法苑珠林 2

English (machine translation) 2

Language: English

2.1

Compiled by the śramaṇa Shi Daoshi of Ximing Temple

2.2

Section Two: The Tridhātu (The tridhātu has two parts: first, clarifying the four continents; second, clarifying the heavens)

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Part One: Clarifying the Four Continents (This has ten sections)

Section on Expressing the Intent
Section on Assembling Names
Section on Earth Dimensions
Section on Mountain Dimensions
Section on Realm Dimensions
Section on Lands and Regions
Section on Bodily Dimensions
Section on Lifespan Dimensions
Section on Clothing Dimensions
Section on Relative Superiority and Inferiority

2.5

Now, the tridhātu is fixed in its positions, and the six destinies are differentiated. Coarse and subtle assume disparate appearances; suffering and joy trace diverging paths. When one examines their source and origin, they do not depart from form and mind; when one inspects their culmination, there is none that is not arising and ceasing. Arising and ceasing within saṃsāra—this is called impermanence. Form and mind like shadows and phantoms—this is termed the root of suffering. Therefore the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra likens it to a great river, and the Lotus Sūtra compares it to a burning house. Sages, attaining awakening, halt their carriages and return to the source, transcending the three realms of existence and gradually passing beyond the ten bhūmis. When we trace how worlds establish their substance, they are formed of the four great elements. Karmic harmony and conditions unite, coming into being in accordance with the times. When their numbers are full, calamities arise, and they return again to destruction. Those of so-called short lifespans regard them as long; those of long ones see them as short. Because empty space does not exist, its measure is boundless; because worlds are limitless, their shapes are not uniform. Thereupon a great thousand[-world system] is ruled by a Dharma King; a small thousand[-world system] is governed by a Brahmā king. Mount Sumeru is inhabited by Śakra; the Iron Ring serves as a encircling wall. The great ocean forms the inundation of the eight directions; the sun and moon serve as the torches of the four quarters. Swarming multitudes of beings find their home herein; petty sentient beings never ponder the mud and coals [of suffering]. If viewed while immersed in the mundane, these seem extravagant words of wild fabrication; but if examined through the Great Way, they are matter within the palm of one's hand. Yet the worldly venerate the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, submissively admiring the classics and books. But when defining and circumscribing the cosmos, their conjectures fall short of clarity. The Yijing speaks of the "dark heaven," merely taking the name from its obscurity and depth; Zhuangzi speaks of the "azure heaven," which is close to the colour seen when gazing into the distance. Thereupon the rustic takes brightness on trust and calls the sky azure like beryl; the Confucian scholar relies on the canon and calls the celestial vault black as lacquer. Azure and black are truly different, yet in being alienated from substance they are the same; Confucian and rustic differ, yet they do not know it is all one. Thus the worldly revere the name of "heaven" without knowing its reality; how could they know the ornate splendour of the six desire [heavens] or the radiant brilliance of the ten Brahmā [heavens]? Alas! If they do not even know the manifest facts of this realm, it is naturally no wonder that they do not contemplate the subtle principles. I reflect that while the broad and equal Mahāyāna scriptures speak much of deep emptiness, when tracing the Dīrghāgama and the Loutan jing which set forth and explain the cosmos, their text is vast and their verses extensive, so that they are difficult to examine and study quickly. Now I briefly extract the essentials to mark their general import.

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Section Two: Assembling Names

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According to the Dīrghāgama, the Qishi jing, and other texts: The centre of the earth of the four continents is Mount Sumeru. Beyond the mountain there are separately eight mountains, circling Mount Sumeru. The great ocean beneath it is eighty-four thousand yojanas deep. Bordering these eight mountains, the great ocean is initially eight thousand yojanas wide, and within it is water of eight virtues. (According to the *Nyāyānusāra*, it says: "First, sweet; second, cold; third, soft; fourth, light; fifth, pure; sixth, without foul odour; seventh, does not harm the throat when drunk; eighth, does not upset the stomach after drinking.") Gradually diminishing in this manner down to the foot of the seventh mountain, the water is one thousand two hundred and fifty yojanas wide. Beyond it, the salt ocean is boundlessly wide. Beyond the ocean there is a mountain, which is the Great Iron Ring Mountain, forming a surrounding wheel around the four quarters. Along with one sun and one moon revolving day and night, illuminating the four under-heavens, this is called one realm. Taking this as a unit and counting up to a full thousand encircled by iron [mountains], it is called one small-thousand [world system]. Reaching once more a thousand encircled by iron [mountains], it is called a medium-thousand world. Counting medium-thousands until again reaching a full thousand encircled by iron [mountains], it is called a great-thousand world. Within it, the four continents, the king of mountains, the sun, the moon, and up to the Peak of Existence each number ten thousand kotis (the older rendering of "a hundred kotis" was an error of calculation).

