法苑珠林 6
English (machine translation) 6
- Language
- English
6.1
Compiled by the Śramaṇa Shi Daoshi of Ximing Temple
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Section 4: The Six Destinies, Part 2: Section on Ghosts and Spirits (this has eleven separate divisions)
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Division on Stating the Intent
Division on Harmonising Names
Division on Abodes
Division on Listing Categories
Division on Karmic Causes
Division on Bodily Measures
Division on Lifespan
Division on Comeliness and Ugliness
Division on Suffering and Pleasure
Division on Nobility and Meanness
Division on Dwellings
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Division on Stating the Intent, Part 1
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Now, discussing the nature of ghosts and spirits, they are particularly fond of the bizarre and demonic; in their dark obscurity, transgressions and evils are especially abundant. Some dwell in secluded crags, or temporarily abide on high mounds, within deep ravines and thick groves, or amidst desolate wilds and overgrown fields. With strange kinds of voices and peculiar appearances, they agitate common consciousness and terrify foolish sentiments. Assuming majesty and radiance, they falsely create monstrous forms: either bird-shaped, fish-bodied, human-faced with beastly hearts; or drumming music with stringed songs, beating mallets and ringing bells. All such kinds as these make confession. As for the shrines and temples of the Nine Provinces and the spirits of the myriad states—Taibo of Gusu, Jizi of Yanling, Wenming of the rivers of Yu, Xuzhu of the cave-marshes, the Water God Ruo and mountain spirits, the Wind Master and Rain Count, Fenglong and Lieque, Huilu and Linghou—whether mounting bamboo as dragons or making flying ducks substitute for wild geese, their forms rely on high shrines, their bodies adhere to multistoried pavilions; sending rain back and forth, dividing the wind above and below; reaching to the Yellow-Headed Great Generals, needle-haired ghosts and spirits, Śūlī, Lekhna, Bandha, rākṣasas, their three thousand retinues and five hundred partisans—for all of them, confession is made. Furthermore, there are those with the heaviest obstructions, named hungry ghosts: their eyes gleam like lightning, their gullets are narrow like needles; they do not hear the name of water or broth, and are forever cut off from the taste of non-glutinous grain. Fire bursts out from their joints at once, and their movements sound like five hundred carts. May today's wholesome roots all shower upon them; let us vow that hungry and thirsty ghosts will find food and drink naturally, that demonic and seductive ghosts and spirits will no longer be flattering and deceitful, that they will glorify the Buddha-Dharma and protect the worldly realm, guarding images and defending sūtras, constantly extending offerings, recording goodness and noting evil, forever receiving spiritual cultivation.
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Division on Harmonising Names, Part 2
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Question: Why is it called the "ghost destiny" (pretagati)? As the *Lokasthitābhidharma-śāstra* says: "The ghost destiny is called *śānta*, because King Yamarāja's name is *Śānta*. Those born there belong to the same category as the king, and are therefore called *śānta*." It also states: "This destiny has reciprocal traffic with others, where good and evil communicate; hence it is called *śānta*." Furthermore, the *New Mahāvibhāṣā* asks: "Why is that realm called *preta*?" Answer: "The *Prajñapti-śāstra* says: Just as the king of the ghost world at the present time is named Yama, so at the beginning of the kalpa there was a ghost world whose king was named Pitṛ. Therefore, all sentient beings who go and are born there are called *preta*, which means 'belonging to the realm of Pitṛ'. From that time on, this name was established for them all." Some say: "Because they perform, accumulate, and increase evil bodily, verbal, and mental actions born of intense stinginess and greed, they go and are born there, thus experiencing the karma of hunger and thirst. For hundreds of thousands of years they never even hear the name of water, so how could they manage to see it, much less touch it? Some have bellies as large as mountains and throats like needle-holes; though they encounter food and drink, they cannot ingest it." Some say: "They are called *gui* (ghosts) because they are driven and enslaved (*quyi*), constantly driven and put to work everywhere by the devas, always running about." They are also called *gui* because they "entertain hopes" (*xiwang*), meaning that among the five destinies, there are none who entertain more hopes from other sentient beings than these; due to this condition, many belong to the ghost realm. Furthermore, regarding ghosts and spirits (*guishen*): in the *Mahāvibhāṣā*, a *gui* is "fear" (*wei*), meaning that being timid and weak, they have much fear; hence they are named *gui*. Alternatively, they are named *gui* from "hoping and seeking" (*xiqiu*), meaning that these hungry ghosts constantly hope and seek for food and drink from others in order to sustain their lives; hence they are called "those who hope and seek".
