong; they have no heard knowledge of the Way or arts. Scripts and spoken languages differ by state, becoming intelligible only through transmission and interpretation. The script and language of Shenzhou arose without an origin. Let us consider written records, which can be investigated through facts: Fu Xi made the eight trigrams, and King Wen doubled them. Cang Jie made bird tracks, but those graphs are not in use. Only in the Han dynasty did Xu Shen bring forth the Shuowen; the graphs numbered only nine thousand, arranged by category. Now they have gradually spread through the world to thirty thousand written words. These were born as people of each generation combined meanings; they cannot compare to the fixed nature of the script and language of the Five Indias. By the above five meanings, we have determined the centre and the periphery. They can serve as a mirror for this. The rest is as recounted in the Record of Holy Traces by Śramaṇa Lingyu of Weijun in the early Sui.

1.24

Shijia fangzhi, Chapter 4: Vestiges.

1.25

From the Han to the Tang, those who traveled to India took many routes that cannot be fully recounted, as will be recorded later. Taking the Great Tang as the standard, its former envoys took three routes. Following the routes traversed, one witnessed all the holy traces, and so they are now set forth in order. As for the Eastern Route, from Hezhou one travels northwest, crosses the Great River, ascends the Mantian Range, and in less than four hundred li reaches Shanzhou. Again west for less than one hundred li one reaches Shancheng, which is the seat of an ancient province. Again southwest for less than one hundred li one reaches the former Chengfeng Garrison, which is the site of the mutual trade market under the Sui. Again west for less than two hundred li one reaches the Qinghai [Lake]. In the lake there is a small island; the lake has a circumference of more than seven hundred li. Southwest of the lake one reaches the court tent of the Tuyuhun. Again southwest one reaches the border of the kingdom named Bailan Qiang. The northern border reaches Jiyu City. To the northwest one reaches the kingdom of Duomi. Again southwest one reaches the kingdom of Subi. Again southwest one reaches the kingdom of Gan. Again south and slightly east one reaches the kingdom of Tibet. Again southwest one reaches the kingdom of Little Yangtong. Again southwest one crosses Dacan Pass, which is the southern border of Tibet. Again east and slightly south one crosses Moshang, reaches the Sanbi Pass, and heads southeast into a valley. Passing through thirteen suspension ladders and nineteen cliff planks, again southeast or southwest, clinging to creepers and climbing vines, one travels in the wilderness for more than forty days to reach the kingdom of Nepāla in North India (this land is about nine thousand li from Tibet). As for the Middle Route, from the eastern river of Shanzhou one travels more than one hundred li, and again north for more than six hundred li reaches Liangzhou, which is two thousand li east of the capital. From Liangzhou going west and slightly north for four hundred and seventy li one reaches Ganzhou. Again west for four hundred li one reaches Suzhou. Again west and slightly north for seven thousand and five [recte: seven hundred and five] li one reaches the former Yumen Pass. The pass lies between the northern and southern mountains. Again west for less than four hundred li one reaches Guazhou. Again entering the gravel desert southwest for more than three hundred li one reaches Shazhou. Again entering the gravel desert southwest for more than seven hundred li one reaches the former kingdom of Navapa, which is the land of Loulan, also named Shanshan. Again southwest for more than one thousand li one reaches the former kingdom of Carchan, which is the land of Qiemo. Again west for more than six hundred li one reaches the former kingdom of Dula. These are all desolate cities. Again west entering the Great Shifting Sands, one travels for more than