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When they form, they form together; when they disintegrate, they disintegrate together. All of this is the place governed by one transformation Buddha, called a three-thousand-great-thousand world, and designated the Sahā world. Its correct pronunciation according to the Sanskrit text is the Suohe world. According to the *Zishi sanmei jing*, it is called the Suohe world (in Chinese, the Realm of Endurance; because the people and things of this land are unyielding and hard to endure, it is given the name "Endurance"), and its Buddha is titled Able to be Benevolent [Śākyamuni]. Compacting the broad [varieties] under distinct headings, they are called the tridhātu: first, the kāmadhātu; second, the rūpadhātu; third, the ārūpyadhātu. As for the first, the kāmadhātu, desire is of four kinds: first, affective desire; second, desire for form; third, desire for food; fourth, sexual desire. The second, the rūpadhātu, has two: first, affective desire; second, desire for form. The ārūpyadhātu has one: affective desire. In the first, having the four desires fully, [desire] is strong and form is subtle; therefore it is called the kāmadhātu. In the second, the rūpadhātu, form is strong and desire is weak; therefore it is named the rūpadhātu. In the third, the ārūpyadhātu, form is cut off and desire is inferior; therefore it is named the ārūpyadhātu. (Further relying on the Avataṃsaka, in distinguishing the three-thousand-great-thousand world system, there are indeed many varieties; we need not recount them in full).

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Section Three: Earth Dimensions

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According to the Avataṃsaka-sūtra, the three-thousand-great-thousand world is formed through limitless causes and conditions. Thus the great earth rests upon a water disc; the water disc rests upon a wind disc; the wind disc rests upon a space disc; the space disc has nothing upon which it rests. Yet, through beings' karmic resonance, the world remains stably settled. Therefore the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra states that the three-thousand-great-thousand world systems all take the wind disc as their foundation. Furthermore, the newly translated Bodhisattvapiṭaka-sūtra says: "Because the Buddhas, the Tathāgatas, have perfected inconceivable knowledge, they are able to know the characteristics of all winds and rains. They know that in the world there is a great wind named *ulubaka*, and that all sensations beings experience are shaken and stirred by this wind. The measure of this wind disc is three krośas in height. In the empty space above this wind, another wind arises, named the cloud-wind disc. The measure of this wind disc is five krośas in height. In the empty space above this wind, another wind arises named the *jambaka*. The measure of this wind disc is ten yojanas in height. In the empty space above this wind, another wind arises named the *vaisvakha*. The measure of this wind disc is thirty yojanas in height. Furthermore, in the empty space above this wind, another wind arises named 'going and coming'. The measure of this wind disc is forty yojanas in height. In this manner, Śāriputra, the Tathāgata, the Arhat, the Samyaksambuddha, relying upon his great wisdom, completely knows the characteristics of sixty-eight thousand koṭis of wind discs resting in succession upon one another. Śāriputra, the uppermost wind disc is named 'Pervasive'. It is that upon which the water disc of the realm above rests. The height of that water is sixty-eight hundred thousand yojanas, serving as that upon which the great earth rests. The height of that earth is sixty-eight thousand yojanas. Śāriputra, this measure of the earth marks the presence of one three-thousand-great-thousand world." Furthermore, the Loutan jing says: "This earth is two thousand million li deep. Below it is golden grit, also two thousand million li [deep]. Below it is vajra, also two thousand million li [deep]. Below it is the water limit, eight thousand million li [deep]. Below it is the boundless great wind, fifty-two thousand million li deep." Although these are six layers, the first four are the earth disc, the fifth is the water disc, and the sixth is the wind disc. The Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra says: "This earth is one hundred sixty-eight thousand yojanas deep. Below it is golden sand; golden sand is precisely golden grit. Below it is the vajra ground." The commentary explains: "The former wind disc is solid and cannot be broken. If a person with the great strength of a *lakṣa* strikes it with a vajra pestle, the pestle shatters while the wind disc is unharmed." The great strength of a *lakṣa* is the Nārāyaṇa strength of the fourth Brahmā King; it is the strength of the Buddha's body, and it is also called the Nārāyaṇa wind disc. Above the wind disc, next is the water disc. As for the water disc, according to the Lokasthiti[-abhidharma-śāstra], it is one million one hundred and thirty thousand yojanas deep, being thirty-eight [hundred] thousand yojanas less than the wind disc. By the karmic power of beings, the water does not flow away and disperse, just as undigested food does not drop into the stomach cavity for digested food, or as when grain is stored in a granary, the internal and external structures hold it; the water disc is also like this. Externally it is held by the wind so that it does not disperse, just as in the world churning curds produces ghee. As the power of this wind rotates clockwise, this water turns into golden water, one million one hundred and thirty thousand yojanas deep. Since it rotates clockwise and becomes golden water, it is merely eight hundred thousand yojanas thick. The thirty-three myriad yojanas that are omitted all belong to the golden earth. Within the golden earth disc, moving from less to more, it should be twelve *lakṣas* thick. One *lakṣa* is one hundred thousand yojanas. This disc is equal in length and breadth.