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Section 3: Abodes
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As the *Mahāvibhāṣā* says, hungry ghosts have two [types of] abodes: first, the primary; second, the peripheral. As for the first, the primary abode, the accounts vary. That treatise says: "Five hundred yojanas beneath this Jambudvīpa there is the hungry ghost realm, governed by King Yama; that is their primary place." The *Upāsaka-śīla Sūtra* also shares this account: "Five hundred yojanas below there is the city of the ghost king Yama, seventy-five thousand yojanas on all four sides. The king governs the assembly of ghosts and dwells within it." Furthermore, as the *Sūtra on the Sufferings of the Five Destinies* says: "These hungry ghosts primarily dwell between the two Iron Ring Mountains (Cakravāḍa)." Thus a verse says:
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Between the two Iron Ring Mountains,
They do not see the light of the sun or moon.
Hungry ghosts gather therein,
To repay their past sins.
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As for the second, the peripheral abodes: as the *Mahāvibhāṣā* says, they are also variable, having two kinds: first, those with majesty and virtue; second, those without majesty and virtue. Those with majesty and virtue live in mountain valleys, or in mid-air, or on the seashore; all possess palaces and their retribution surpasses that of humans. Those without majesty and virtue may dwell dependent on impure filth and dung, or take lodging in grasses, trees, and tombs, or dwell in hidden latrines and derelict sites; none possess houses, and their retribution is inferior to that of humans. Furthermore, as the treatise says, ghosts dwell throughout all four continents. In the eastern and western directions, there are ghosts both with and without majesty and virtue. In the northern direction, there are only ghosts with majesty and virtue, and none without majesty and virtue, because their retribution is superior like this. Up to the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, there are also ghosts and spirits of majesty and virtue dwelling there, answering to the bidding of those devas; from above that, in the higher heavens, there are no more abodes [for them]. Therefore, the newly translated *Mahāvibhāṣā* also says: "Among the assemblies of the Four Great Heavenly Kings and in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, there are only ghosts of great majesty and virtue, who serve with the assemblies of devas as gatekeepers, patrol guards, guides, attendants, and servants." Some say: "To the west of this Jambudvīpa there are five hundred islets arranged in two rows. (According to the old *Mahāvibhāṣā*, to the west of Jambudvīpa there are five hundred ghost cities, and among these five hundred there are naturally two distinctions.) Among the two rows of islets there are five hundred cities: two hundred and fifty cities have ghosts with majesty and virtue dwelling in them, and two hundred and fifty cities have ghosts without majesty and virtue dwelling in them. For this reason, in the past there was a wheel-turning king (cakravartin) named Nimi who said to his charioteer Mātali: 'I wish to go touring; you should guide the chariot along this road, so that I may see sentient beings receiving the fruits of good and evil.' Then Mātali followed the king's instruction and guided the chariot between the two rows of islets. At that time, the king saw those ghosts with majesty and virtue, with flower garlands on their heads, celestial garments on their bodies, eating sweet and delicious food just like sons of devas, riding on elephants, horses, and carriages, each sporting and amusing themselves. He saw the ghosts without majesty and virtue, with dishevelled hair, naked without clothing, of withered and emaciated complexion, covering themselves with their hair, holding earthenware vessels and going about begging. Having seen this, he deeply believed in the karmic fruits of good and evil." Question: "What are the shapes of those in the ghost destiny?" Answer: "The majority are like humans, but there are also animal-like forms; some have faces like pigs, or like various other vicious birds and beasts, just like the painted figures on walls today." Question: "What is their language?" Answer: "When the kalpa first formed, all spoke the sacred tongue (Āryan speech). Later, according to place, they spoke various languages. Some say: depending on where they die and are born here, they take that form and make that speech." The critique says: "One should not speak thus. If someone dies in the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu) and comes to be born in this destiny, could they be without form and without speech? One should say: corresponding to the place where they are born, their speech and form are likewise."
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Section 4: Enumeration of Categories
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According to the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra*, the general count of hungry ghosts comprises thirty-six types; their causal practices are unequal, and the retributions they receive are distinct.
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1. Cauldron-water ghosts (because they took wages from others to take life, they suffer boiling in cauldrons; or because they were entrusted with deposits by others and refused to return them, they thus receive this retribution).