four hundred li to reach the eastern border of the kingdom of Kustana (which is the kingdom of Yutian spoken of in the Han histories; it was the seat of the Protector General and held by the Han, nine thousand six hundred and seventy li east of Chang'an). Its pass is named the city of Niya; that land calls itself the kingdom of Yutun. It has a circumference of more than four thousand li. Sandy desert covers more than half of it. There are more than one hundred monasteries with over five thousand monks, who are students of the Mahāyāna. From the pass to the Bima River is more than two hundred li. There is the city of Bima, in which stands a sandalwood statue over two zhang in height. It possesses an abundance of divine wonders and luminous brilliance. Sick persons, according to where their pain is, apply gold leaf to the statue, and they are immediately cured. This statue was originally in the kingdom of Kauśāmbī, commissioned by King Udayana; it soared through the air to this kingdom. In the north, in the city of Hālāka, there was an extraordinary arhat who frequently went to pay homage to it. The king initially did not believe, and scattered sand and soil over the arhat. [The arhat] then announced to a devout believer, saying: "After seven days, sand and soil will fill the city." After two days it indeed rained jewels filling the streets; on the night of the seventh day it indeed rained soil burying the city, leaving virtually no survivors. The one who had been told beforehand had prepared an underground cavity and escaped through a hole, heading east toward Bima, and the statue arrived there as well. A prophecy states: "When the Dharma perishes, this statue will enter the dragon palace." That city of Hālāka is now a great mound; whenever the king wished to dig for treasures, he would inevitably encounter severe windstorms. Again, traveling three hundred and thirty li west from the city of Bima, one arrives at the royal capital of the kingdom. Ten li south is a great monastery founded by a former king. More than ten li southwest is a monastery with a standing lacquer statue that came from the kingdom of Kuča. Formerly an official from here had paid homage to it there; when the official returned to his home country, his distant remembrance never ceased. The statue then arrived by night, and he gave up his residence to become a monastery. More than three hundred li west of the capital city, in the city of Bogayi, there is a seated statue seven chi high, peerless in marks and signs. Its head wears a jeweled crown, and its light appears from time to time. One hundred and sixty li west of the capital city, in the middle of the road through the great gravel desert, there are only rat mounds. [The rats] are as large as hedgehogs, with fur of gold and silver color. Formerly when the Xiongnu came to invade, the king prayed to the spirit of the rats; during the night they gnawed at the men and horses and cut through the weapons, which broke, and [the invaders] naturally fled and retreated. About five li west of the capital city, in a monastery, there is a stupa more than one hundred chi high that frequently displays luminous signs. The king obtained several hundred grains of relics. An arhat lifted the stupa with his right hand, placed them inside a casket, and lowered it back without any tilting or swaying. More than ten li southwest of the capital city is Mount Gośṛṅga (here translated as "Ox Horn"). There is a monastery where an image emits light; the Buddha once roamed here to preach the Dharma for devas and humans, predicting that the kingdom would be founded and revere the study of the Mahāyāna. In a rock chamber on the mountain cliff there is an arhat who entered the cessation samādhi to await Maitreya Buddha; several hundred years ago the cliff collapsed and blocked the entrance. The southern border of this kingdom adjoins the Eastern Women's Kingdom. Traveling from the capital city west, crossing mountains and valleys for more than eight hundred li, one reaches:

1.26

The southern border of the kingdom of Cakkuka (that is, Juqu). This kingdom has a circumference of more than one thousand li. There are more than ten Buddhist monasteries and over one hundred monks, who study the Mahāyāna. To the south of the kingdom is a mountain on which stands a stone stupa. Pine trees and springs flourish, and the stone chambers are deep and pure. There are three arhats who are presently dwelling in the cessation samādhi; their beards and hair continuously grow, and monks regularly shave them. Monks from the Five Indias who have attained the fruits [of arhatship] often reside in these chambers. Again north for less than three hundred li one arrives at the capital city. It has a circumference of more than ten li, with hills connected in succession, overlooking and bordering two rivers. Again in the northwest of the kingdom, ascending the great sandy ridge and crossing the Śītā River, traveling for more than five hundred li, one reaches:

1.27

The kingdom of Khaṣa (that is, Shule). It has a circumference of more than five thousand li, with several hundred monasteries and tens of thousands of monks, who practice the Sarvāstivāda school of the Hīnayāna. The land has many stony deserts. By custom, when they bear children, they press their heads to make them flat. Traveling south from here through mountains, wilderness, and stony deserts for more than five hundred li, one reaches:

1.28

The kingdom of Wuṣa. It has a circumference of more than one thousand li, and the capital city has a circumference of more than ten li. To the south it overlooks the Śītā River. They have faith in the Buddha's Dharma. There are more than ten monasteries and fewer than one thousand monks, who practice the Hīnayāna teachings. More than two hundred li west of the city one reaches a great mountain; on its crest is a stupa. Several hundred years ago the mountain cliff collapsed of itself; inside was a monk sitting with closed eyes, his body extremely tall and large, his beard and hair hanging down to cover his shoulders and face. The king poured ghee over him and struck the gaṇḍī; the monk opened his eyes wide and asked, "My teacher was Kāśyapa; only now do I hear that he has entered nirvāṇa?" He also asked, "Has Śākyamuni Buddha appeared in the world?" Upon being told that he had already passed into extinction, he immediately rose into the air, transformed into fire, and incinerated his body. The land produces white amber, blue jade, and the like. Crossing the river from the capital city west and ascending the eastern ridge of the Congling (Pamir) Mountains, traveling for more than eight hundred li, one reaches a hospice. The land is nestled among four mountains, about one hundred qing square, without trees but with fine grass; the details are as explained elsewhere. Again southwest, crossing a great mountain ridge, one reaches:

1.29

The kingdom of Kabadha. It has a circumference of more than two thousand li, and the capital city has a circumference of more than fifty li. To the north it backs onto the Śītā River. They revere the Buddha's Dharma. There are more than ten monasteries and over five hundred monks, belonging to the Sarvāstivāda school of the Hīnayāna. In the southeast of this kingdom are two great stone chambers, in each of which an arhat has entered the cessation samādhi, having passed more than seven hundred years. Their beards and hair grow, and are shaved year by year. Again traveling northwest for more than three hundred li, one arrives at the royal capital. To the southeast it overlooks the Śītā River, and mountain ridges run in unbroken succession. Again west and slightly south, climbing the mountain through ice and snow for more than five hundred li, one reaches the Pamir Valley. It is more than one thousand li from east to west and more than one hundred li from north to south, or narrowing to less than ten li. It is situated between the great Snow Mountains to the north and south. The land is saline and stony, grass and trees are scarce, and completely devoid of human inhabitants. South of the valley across the mountains is the kingdom of Bolor. This valley lies atop the Great Congling; in the single continent of Jambudvīpa, this land is the highest. In its center is a great dragon lake, more than three hundred li from east to west and more than fifty li from north to south, where huge eggs are produced. Its waters flow west to the eastern border of the kingdom of Dharmasthiti, where they merge with the Vakṣu River; hence all waters west of this flow westward. An outflow emerges to the east, flowing northeast to the western border of the kingdom of Khaṣa, where it merges with the Śītā River; from here all waters flow eastward. Due south of the dragon lake corresponds to Lake Anavatapta; to the north it corresponds to the Valley of the Thousand Springs. The great ridge south of the lake is named Mount Varāhasaila, three to four hundred li from north to south; the mountain terrain is extremely high. North of the lake is the Great Congling. The Shui jing says: It is about one thousand-odd li high, sloping down on both sides. The vertical ridges running north to south are extremely numerous, more than one hundred chains. There are many mountain leeks (cong) and the precipitous cliffs are verdant green (congcui), hence it was named accordingly. The range adjoins the Great Snow Mountains to the south, and reaches the Thousand Springs to the north, spanning approximately two thousand five hundred li. To the east it reaches Wuṣa and to the west it extends to the kingdom of Huo, spanning more than three thousand li. Again from the valley southwest, entering mountain perils for more than seven hundred li, one reaches:

1.30

The kingdom of Śāmbī. It has a circumference of two thousand six hundred li. The land produces realgar. The people of the kingdom have faith in the Buddha. There are two monasteries, and monks are few. Crossing north over the great stone mountains of Dharmasthiti, one reaches:

1.31

The kingdom of Śikhnī. It has a circumference of more than two thousand li; mountains and gravel deserts stretch across the countryside. Again south, crossing mountains and rivers,

1.32

One reaches the kingdom of Dharmasthiti (also named the kingdom of Huokan, also named the kingdom of Humi), which is the former territory of Tokharestan. It lies between two mountains, being one thousand five hundred li from east to west, and less than one hundred li from north to south, or narrowing to no more than one li. To the east it overlooks the Vakṣu River. There are more than ten monasteries, and the number of monks is rather small. Above a stone image in a monastery within the city hangs a gilded bronze round canopy decorated with manifold jewels. When someone circumambulates [the image], the canopy also turns with them; when the person stops, it stops. Surrounded by stone walls on four sides, no one could fathom how it was so; some said the holy power caused it, while others claimed it was a secret mechanism. Again southwest, climbing mountains and entering valleys for more than five hundred li, one reaches:

1.33

The kingdom of Kuraṇa, which is also former territory [of Tokharestan]. It has a circumference of more than two thousand li; few have faith and reverence. Again northwest, crossing a ridge for more than three hundred li, one reaches:

1.34

The kingdom of Inbokan, which is also former territory. It has a circumference of more than one thousand li, and the capital city is more than ten li. Again northwest, traveling through mountain valleys for more than two hundred li, one reaches:

1.35

The kingdom of Badakṣāṇa, which is also former territory. It has a circumference of more than two thousand li. The capital city is on a mountain cliff, with a circumference of six or seven li. There are four monasteries, and monks are few. Traveling west through mountain valleys for more than two hundred li, one reaches:

1.36

The kingdom of Himatala, which is also former territory. It has a circumference of more than three thousand li, with mountains and rivers occupying half. There are several tens of fortified cities. Crossing mountain valleys west for more than three hundred li, one reaches:

1.37

The kingdom of Kṛṣma, which is also former territory. It is more than ten li from east to west and three hundred li from north to south. The capital city has a circumference of fifteen li. North, one reaches:

1.38

The kingdom of Parikha, which is also former territory. It is more than one hundred li wide and more than three hundred li from north to south. The capital city is more than twenty li. Again from the kingdom of Kṛṣma, crossing precipitous heights to the west and entering caves, passing through river valleys and cities for more than three hundred li, one reaches:

1.39

The kingdom of Andarab, which is also former territory. It has a circumference of more than four hundred li, and the capital city has a circumference of sixteen li. Crossing the river to the north, one reaches the kingdom of Ahina, which is also former territory. It has a circumference of more than three hundred li, bordering both banks of the Vakṣu River. The great city has a circumference of fifteen li. Crossing the river to the east, one reaches the kingdom of Roha, which is also former territory. To the north it overlooks the aforementioned river; it has a circumference of more than two hundred li. The great city has a circumference of fifteen li. Again traveling west from the kingdom of Andarab for more than one hundred li, one emerges from the western end of the Congling, and following the mountains downward reaches the kingdom of Huo, which is also former territory. It has a circumference of more than two thousand li, and the royal city has a circumference of more than twenty li. Its king is a Turk. The small kingdoms south of the Iron Gate mostly belong to the Turks. The land is peaceful and calm, and the common people mostly believe in the Buddha. There are more than ten monasteries and several hundred monks, who study both the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Going west, one reaches:

1.40

The kingdom of Baktra in four to five hundred li. Crossing mountain valleys and various cities to the southeast for more than three hundred li, one reaches:

1.41

The kingdom of Khost (Kuosiduo) is also ancient territory. The circuit of the kingdom is somewhat under one thousand li, and the capital city is more than ten li around. It has many mountains and narrow rivers, with extremely cold winds. There are three Buddhist monasteries, and their communities are few. Going southeast into the valleys, traversing mountain ranges, and passing several small cities for more than four hundred li, one reaches the kingdom of Andarāb (Andaluofu), which is also ancient territory. It is more than three thousand li in circuit. The royal city is fifteen li in circuit and is subject to the Turks. There are three monasteries with several tens of monks. There is one stūpa of King Aśoka. Mountain peaks are linked continuously, and it is extremely cold and severe. From here, going southwest, one climbs the Great Snowy Mountains. Arriving at the eastern end of the *Varasīla ridge (Poluoxiluo ling), after travelling for three days, one then reaches the highest summit. Overlooking the whole continent of Jambudvīpa, all the mountains drop away on the four sides. Following the ridge downwards, one also travels for three days through an extremely steep, twisting gorge, cutting through the ice to pass through. Going west, one passes through several tens of border towns and small settlements of the kingdom of Kapiśa (Jiabishi), and after another few hundred li southwest one finally reaches the royal capital. Going further west slightly to the south for one thousand three hundred li, crossing mountains and rivers, one reaches the kingdom of Vṛjisthāna (Fulizhisa tangna). It is more than two thousand li wide and more than one thousand li from north to south. The royal city is more than twenty li in circuit, and they have faith in the Buddhadharma. From here, going south for more than five hundred li, one reaches:

1.42

The kingdom of Jāguḍa (Zaoguzha, also called Zaoli). It is more than seven thousand li in circuit, and the royal city is more than thirty li in circuit. Mountains and rivers are equally divided. There are several hundred monasteries, with several tens of thousands of monks, all studying the Mahāyāna. There are ten stūpas of King Aśoka. Deva temples number several tens, and most [of the people] are reckoned as non-Buddhists. The soil is suitable for saffron (turmeric) aromatic grass, and produces *hiṅgu grass (asafoetida), which grows in Rāma. In the southern border of the Indian valley is Mount Śunāsīra (Zhuanaxiluo). More than two thousand li southeast of the royal city, one reaches the kingdom of Varna (Facilana) in western India. Only here does it meet the northern route, heading south toward the land of the Buddha.

1.43

As for those who enter India by the northern route: from the capital, traveling northwest for more than three thousand three hundred li, one reaches Guazhou. Going another three hundred li northwest, one reaches the mouth of the Moheyanci desert. Going another eight hundred li northwest out of the desert, one reaches Rouyuan County. Going another one hundred and sixty li southwest, one reaches Yizhou. Going another seven hundred li west, one reaches Puchang County. Going another hundred li west, one reaches Xizhou, which is the ancient territory of Gaochang, the seat of government of the Colonel of Yihe in Han times. Later, the Liang King of Juqu fled there to avoid trouble. It is now within the frontier passes. Going another seven hundred li west, one reaches:

1.44

The kingdom of Agni (Aqini, which is Yanqi / Wuqi). It is more than six hundred li from east to west and more than four hundred li from north to south. The capital city is six or seven li in circuit. Monasteries number more than ten, with more than two thousand monks, all studying the Hīnayāna Sarvāstivāda school. Their discipline and practice are meticulous and diligent, and they eat the three pure meats. From here through the Black Mountains, the Hu tribes diverge into distinct groups. They value wealth and despise righteousness, lacking propriety and respect; wives are honored while husbands are lowly, and freeborn and base are treated as one rank. White is worn for auspicious occasions and black for mourning. Going southwest for another two hundred li, crossing a small mountain and traversing two great rivers, one travels through a river valley for more than seven hundred li to reach the kingdom of Kucha (Quzhi, read ju-wu, which is Qiuci). It is more than one thousand li from east to west and six hundred li from north to south. The city is seventeen or eighteen li in circuit. Monasteries number more than one hundred, with more than five thousand monks, all studying the Hīnayāna Sarvāstivāda school. Eating the three pure meats as described above, the common people have great faith in the Buddha. Within the royal city and commoners' houses, so many images and stūpas are erected that they cannot be fully recorded. In a large city on the eastern border there is a deva temple. A dragon from its pond often comes forth, mating with mares to give birth to dragon steeds. At birth they are untamed; only their foals can be trained to harness. Therefore the kingdom has many excellent horses. A recent king named Jinhua ('Golden Flower') was moved by a dragon and rode it; when the king was about to die, he struck its ear with a whip, whereupon it vanished. It had illicit intercourse with a human woman and fathered a son who was courageous and fierce. The king conspired with the Turks to slaughter the people of this city, thus leaving it desolate and empty. More than forty li north of the city is the Eastern Zhaohuli Monastery. In its Buddha hall there is a jade stone two feet square, upon which is a footprint of the Buddha, one foot eight inches long and six inches wide. On fasting days it emits light. Outside the west gate of the royal city, on the left and right of the road, are standing Buddhas each over ninety feet tall; here they set up an arena for a quinquennial assembly. To the west is the Āścarya Monastery (Ashelini si), which means 'Wondrous' in the Tang language. In the past, the king went abroad on an excursion to pay homage to sacred traces. His younger maternal brother remained to guard the realm and castrated himself to prevent slanderous intrigues. The king marveled greatly at him. Later, the younger brother encountered a man castrating five hundred oxen and, moved with pity, redeemed them. By the power of this root of compassionate goodness, his male organ suddenly regrew, and so he would not re-enter the palace. The king marveled at this wonder and thus established the monastery. Going west through a small gravel desert for more than six hundred li, one reaches:

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