2.11

Section Four: Mountain Dimensions

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Now, considering the trichiliocosm, the Buddha-Bhagavāns all manifest transformative appearances throughout it, manifesting birth and manifesting extinction to guide the noble and the ordinary. Taking a single set of four continents—that is, the place illuminated by a single sun and moon—Mount Sumeru is at the centre (in Tang [language] called Mount Miaogao; formerly called Mount Xumi; also called Moliu; also called Mount Milou; these are all corruptions or abbreviations). It is 3,360,000 li high and formed of four jewels: its eastern face is yellow gold, its southern face is lapis lazuli, its western face is white silver, and its northern face is crystal. It also reaches a depth of 3,360,000 li within the great ocean, resting upon the golden wheel. As stated in the Qishi jing: beneath Mount Sumeru there are eight ranges of mountains. The first mountain range is named Khadiraka. It is 42,000 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The distance between Mount Sumeru and Mount Khadiraka is 84,000 yojanas wide, its circumference measureless. Outside Mount Khadiraka there is a mountain range named Īṣādhara. It is 21,000 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The distance between the two mountain ranges is 42,000 yojanas wide, its circumference measureless. Outside Mount Īṣādhara there is a mountain range named Yugaṃdhara. It is 12,000 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The distance between the two mountain ranges is 21,000 yojanas wide, its circumference measureless. Outside Mount Yugaṃdhara there is a mountain range named Sudarśana. It is 6,000 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The two mountain ranges are separated by 12,000 yojanas, their circumference measureless. Outside Mount Sudarśana there is a mountain range named Aśvakarṇa. It is 3,000 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The distance between the two mountain ranges is 6,000 yojanas wide, its circumference measureless. Outside Mount Aśvakarṇa there is a mountain range named Nimindhara. It is 1,200 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The distance between the two mountain ranges is 2,400 yojanas wide, its circumference measureless. Outside Mount Nimindhara there is a mountain range named Vināyaka. It is 600 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The distance between the two mountain ranges is 1,200 yojanas wide, its circumference measureless. Outside Mount Vināyaka there is a mountain range named Cakra (in the language of Sui, "encircling wheel"; that is, the Iron Ring Mountains). It is 300 yojanas high, and its breadth at the top is also the same; it is formed of the seven jewels. The distance between the two mountain ranges is 600 yojanas wide, its circumference measureless. Between the above-listed mountain ranges, all is ocean water. In the waters there are utpala flowers, padma flowers, kumuda flowers, puṇḍarīka flowers, and the like, and various wondrous fragrant substances entirely cover the waters. Not far from Mount Cakra there is also open land, covered with green grass, which is the great ocean. To the north of the great ocean is the king of great trees, named the jambu tree. The circumference of its trunk is seventy yojanas; its roots penetrate twenty-one yojanas into the earth; it is a hundred yojanas high; and its branches and leaves hang down covering fifty yojanas in all four directions. The Dīrgha-āgama states: in the open land of that mountain there is a great ocean water named Ujjanā. Beneath this water is the path of the wheel-turning sage kings, twelve yojanas wide. Flanking both sides of the path are seven tiers of walls, seven tiers of railings, seven tiers of netting, and seven rows of trees, intricately adorned all around and formed of the seven jewels. When a wheel-turning king appears in the land of Jambudvīpa, the waters naturally recede and this path levelly emerges. Not far from the sea is a mountain named Mount Ujjāna. Not far from this mountain is a mountain named Golden Cliff. Past this mountain there is already a mountain named the Snow Mountains (Himavat), five hundred yojanas in length and breadth, and five hundred yojanas deep. In the midst of the Snow Mountains there is a jewel mountain twenty yojanas high. A peak of the Snow Mountains juts out a hundred yojanas high. On the summit of this mountain is Lake Anavatapta, fifty yojanas in length and breadth. Its water is clear, cold, transparent, pure, and free of defilement, laid and built with the seven jewels. The bottom of the lake is filled with golden sand. Its flowers are like carriage wheels and their roots like carriage hubs; the juice flowing from the roots of the flowers is white as milk and sweet as honey. To the east of the lake is the Gaṅgā River, flowing forth from a bull's mouth, and emptying into the eastern sea through five hundred rivers. To the south of the lake is the Sindhu River, flowing forth from a lion's mouth, and emptying into the southern sea through five hundred rivers. To the west of the lake is the Vakṣu River, flowing forth from a horse's mouth, and emptying into the western sea through five hundred rivers. To the north of the lake is the Sītā River, flowing forth from an elephant's mouth, and emptying into the northern sea through five hundred rivers. According to Dharma Master Xuanzang's Record of the Western Regions, the central region of Jambudvīpa is Lake Anavatapta (in Tang [language] called "Without Heat"; formerly called Lake Anouda, which is corrupt). It lies south of Fragrant Mountain (Gandhamādana) and north of the Great Snow Mountains, eight hundred li in circumference. Gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal adorn its shores. Golden sands spread wide and clear waves reflect brightly like mirrors. A bodhisattva of the tenth bhūmi, through the power of vows, transformed into a dragon king and secretly resides therein, issuing clear, cold waters that belong to Jambudvīpa. Therefore, from the silver bull's mouth on the eastern face of the lake flows forth the Gaṅgā River (formerly called the Heng River, or Hengjia, which are corrupt), which circles the lake once and enters the southeastern sea. From the golden elephant's mouth on the southern face of the lake flows forth the Sindhu River (the former term Xindu River being