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2. Needle-mouthed stinking ghosts (because they hired others with wealth to carry out killings, their throats are like needle-points, not admitting a drop of water).
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3. Vomit-eating ghosts (the husband urged the wife to give, but the wife begrudged it and said she had none, hoarding wealth out of stinginess; hence she constantly eats vomit).
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4. Excrement-eating ghosts (because a wife deceived her husband and secretly ate food herself, detesting her husband; hence she constantly eats vomit and dung).
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5. Fire-eating ghosts (because they withheld rations from others causing them to starve to death; hence they suffer the pain of burning by fire, wailing, and hunger and thirst).
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6. Odour-eating ghosts (they ate much fine food and gave none to their wives and children, constantly leaving them afflicted by hunger and thirst; hence they only get to smell odours).
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7. Dharma-eating ghosts (for the sake of material profit, they preached the Dharma to people; their bodies are constantly hungry and thirsty with flesh melted away, yet by receiving the Saṃgha's preaching of the Dharma, their lives are preserved).
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8. Water-eating ghosts (because they sold liquor watered down like water to delude foolish people, not upholding the precepts of fasting; hence they constantly suffer from parching thirst).
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9. Hopeful ghosts (because they haggled over prices in trade and deceitfully took goods; hence they constantly suffer from hunger and thirst, and only get food when ancestors are offered sacrifices).
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10. Spittle-eating ghosts (because they deceived renunciants with impure food; their bodies are constantly hungry and thirsty, ever being boiled and burned, seeking human spittle and also eating impurities).
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11. Garland-eating ghosts (because in a previous life they stole the Buddha's flower garlands to adorn themselves; if people encounter difficulties and offer garlands in sacrificial reward, they thereby obtain garlands to eat).
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12. Blood-eating ghosts (because they slaughtered living beings and ate blood, not giving any to wife or children; receiving this ghost body, only when smeared blood is offered in sacrifice do they get to eat it).
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20. Flesh-eating ghosts (because they weighed the flesh of sentient beings slice by slice and committed fraud in buying and selling; receiving this retribution, they are full of deceit, ugly, and detested by people, and only get to eat when mixed meat is offered in sacrifice).
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14. Incense-eating ghosts (because they sold poor-quality incense and took high prices; they only eat incense smoke, and later receive the retribution of destitution).
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15. Fast-moving ghosts (if someone broke the precepts while wearing the robes of the Dharma, took wealth by deceit claiming it was for the sick, but in the end did not give it and instead consumed it themselves; receiving this retribution, they constantly eat filth and burn their own bodies).
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16. Opportunity-seeking ghosts (because they acquired wealth by scheming and deceit without cultivating meritorious deeds; receiving this retribution, fire bursts from the hair on their bodies, and they sustain their lives by feeding on human vital energy and impurities).
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17. Darkness ghosts (because they twisted the law to seek wealth and threw people into prison, where eyes could see nothing and cries were constantly bitter; hence they dwell in dark places full of vicious snakes, suffering pains like being cut by knives).
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18. Mighty ghosts (because they stole goods and gave them to evil companions rather than to fields of merit; receiving this retribution, they have great strength and supernatural powers, yet suffer many afflictions).
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19. Blazing ghosts (because they sacked cities, plundered, and killed common people; receiving this retribution, they weep and howl while fire burns over their whole bodies; when later born as humans, they are constantly robbed).
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20. Infant-stalking ghosts (because they killed infants in great fury; receiving this retribution, they constantly stalk human opportunities and can harm infants).
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21. Lust-form ghosts (because they were fond of lust and obtained wealth thereby without giving to fields of merit; receiving this retribution, they roam the human realm to copulate with humans, falsely acting as apparitions to seek their livelihood).
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22. Ocean-islet ghosts (because they travelled in wildernesses and, seeing sick and suffering people, cheated and took their wealth; born on ocean islets, they suffer cold and heat ten times worse than humans).
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23. King Yama's staff-bearing ghosts (because in a past life they were close to kings and ministers and specialized in carrying out violent evil; receiving this retribution, they become the king's servants as staff-bearing ghosts).
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24. Child-eating ghosts (because they cast spells to deceive and take people's wealth, slaughtering pigs and sheep; dying, they fell into hell, and later received this retribution, constantly eating young children).
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25. Human-vitality-eating ghosts (because they falsely claimed to be friends, saying, 'I will protect you,' causing others in their bravery to perish on the battlefield, while never actually rescuing them; hence they receive this retribution).