corrupt), which circles the lake once and enters the southwestern sea. From the lapis lazuli horse's mouth on the western face of the lake flows forth the Vakṣu River (the former term Boxa River being corrupt), which circles the lake once and enters the northwestern sea. From the crystal lion's mouth on the northern face of the lake flows forth the Sītā River (the former term Sida River being corrupt), which circles the lake once and enters the northeastern sea. Some say that it flows underground, emerging at Mount Jishi; that is, the flow of the Sītā River forms the source of the Yellow River in the Central Kingdom. When no wheel-turning king responds to the cosmic cycle, the land of Jambudvīpa has four lords: the southern Lord of Elephants, where the heat and warmth suit elephants; the western Lord of Jewels, which borders the sea and abounds in gems; the northern Lord of Horses, where cold and harshness suit horses; and the eastern Lord of Men, where harmony and mildness bring many people. Therefore, the people of the Lord of Elephants are fiery and eager, devoted to learning, and particularly skilled in unusual arts; the lands of the Lord of Jewels lack ritual and propriety, valuing wealth and commodities; the customs of the Lord of Horses are naturally fierce and violent, heartless and fond of slaughter; the lands of the Lord of Men have customs of quick intelligence, with benevolence and righteousness brightly manifest. Among the customs of the four lords, the east is held supreme: for their dwellings, their doors are opened to the east, and daily they face east to worship; in the lands of the Lord of Men, facing south is honoured. The customs of regions differ, but such are the broad outlines. As for the etiquette between lord and minister, superior and subordinate, and the ceremonial institutions and standard codes, the land of the Lord of Men cannot be surpassed. As for instructions on purifying the mind and releasing burdens, and the methods for transcending saṃsāra, the doctrines of the country of the Lord of Elephants are superior. All these matters are recorded in scriptures and treatises, heard among local customs, widely known across past and present, and thoroughly verified by what has been seen and heard. However, the Buddha arose in the western lands, and the Dharma flowed into the eastern country; through translators' phonetic corruptions, regional vernaculars became distorted. When the sounds are corrupt, the meanings are lost; when words are distorted, principles are violated. Hence it is said: 'Must names not indeed be rectified?' What is valued is freedom from error and contradiction. Furthermore, the Qishi jing says: in the palace of Anavatapta there is a five-pillared hall, where the dragon king Anavatapta constantly resides. The Buddha said: 'Why is it named Anavatapta? What is its meaning? All dragon kings in this Jambudvīpa have three afflictions, whereas only the dragon Anavatapta is free from these three afflictions. What are the three? First, all dragons are struck by hot winds and hot sand adhering to their bodies, burning their skin, flesh, and marrow, causing them suffering, whereas only the dragon Anavatapta is free from this affliction. Second, in the palaces of all dragons, evil winds violently arise, blowing through their palaces so that they lose their gem-adorned garments and their dragon bodies are exposed, causing them suffering, whereas only the dragon king Anavatapta is free from such affliction. Third, when the various dragon kings are each enjoying themselves in their palaces, great garuḍa birds enter the palaces to seize and carry them off, or when they first produce the expedient means desiring to take and eat the dragons, the dragons are terrified and constantly harbour burning distress, whereas only the dragon Anavatapta is free from such affliction. If the garuḍa bird-king produces a thought desiring to go there, he instantly dies. Therefore it is named Anavatapta.' Anavatapta means (in Qin language) 'Without Distress'. The Buddha told the bhikṣus: on the right side of the Snow Mountains there is a city named Kumbhīra. North of that city are seven Black Mountains. North of the Black Mountains is Fragrant Mountain. On that mountain there are constantly sounds of singing, dancing, acting, and music. The mountain has two caves: one is named Exhaustion, and the second is named Well-Exhausted. They are formed of the seven heavenly jewels, soft, fragrant, and pure, just like heavenly garments. The king of the Gandharvas, Wonderful Sound, along with five hundred gandharvas, resides within them. Furthermore, the Nyāyānusāra states: among the four continents, only Jambudvīpa has the diamond seat (vajrāsana). Above, it reaches to the limits of the earth; below, it rests on the golden wheel. All bodhisattvas in their final rebirth, when about to ascend to unsurpassed, complete enlightenment, all sit on this seat and produce the diamond-like samādhi (vajropamasamādhi), because neither the residue-less substratum, nor the residue-possessing substratum, nor any other firm power elsewhere can support this seat. Furthermore, the Dīrgha-āgama states: the Buddha told the bhikṣus: there are four great devas. What are the four? First, the earth deva; second, the water deva; third, the wind deva; fourth, the fire deva. These four great elements are mutually present in one another. Hence the earth deva gave rise to the wrong view, saying: 'There is no water, fire, or wind within earth.' At that time, knowing what this earth deva was thinking, I immediately went and spoke to him: 'Did you once give rise to the thought, saying that there is no water, fire, or wind within earth?' He said: 'There truly is no water, fire, or wind within earth.' I then told him: 'Do not produce this thought that there is no water, fire, or wind within earth. Why is this? There are water, fire, and wind within earth, but because the earth element is predominant, it receives the name of the earth element.' The Buddha told the bhikṣus: 'For that earth deva, I dispelled his wrong view, and through teaching, instructing, benefiting, and gladdening him, he obtained the purity of the Dharma eye. Within water there are earth, fire, and wind; within fire there are earth, water, and wind; within wind there are earth, water, and fire. It is merely because the initial element is predominant that it is designated accordingly.'

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Section 5: Dimensions of the Realms

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According to the Lokasthitābhidharma-śāstra: outside the Great Saline Ocean there is a mountain range named the Iron Ring. It enters the water by 312½ yojanas, projects out of the water by the same, and its width is likewise the same. Its circumference is 3,600,010,350 yojanas. Measuring from the southern extremity of Jambudvīpa to the Iron Ring Mountains is 300,060,663 yojanas. Measuring from the centre of Jambudvīpa to the centre of eastern Pūrvavideha is 300,060,600 yojanas. Measuring from the centre of Jambudvīpa to the centre of western Godānīya is 300,060,600 yojanas. Measuring from the northern extremity of Jambudvīpa to the northern extremity of northern Uttarakuru is 400,077,500 yojanas. Traversing from the water edge of the Iron Ring Mountains to the water edge of the westernmost Iron Ring Mountains across the distance is 1,200,002,825 yojanas. The circumference of the water edge of the Iron Ring Mountains is 3,600,008,475 yojanas. From the summit of this Mount Sumeru to the edge of the summit of that Mount Sumeru is 1,200,003,450 yojanas. From the centre of this Mount Sumeru to the centre of that Mount Sumeru is 1,200,083,450 yojanas. From the base of this Mount Sumeru to the base of that Mount Sumeru is 1,200,003,015 yojanas. Meanings such as these were spoken by the Buddha-Bhagavān (according to the Dīrgha-āgama: Jambudvīpa is 7,000 yojanas in length and breadth; western Godānīya is 8,000 yojanas in length and breadth; eastern Pūrvavideha is 9,000 yojanas in length and breadth; northern Uttarakuru is 10,000 yojanas in length and breadth).

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Section 6: Regions and Lands

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In examining the regional records, the differences among people are not the same, but in general there are two kinds: first, ordinary beings, and second, sages. If we speak in terms of regions, there are four kinds, namely the people of the four continents. If we speak in terms of dwelling places, within the four continents there are altogether four thousand and eight places, and thus there are four thousand and eight kinds of people. If we speak directly of just the single region of Jambudvīpa: as the Loutan jing says, there are thirty-six major kingdoms in all, and their peoples correspond; if discussed in further detail, there are two thousand five hundred small kingdoms, and their peoples correspond as well. Moreover, within each individual kingdom there are diverse ethnicities: Hu, Han, Qiang, Lu, Man, Yi, Chu, and Yue, each varying in complexion and category according to their region, such that they cannot be recounted in full. Therefore the Loutan jing says that in this southern Jambudvīpa, the different varieties make up a total of six thousand four hundred kinds of people; it merely indicates the grand total and does not distinguish their names individually.

The Dīrghāgama says that the Buddha told the bhikṣus: Outside this continent of four quarters, eight thousand continents encircle it. Furthermore, there is a great ocean water surrounding these eight thousand continents. Furthermore, there is a Great Diamond Mountain encircling the great ocean water. Outside the Diamond Mountain, there is a second Great Diamond Mountain. Between the two mountains, it is deep, dark, and gloomy; even the sun and moon divine beings have great spiritual majesty, yet they cannot illuminate with their light those eight great hells.