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26. Rākṣasa ghosts (because they killed living beings to hold grand feasts; hence they receive this retribution of being burned by the fire of hunger).
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27. Fire-burnt food ghosts (because stinginess and jealousy clouded their minds, and they liked to consume the Saṃgha's food; they first fell into hell, and on emerging from hell, they became ghosts whose bodies are burned by fiery furnaces).
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28. Impure-alleyway ghosts (because they gave impure food to those of pure conduct (brahmacāryas); falling into this retribution, they constantly eat filth).
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29. Wind-eating ghosts (because seeing renunciants come begging, they promised food but did not give it; receiving this retribution, they constantly suffer hunger and thirst like the pains of hell).
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30. Charcoal-eating ghosts (because they oversaw penal prisons and forbade food and drink [to inmates]; receiving this retribution, they constantly eat burning coals).
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31. Poison-eating ghosts (because they took people's lives with poisoned food; falling into hell, they later emerged as ghosts, constantly starved and ever eating poisonous fire that burns their bodies).
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32. Wilderness ghosts (because when lakes and pools were built in the wilderness and given to others, they maliciously breached and destroyed them to make travellers suffer thirst; hence they receive this retribution, constantly suffering hunger and thirst, with fire burning their bodies).
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33. Cemetery ash-and-earth-eating ghosts (because they stole the Buddha's flowers and sold them to sustain their own lives; hence they receive this retribution, constantly eating dead people and hot ashes where corpses are cremated).
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34. Tree-dwelling ghosts (because seeing people plant trees to give shade to others, they maliciously chopped them down and took the lumber for their own use; hence falling among trees, they are constantly beset by cold and heat).
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35. Crossroads ghosts (because they stole provisions from travellers on the road; due to their evil karma, their bodies are constantly cut by iron saws, and they take food from sacrifices at crossroads to sustain their lives).
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36. Māra-body ghosts (because they practiced heterodox paths and did not believe in the orthodox and true; falling into the state of māra-ghosts, they destroy people's wholesome dharmas).
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According to the *Nyāyānusāra*, there are three kinds of ghosts: those without wealth, those with little wealth, and those with much wealth. Those without wealth also have three kinds: torch-mouths, needle-mouths, and foul-mouths. The torch-mouth ghost: this ghost constantly spews fierce, blazing flames from its mouth without cessation, its body shaped like a scorched tāla tree. This is the painful retribution brought about by extreme stinginess. The needle-mouth ghost: this ghost's belly is as vast as a mountain valley, while its mouth is like the eye of a needle. Although it sees all sorts of superior, exquisite food and drink, it cannot partake of them, and its hunger and thirst are unbearable. The foul-mouth ghost: from this ghost's mouth there constantly issues an exceedingly vile, putrid stench, surpassing the boiling filth at a privy door. Its own foul air constantly chokes it, making it retch empty-bellied. Even if it encounters food and drink, it cannot receive them; vexed by hunger and thirst, it wails madly and rushes about in frenzy. Those with little wealth also have three kinds: needle-haired, foul-haired, and goitered. The needle-haired ghost: this ghost's body hairs are hard and sharp as saws, so that no one can approach it; inwardly they pierce its own body, and outwardly they shoot into the bodies of others; like a deer struck by a poisoned arrow, it runs in terrified madness. Only when it occasionally encounters impurities can it slightly alleviate its hunger and thirst. The foul-haired ghost: this ghost's body hairs are exceedingly foul-smelling, and their constant filth rots its flesh and bones; steaming its bowels and belly, it rushes up its throat into vomiting, causing unbearable torment; scratching its body and plucking its hair tears its skin, aggravating its severe suffering. Only when it occasionally encounters impurities can it slightly alleviate its hunger and thirst. As for the goitered ghost: due to the power of evil karma, a large goiter grows at this ghost's throat, like a massive carbuncle or abscess, hot, dry, and bitterly aching; they slash each other, foul pus surges forth, and they scramble to consume it to slightly stave off hunger. Those with much wealth also have three kinds: those hoping for offerings, those hoping for leavings, and those of great power. The ghost hoping for offerings: this ghost constantly goes to sacrificial rituals to receive others' oblations. The natural law of its realm of birth allows it at times to traverse distant quarters, roaming back and forth through the sky without hindrance like a bird. Because of its prior resolve, it formed