First, the northern continent of Uttarakuru. According to the Dīrghāgama, to the north of Mount Sumeru there is a continent called the land of Uttarakuru. Its territory is square, ten thousand yojanas in length and breadth. The faces of its people are also square, resembling the shape of their land. There is a great king of trees named Amra, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in the four directions. There are many mountains and bathing ponds, rich with flowers and fruits, and countless flocks of birds sing in harmony. From the ground grows soft grass that coils and turns clockwise, colored like peacock feathers, fragrant like the vārṣikā flower, and soft as celestial garments. That ground is soft and pliable; when one treads upon it with a foot, it sinks four inches, and when the foot is lifted, it returns as before. The ground is flat like the palm of a hand, with neither highs nor lows. On the four sides of that land are four Anavatapta ponds, each one hundred yojanas in length and breadth, lined with seven precious gems, from which flow four great rivers, ten yojanas in width, where flocks of birds sing in harmony. That land has no ditches, pits, thorns, or tree stumps, nor are there mosquitoes, gnats, or poisonous insects. The ground is purely made of various jewels; yin and yang are harmonious and gentle, the four seasonal energies are mild and compliant, and the hundred grasses flourish constantly without winter or summer. In that land there is always naturally grown husked rice that springs up without planting, devoid of bran or chaff, like a heap of white flowers, resembling the food of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven, complete with all flavors. In that land there are always natural cauldrons and pots. There is a mani jewel named Blazing Light; when placed beneath the pot, the rice is cooked and the light is extinguished, requiring no firewood and costing no human labour. In that land there is a tree called Bowing Down; its leaves are layered one upon another so that heavenly rain does not leak through, and those men and women lodge beneath it. There are also fragrant trees seventy li high, luxuriant with flowers and fruits; when the fruits ripen, their skins crack and burst on their own, naturally releasing fragrance. Some are sixty li or fifty li high, and the smaller ones are five li high. When the fruits ripen, their skins burst and naturally produce various garments, or produce various bodily adornments, or produce various utensils, or produce various foods. There are also precious-gem boats on the rivers for recreation. When the people of that region wish to enter and bathe or disport themselves, they take off their clothes on the bank, board the boats into midstream, and after their amusement is finished, cross the water, encounter clothes, and put them on: those who come out first put them on first, and those who come out later put them on later, not seeking their original clothes. Next they go to the fragrant trees, which bow down for them; the people take musical instruments in hand, tune the strings, and, harmonizing with the strings in wondrous tones, proceed toward the parks to disport themselves. In that land at midnight, the Nāga King Anavatapta frequently raises pure clouds at the proper times, which spread throughout the world and rain down sweet nectar; in the time it takes to milk a cow, the land is everywhere drenched with water of eight qualities. After midnight, it is pure without any haze, and the sky is clear and bright. A cool breeze rises from the ocean, gently blowing upon the bodies of the people, making their entire bodies blissful. That land is abundantly fruitful and its populace flourishes. When they require food and drink, they put the naturally grown husked rice into the cauldron and place the Blazing Light jewel underneath it; the rice is naturally cooked and the jewel's light naturally goes out. Whoever comes may eat to their heart's content; as long as the host does not rise, the rice is never exhausted; when the host rises, the rice is entirely consumed. That rice is fresh and clean like a heap of white flowers, its flavor is like heavenly food, and there are no illnesses; their vigor is sufficient, their complexions are cheerful and pleasing, and they suffer no decline. In that land the people's bodily appearance and complexions are uniform and indistinguishable, youthful and vigorous in appearance like people around twenty years of age in Jambudvīpa. Their teeth are even, straight, white, and without gaps; their hair is dark blue without dust or dirt; their hair hangs down eight finger-widths, stopping level with the eyebrows, neither long nor short. When a person of that land gives rise to desire, he gazes intently at a woman and walks away; that woman follows him to the grove. If that woman is that man's father's or mother's blood relative or cousin such that sexual intercourse should not be performed, the tree does not bend down its shade, and each disperses. If they are not related, the tree then bends down its shade, and they enjoy themselves as they wish for one day, two days, or up to seven days, and only then depart. (The Lokasthitābhidharma-śāstra states: 'The people of the northern continent do not seek women, do not welcome brides, and do not buy or sell. When a man wishes to take a woman, he looks intently at that woman; when a woman wishes to desire a man, she must also look intently at the man. If they do not look at each other, other women tell her: "This man is looking at you," and they become husband and wife. If a man does not look at a woman, other men tell him: "This woman is looking at you," and they also become husband and wife. If they see each other, they immediately follow one another and go together to another place. Among those with greater desire, in their entire life it occurs at most five times; those of middling sort, four or three times; there are also those who practice cultivation until death without desire. When those people become pregnant, they merely have an aversion to food.') When those people are pregnant, they give birth in seven or eight days. As soon as a boy or girl is born, they place the child at the head of a major crossroads and abandon it to go away. Travelers passing by put their fingers into the child's mouth, and sweet milk issues from the fingers to satisfy the child's body. After seven days have passed, the child grows up to be equal to those people; boys go to the company of men, and girls go to the company of women. When a person dies, they do not weep for one another; they adorn the corpse, place it at the crossroads, and abandon it to go away. There is a bird named Udvegañgā, which takes up the corpse and places it in another region. (According to the Lokasthiti-śāstra: 'The bird pecks at the corpse, carries it away beyond the mountains, and then eats it.') Moreover, when the people of that land defecate or urinate, the ground splits open for them, and once they have finished, the ground closes up on its own. The people of that land have no attachments or longings, nor do they hoard possessions; their lifespan is always fixed, and upon death all are born in heaven. Why is their lifespan always fixed? In past lives these people cultivated the ten wholesome deeds, and upon the breaking up of the body at death, they are born in Uttarakuru, with a lifespan of one thousand years, neither increasing nor decreasing; therefore their lifespan is strictly uniform. If there is a person who is able to give to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, as well as to the poor, beggars, the diseased, and the distressed, supplying them with food, drink, carriages, flower garlands, ointments, beds, couches, and dwellings, and who furthermore builds stūpas and temples and makes offerings with lamps and candles, that person upon death will be born in Uttarakuru, with a lifespan of one thousand years, neither increasing nor decreasing. That land does not deliberately adopt the ten wholesome deeds, yet their actions are naturally in accord with the ten wholesome deeds, and upon the breaking up of the body at death, they are born into the heavenly good destinies. Therefore the people there are said to be 'superior'; among the three continents, that land is the highest, hence in the language of Qin it is called 'Supreme' (Uttarakuru).

The Lokasthiti-śāstra states: 'The people of that land are all pure white and adorned by others; their beards and hair are bluish-black, constantly as though shaved with a cūḍā; every five days their hair naturally grows crosswise by seven finger-widths, neither increasing nor decreasing.' The Nyāyānusāra states: 'The northern continent of Uttarakuru is shaped like a square seat; its four sides are equal in measure, each side being two thousand [yojanas]. Having stated that the directions of its boundary are each two thousand, its meaning is already fully set forth. On its borders are two intermediate continents: first, Kurava; second, Kaurava. Both of these continents have people dwelling in them.'