such a wish: 'When I die, my sons and grandsons will surely sacrifice provisions, food, and drink to me.' By the power of this resolve, it was born among these ghosts; relying on its past wholesome causes, it receives these offerings. Or, perhaps in a past life it loved its relatives and acquaintances and wished to make them all fully endowed with provisions; accumulating precious wealth through improper means, stingy in mind, it was unable to practice dāna. Riding on this evil karma, it was born among these ghosts, dwelling beside its former home in latrines and the like. When its relatives, remembering it, invite śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas or give alms to the destitute and solitary to accumulate blessings, that ghost sees this and conceives the thought that its relatives and wealth are its own; furthermore, seeing clearly the retribution of its stinginess manifest before it, it produces pure faith in the field of offering. Continuously generating karma associated with renunciation, this becomes karma to be experienced in the present life; riding on this power, it obtains abundant provisions. The ghost hoping for leavings: this ghost constantly desires to collect others' discards, vomit, leftover excrement, and the like to serve as its food, and also obtains an abundance. Because of the fault of stinginess in its past lives, wherever there is food and drink it sees filth or emptiness; wishing for the pure, it sees the impure. Yet due to its present merit, it each obtains an abundance as appropriate. Food, drink, and provisions are natural to its realm of birth; that what is received varies cannot be deduced merely from the arrival of offerings. This is just as in the hells, where the maturation-born form [of the body] knits back together after being severed, which does not happen in other realms; or as in the human realm, where there are superior mindfulness, wisdom, the cultivation of the brahma-practice, and so forth, which do not exist in other realms; or as among the devas, where all implements appear according to one's desires. Such matters are natural to their realms of birth, and one cannot demand a fixed measure in them. The ghost of great power: this is largely the same as what was stated above from the *Mahāvibhāṣā*. Furthermore, the *Yogācārabhūmi* states: There are three kinds in the ghost realm. The first are ghosts with external obstacles: these sentient beings, having practiced supreme stinginess, are born in the ghost realm, constantly coupled with hunger and thirst. Their skin and flesh are withered like charcoal, their hair disheveled, their lips parched. Constantly licking their mouths and faces with their tongues, agitated by hunger and thirst, they run in all directions. Whenever they reach springs and pools, sentient beings holding knives and staves guard them so they cannot even look; or the waters turn into pus and blood, which they do not wish to drink. These are called ghosts with external obstacles. The second are ghosts with internal obstacles: these sentient beings have mouths like needles or torches, and their bellies are vast. Even if they obtain food and drink, they themselves cannot eat them. These are called ghosts with internal obstacles. There are also hungry ghosts named Fierce-Flame Garlands: whatever they drink or eat is completely consumed by fire. By this cause, they suffer great pain from hunger and thirst. These are called ghosts without obstacles. Now, good is named for benefiting beings and brings about joyful retribution; evil harms others and brings the fruit of ruination. But doing good is like climbing a mountain—in principle it is hard to ascend; doing evil is like a collapse and fall—in truth it is easy to perform. Hence, the heavenly palaces are spacious and broad, yet few are the tracks of those who arrive; the hells are a snare and a cage, yet people vie to rush into them.
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Section 5: Karmic Causes
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As the *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra* says, there are three grades of evil; committing merely the lower grade of evil leads to rebirth in the hungry ghost realm. According to the *Daśabhūmika-śāstra*, it is also stated thus: among the ten evil deeds, whichever one commits, each leads first to rebirth in the three bad destinies, and afterwards to a human body. If one relies on the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra*, if one gives rise to greed, jealousy, false sycophancy, flattery, deviousness, and deceiving others, or if one is stingy and greedy, hoarding wealth without giving, one is in all cases born into the ghost path. When one dies from the ghost [state], one is mostly born into the animal realm, receiving the body of a cātaka bird, constantly hungry and thirsty, suffering great distress; it drinks only rain from the sky by raising its mouth to catch it, and cannot drink any other water. For this reason, it is constantly beset by hunger and thirst. According to the *Karma-vibhaṅga-sūtra*, fully committing ten deeds leads to rebirth among hungry ghosts: 1. Bodily action of slight evil; 2. Verbal action of evil; 3. Mental action of slight evil; 4. Stinginess and excessive greed; 5. Giving rise to wrongful evil; 6. Flattery, deviousness, and jealousy; 7. Giving rise to wrong views; 8. Dying while passionately attached to the requisites of life; 9. Dying of starvation; 10. Dying of dehydration. Due to these deeds, one is born among hungry ghosts.
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Furthermore, the *Fenbie gongde lun* states: There were śramaṇas practicing various meditations, some in charnel grounds, some beneath trees. Once, when one was in a charnel ground observing dead bodies, at night he saw a hungry ghost beating a dead body. The śramaṇa asked, 'Why do you beat this dead body?' It answered, 'This body brought me to such misery as this, and that is why I beat it.' The man of the Way said, 'Why do you not beat your own mind instead of beating this dead body? What benefit can there be in doing so?' In a short while, a deva came and scattered heavenly māndārava flowers over this foul corpse. The śramaṇa asked, 'Why do you scatter flowers over this foul corpse?' It answered, 'Because of this body of mine, I attained rebirth in heaven. This corpse is my good friend, and so I have come to scatter flowers to repay its past kindness.' The man of the Way replied, 'Why do you not scatter flowers in your own mind, rather than over a foul corpse? The root of both good and evil is entirely created by the mind; why forsake the root to seek the branches?'
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Section 6: Bodily Size
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As the *Wudao jing* says, the bodily size of hungry ghosts at its largest is one yojana in length. The head is like a great mountain; the inside of the throat is like a needle; the hair is disheveled; the form is emaciated and lean; and they walk leaning on sticks. Those of this sort are extremely numerous. The smallest are like a sensible young child, or, as some say, three inches. The bodily sizes in between are fully expounded according to the sūtras and cannot be completely recorded.
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Section 7: Lifespan
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As the *Guanfo sanmei jing* says, among the hungry ghosts, those with the longest lifespan live for 84,000 years, while shorter spans are indefinite. According to the *Tattvasiddhi-śāstra*, the longest lifespan is 70,000 years, while shorter spans are also indefinite. If one relies on the *Upāsaka[-śīla]-sūtra*, the longest lifespan is 15,000 years, where 5,000 years among humans equals one day and one night among hungry ghosts; with days and nights like this, the ghosts' lifespan is 15,000 years (calculating by the days, months, and years of the human realm, this corresponds to 27,000,000 years). If one relies on the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra*, there are ghosts whose lifespan is 500 years, where ten years among humans equals one day and one night for the hungry ghosts; with days and nights like this, their lifespan is 500 years (calculating by the days, months, and years of the human realm, this corresponds to 1,800,000 years).
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Section 8: Comeliness and Ugliness
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As the *Mahāvibhāṣā* says: Among ghosts, the comely ones are those of mighty virtue; their appearance is upright and handsome, no different from the devas. Furthermore, all the spirits of the Five Sacred Peaks, the Four Great Rivers, mountains, and seas are mostly handsome and upright, and are termed 'comely'. The second are the ugly ones, which refers to ghosts without mighty virtue; their appearance is wretched and vile beyond full description: their bodies are like the carcass of a starved dog, their hair like wild tangled tumbleweed, their throats like tiny needles, their legs like rotten withered wood, their mouths constantly drooling saliva, their noses constantly running with snot, pus growing inside their ears, and blood flowing from their eyes. All such as these are called 'greatly ugly'.
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Section 9: Suffering and Joy
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As the *Mahāvibhāṣā* says: Among ghosts, the suffering ones are those ghosts without mighty virtue; constantly hungry and thirsty, for successive years they do not even hear the name of broth or water—how could they ever encounter sweet delicacies? Even if they come upon a great river and wish to drink, it immediately turns into torches of fire; even if it enters their mouths, their bellies immediately rot and scorch. Are not those of this kind truly suffering? The second, those among ghosts who experience joy, are those among the ghosts of mighty virtue who are wealthy and well-supplied, their food and clothing coming naturally; they wear heavenly garments on their bodies and eat heavenly offerings with their mouths; their demeanor is constantly leisurely and unrestrained; riding briskly on mounts, they play and roam as they please—how do they differ from devas? Are not those of this kind truly joyful? Question: 'Since they have such joy, they would be superior to humans. Why then do the sūtras say that humans and ghosts belong to distinct realms?' Answer: 'When the sūtras say that ghosts and spirits are inferior to the human realm, two points are briefly stated: First, the retribution they receive is not as public and prominent as that of humans; because those ghosts and spirits hide by day and roam by night, they are inferior to humans. Second, in cowardice and great fear they are inferior to humans; although they possess mighty virtue, because their karmic retribution is inferior, they constantly fear humans; even if they encounter humans day or night, they always avoid the road and hide themselves secretly.' Question: 'Since they are inferior to humans, how do they obtain retribution of mighty virtue equal to devas?' Answer: 'Because in a previous life they practiced dāna on a grand scale, they attained this retribution of mighty virtue; but because in a previous life they were flattering, crooked, and dishonest, they received this ghost path.'