Second, the eastern continent of Pūrvavideha. According to the Dīrghāgama, to the east of Mount Sumeru there is a continent named Videha. Its land is perfectly round, nine thousand yojanas in length and breadth. The faces of its people resemble the shape of its land. There is a great king of trees named Kadamba, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in the four directions. The Zaotiandi jing says: The people and goods of the eastern region are superior to those of Jambudvīpa; in that land they use raw silk and thin silk to trade with one another. According to the Dīrghāgama, the lifespan of the people of that land is two hundred years, with few exceeding it and many falling short. (The Loutan jing says: 'Human lifespan is three hundred years.') They eat fish and meat. (The Lokasthiti-śāstra states: 'They do not kill living beings themselves, nor do they cause others to kill; if an animal dies naturally, they eat its meat.') They trade with one another using grain, silk, pearls, and gems. People have marriage rituals of marrying and taking wives. (The Lokasthiti-śāstra states: 'Among the people of Pūrvavideha, those with greater desire engage in it up to seven times in a lifetime; those of middling sort, five or six times; there are also those who practice cultivation until death without desire. The people of the eastern and western continents merely lack black complexions; in other respects they are like Jambudvīpa, their bodies having various complexions. As for bodily adornment, their hair is cut in front and falls behind; they wear two garments, upper and lower, putting on the lower garment first and merely wrapping the upper garment around the body.') According to the Nyāyānusāra-śāstra: 'The eastern continent of Pūrvavideha is narrow in the east and broad in the west, with three sides equal in measure, shaped like a half-moon. The east is three hundred and fifty [yojanas], and the other three sides are each two thousand. The eastern border of this eastern continent is broad like the southern boundary of the southern continent; hence the east is like a half-moon. Bordering this continent are two intermediate continents: first, Deha; second, Videha. Both of these continents have people dwelling in them.'

Third, Godānīya. According to the Dīrghāgama, to the west of Mount Sumeru the continent is named Godānīya. The shape of its land is like a full moon, eight thousand yojanas in length and breadth. The faces of its people resemble the shape of its land. There is a great king of trees named Kindi, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in the four directions. (The Qishi jing says: 'Beneath that tree there is a stone cow, one yojana high; on account of this circumstance it is named Godānīya, which is translated here as "Cattle Market".') The human lifespan is three hundred years; they trade with one another using cattle, horses, pearls, and jade. Its people and goods are also superior to those of Jambudvīpa. The Lokasthiti-śāstra states: 'The people of that land either kill living beings themselves or cause others to kill, and when an animal dies they eat the meat, the same as the people of Jambudvīpa. When relatives die, they escort the funeral into the mountains and burn the corpse to discard it, or place it in the water, or bury it in the earth, or lay it out in an open space. The eastern and western continents are largely the same as Jambudvīpa, and their marriage rituals are also the same. Those with greater desire engage in it up to twelve times in a lifetime; those of middling sort, up to ten times; there are also those who practice cultivation until death without desire. In their adornment they all let their hair hang down, and wear garments above and below.' According to the Nyāyānusāra-śāstra: 'The western continent of Aparagodānīya is round like a full moon, two thousand five hundred [yojanas] in diameter and seven thousand and a half in circumference. Bordering this continent are two intermediate continents: first, Śāṭhā; second, Uttaramantriṇa. Both have people dwelling in them.'

Fourth, Jambudvīpa. According to the Dīrghāgama, to the south of Mount Sumeru there is a continent named Jambudvīpa. Its land is narrow in the south and broad in the north, seven thousand yojanas in length and breadth. The faces of its people resemble the shape of this land. There is a great king of trees named Jambu, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in the four directions. (The Qishi jing says: 'Beneath this tree is a heap of Jāmbūnada gold, twenty yojanas high; because this superior gold comes from beneath this tree, it is called Jambu tree gold.') Furthermore, there is the tree of the king of Garuḍas, named Kūṭaśālmali, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in the four directions. The Asura King has a tree named Shan-jin, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in the four directions. The Trāyastriṃśa heaven has a tree named Pārijāta, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in the four directions. For the people of Jambudvīpa, human lifespan is one hundred years, with many dying prematurely. At the first decade they have no understanding; at twenty they understand a little, but are not yet clever; at thirty their lustful intentions are abundant; at forty their conduct lacks restraint; at fifty they do not forget what they have learned; at sixty they are stingy and attached; at seventy their bodily nature becomes sluggish; at eighty they have no vanity or ornament; at ninety they suffer from illness and pain; at one hundred years their faculties are decayed and exhausted, having passed through three hundred winters, summers, and springs, and thirty-six thousand meals, which some do not even complete.

The Lokasthitābhidharma-śāstra states: 'The clothing and adornments of the people of Jambudvīpa are diverse and not uniform. Some have long hair divided into two topknots; some shave their hair and beards; some keep a single tuft of hair on the crown and shave the rest, called cūḍā hair; some pluck out their hair and beards; some trim their hair and trim their beards; some braid their hair; some let their hair hang down; some trim the front and let it hang behind to make it round; some go naked; some wear clothing covering the upper body and exposing the lower; or exposing the upper and covering the lower; or covering both upper and lower; or merely shielding the front and back. The foods eaten by the people of this continent are of many kinds and cannot be recounted in full. Their marriages and commerce can be known from present realities. Yet the śāstra states: "The sexual desires of the people of Jambudvīpa throughout their lives are countless and boundless, unlike the people of the other three continents who have little desire; yet there are also those who practice cultivation until death without desire."' According to the Nyāyānusāra-śāstra: 'The southern continent of Jambudvīpa has border continents: one named Cāmara continent, and the second named Varacāmara continent. In both of these two continents, there are people dwelling.'