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Section 10: Nobility and Baseness
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As the *Mahāvibhāṣā* says: Those with mighty virtue are called noble; those without mighty virtue are called base. Furthermore, those who are ghost kings are called noble; those who are driven and enslaved are called base. What about poverty and wealth? Answer: Those with mighty virtue have an abundance of food and clothing, and servants at their command; these are called wealthy. Those whose bodies are constantly driven and harassed, always subjected to forced labor, who never hear of even coarse food, and for whom ragged clothes are hard to come by—those of this sort are called poor.
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Section 11: Dwellings
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As the *Mahāvibhāṣā* says: Those with mighty virtue have palaces and residences adorned with the seven treasures; all the spirits of mountains and rivers have dwellings upon which they rely to abide. Those without mighty virtue, like drifting and wandering ghosts, a starving and thirsty horde, have no residences at all; they temporarily lodge at graves and tombs, or briefly halt in thickets and groves, with grasses, trees, and rock caverns serving as their dwellings.
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Therefore, the Zhuangyan lun (Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā) states: The Buddha said, “Long ago, I heard that there was the son of a great caravan leader named Koṭīkarṇa. He went to sea to gather jewels, and having obtained them, he was returning. He slept apart from his companions, lost track of them, and became panicked. Pressed by hunger and thirst, he saw a city in the distance and thought there would be water there. He went to the edge of the city, wishing to seek water to drink. But this city was a city of hungry ghosts (preta). Arriving in the city, at the crossroads where crowds gather, it was empty and he saw nothing. Pressed by hunger and thirst, he cried out, pressed by hunger and thirst. He again saw a city, thought there would be water, and went to the edge of the city wishing to seek water to drink. But this city was a city of hungry ghosts. Arriving in that city, at the crossroads where crowds gather, it was empty and he saw nothing. Pressed by hunger and thirst, he cried out, ‘Water! Water!’ The hungry ghosts heard the sound of ‘water’ and all gathered like clouds, [thinking,] ‘Who is this compassionate one who wishes to give us water?’ The bodies of these hungry ghosts were like charred pillars, wrapped in their own hair. They all came with palms joined and spoke thus: ‘We beg of you, give us water!’ Koṭīkarṇa said to them: ‘I am pressed by thirst, and that is why I have come seeking water.’ At that time, when the hungry ghosts heard that Koṭīkarṇa was himself pressed by thirst and seeking water, their hopes were completely extinguished. Each sighed deeply and spoke thus: ‘Do you not know? This is a city of hungry ghosts. Why do you seek water here?’ They then spoke a verse:
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‘We dwell in this city / for hundreds of thousands of myriad years,
Yet we have not even heard the name of water, / how much less obtained any to drink!
Just like a forest of tāla trees / blazing and burned by fire,
We too are like this: / all our limbs are ablaze with fire.
Our hair is completely disheveled, / our bodies are broken and ruined.
Day and night we think of food and drink, / panicked, we run in the ten directions.
Pressed hard by hunger and thirst, / with open mouths we rush about seeking.
There is someone who follows holding a club, / pursuing and severely beating us;
Beaten, we cannot draw near. / We suffer this sorrow and distress.
How could we obtain water / to bestow with wisdom upon others?
In our previous lives, / we were stingy, greedy, and extremely jealous;
We never once gave to a single person / syrup, water, food, or drink.
Our own possessions we did not give to others, / and we restrained others so they would not give.
Due to such heavy karma, / we now suffer this torment.’
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Resonance and retribution stories (briefly citing six accounts):
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Sima Wenxuan of the Song;
Wang Hu of the Song;
Li Dan of the Song;
Sui Renqian of the Tang;
Ghostly monsters in the mountains of Linchuan;
Miscellaneous accounts of ghosts and deities among the worldly.