2.17

Section 7: Bodily Dimensions

2.18

According to the *Lokasthiti-sūtra*, when the lifespan of the people of Jambudvīpa decreases to ten years, their bodies become short and small, measuring either two spans (diṣṭi) or three spans in height; relative to their own body, it is eight spans. The *Abhidharma-śāstra* states that when the people of Jambudvīpa reach a lifespan of one hundred years, their body height is three and a half cubits (hasta), or four cubits (the *Dīrghāgama-sūtra* states three cubits; where there are discrepancies, these are general estimations). The people of Pūrvavideha are eight cubits tall. The people of Aparagodānīya are sixteen cubits tall. The people of Uttarakuru are thirty-two cubits tall.

2.19

Section 8: Lifespan

2.20

As stated in the *Abhidharma*, the lifespan of the people of Jambudvīpa is indeterminate and has three grades: the superior lifespan is one hundred and twenty-five years, the intermediate lifespan is one hundred years, and the inferior lifespan is sixty years; those who die prematurely in between are innumerable. Furthermore, these grades are described according to the decreasing phase of the kalpa; if based on the beginning of the kalpa, their lifespan is immeasurable, or up to eighty-four thousand [years]. According to the *Dīrghāgama-sūtra*, the people of Jambudvīpa have a lifespan of one hundred and twenty years, and many die prematurely. The people of eastern Pūrvavideha have a lifespan of two hundred years (the *Loutan jing* states that their lifespan is three hundred years). The people of western Aparagodānīya have a lifespan of three hundred years. The people of northern Uttarakuru have a lifespan of one thousand years (the people of the other three directions all have premature death; only the people of the northern continent have a fixed lifespan of one thousand years).

2.21

Section 9: Clothing Dimensions

2.22

According to the *Lokasthiti-sūtra*, the people of Jambudvīpa have a body height of three and a half cubits, and their clothes are seven cubits long and three and a half cubits wide. The people of Godānīya and Pūrvavideha have bodily and clothing measurements equal to those of Jambudvīpa. The people of Uttarakuru have a body height of seven cubits, and their clothes are fourteen cubits long, with the upper and lower portions being seven cubits [wide]. Asuras have a body height of one yojana, and their clothes are two yojanas long and one yojana wide, weighing half a kārṣāpaṇa (in Sui terminology: half a liang. Other sūtras state that the size of asuras is variable; for example, the asura Vipracitti is four times the height of Mount Sumeru).

2.23

Section 10: Superiority and Inferiority

2.24

The *Dīrghāgama-sūtra* states that the Buddha addressed the monks: 'The people of Jambudvīpa surpass the people of Godānīya in three things. What are the three? First, they are courageous, of strong memory, and able to perform karmic actions. Second, they are courageous, of strong memory, and diligently practice the holy life (brahmacarya). Third, they are courageous, of strong memory, and Buddhas appear in their land. The people of Godānīya surpass the people of Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, they have many cattle. Second, they have many sheep. Third, they have many pearls and jewels. Jambudvīpa surpasses Pūrvavideha in three things. What are the three? First, they are courageous, of strong memory, and able to perform karmic actions. Second, they are courageous, of strong memory, and able to practice the holy life. Third, they are courageous, of strong memory, and Buddhas appear in their land. Pūrvavideha surpasses Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, its land is extremely extensive. Second, its land is extremely vast. Third, its land is extremely wondrous. Jambudvīpa surpasses Uttarakuru in three things. What are the three? First, they are courageous, of strong memory, and able to perform karmic actions. Second, they are courageous, of strong memory, and able to practice the holy life. Third, they are courageous, of strong memory, and Buddhas appear in their land. Uttarakuru also surpasses Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, they have no attachments or bonds. Second, they have no sense of "mine" (mamatā). Third, their lifespan is fixed at one thousand years. The people of Jambudvīpa also surpass the destiny of hungry ghosts in the above three things. The destiny of hungry ghosts surpasses Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, long lifespan. Second, large bodies. Third, experiencing [retribution] for what others have done. The people of Jambudvīpa also surpass garuḍas in the above three things. Garuḍas also surpass Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, long lifespan. Second, large bodies. Third, palaces. Jambudvīpa surpasses asuras in the above three things. Asuras also surpass Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, lofty and broad palaces. Second, adorned palaces. Third, pure palaces. The people of Jambudvīpa surpass the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings in the above three things; [that heaven] also surpasses Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, long lifespan. Second, handsome appearance. Third, abundant pleasure. The people of Jambudvīpa also surpass the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, Yāma Heaven, Tuṣita Heaven, Nirmāṇarati Heaven, and Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven in the above three things. These heavens also surpass Jambudvīpa in three things. What are the three? First, long lifespan. Second, handsome appearance. Third, abundant pleasure.'

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法苑珠林 — 道世, Classical Chinese