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Sima Wenxuan of the Song was a native of Henai. He had considerable faith in the Dharma. In the ninth year of the Yuanjia reign era (432), his mother passed away and his younger brother died. On the morning of the full moon, he suddenly saw his younger brother whose bodily form upon the spirit seat was no different from ordinary days. Pacing about, sighing, he subtly begged for food and drink. Wen[xuan] tested him by asking: “During your life you practiced the ten virtues. According to what the scriptures say, you should have been born in heaven; or if in the human realm, why then were you born among these ghosts?” Groaning and moving restlessly, he remained silent without replying. That very night, Wenxuan dreamed of his younger brother, who said: “Because of the good deeds I practiced in life, I received retribution and was born in heaven. The ghost at the spirit bed this morning was only a demon ringleader; it was not my body. Fearing that my elder brother would suspect and wonder, I came to inform you.” The next morning, Wenxuan invited monks to chant the Śūraṅgama-sūtra and ordered people to strike and seize it. The ghost then fled under the bed and ran outside the door. Its form grew gradually hideous and foul, and the whole family was terrified; they reviled and berated it to drive it away. The ghost said: “I am just hungry and begging for food.” After several days it departed. Shortly after, at the head of the mother's spirit bed there was a ghost whose skin was red and whose body was very tall and stout. Wenxuan’s eldest son, Xiaozu, spoke back and forth with it, and its replies were thorough. Although they were frightened at first, they gradually grew accustomed to it. The ghost also became familiar with them, coming and going in the dwelling almost like a family member. At that time, word spread through the capital, and visitors who came to watch crowded the streets and alleys. At that time there was a monk of Nanlin Temple, and a śramaṇa named Seng Han of Lingwei Temple; their conversation with the ghost was also very intimate. The ghost said: “In a past life, I was once noble and eminent, but because I committed many evils, before my retribution was exhausted, I resulted in this ghost body. In the past yin year, there were four hundred tribes of ghosts causing widespread pestilence. Those who should meet with calamity do not disturb practitioners of the Way; but those who transgressed recklessly were exceedingly numerous, falsely claiming merits and good deeds. Therefore, they sent me to inspect them.” The monk gave it food. The ghost said: “I have my own provisions and cannot consume this food.” Han said: “Ghosts often know past births. Whence did I come, and from what cause did I become a practitioner of the Way?” It replied: “You came from among humans; the cause and conditions of leaving household life were your original vows.” When asked about the destinations in life and death of various living and deceased persons, it answered them all in general; the verifications were complete and the details manifold, so they are not recorded in detail. Han said: “The realms of humans and ghosts are different. Since you do not seek food, why do you linger so long?” The ghost said: “Here there is a woman who should be arrested, but she observes the precepts with diligent purity, so it is difficult to take her. Lingering here day after day is for this reason. I feel no small shame for disturbing the master of the house.” From then on, it rarely showed its form; later visitors only heard its voice. This was in the tenth year of the Yuanjia reign era (433). On the twenty-eighth day of the third month, it said to Wenxuan: “I came temporarily to lodge, but your family has exhausted its resources in cultivating merit, and you fear me like this; how could I linger long?” Xiaozu said: “We allow you to lodge, but why did you occupy the spirit seat of our family’s deceased ancestor?” It replied: “The deceased of your family each have their respective places; this seat was set up in vain, so I merely lodged temporarily.” Thereupon it took its leave and departed.
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Wang Hu of the Song was a native of Chang'an. His uncle had been dead for several years. In the twenty-third year of the Yuanjia reign era (446), his uncle suddenly manifested his form, returned home, and reprimanded Hu because his cultivation of prudence was lacking and household affairs were not managed. He punished Hu with five strokes of a cane. Bystanders and neighbors all heard his words and the sound of the cane, and they also saw the marks of the cane, but did not see his form; only Hu could personally interact with him. The uncle said to Hu: “I was not supposed to die; the spirit realm needed me to calculate the registers of the ghosts. Now I am followed by a great host of clerks and soldiers, and fearing they would frighten and harm the village, I did not bring them in.” Hu also saw a large host of ghosts in noisy turmoil as if outside the village. In a moment, the uncle took his leave, saying: “Next year on the seventh day of the seventh month, I shall return again for a while. I wish to take you to travel through the unseen paths to make you know the retribution of sin and merit. You need not make lavish preparations; if you cannot refrain, tea alone will suffice.” When that time arrived, he indeed returned. He said to Hu's family: “I am now taking Hu on an excursion; when it is over, I will send him back, so do not worry.” Hu immediately collapsed onto the bed, lifeless as if dead. The uncle then took Hu to tour all the mountains, witnessing all manner of ghosts and monsters. Before reaching Mount Songgao, various ghosts hosted Hu, all providing banquets. The flavor of the offered food was no different from the worldly realm, except that the ginger was extremely crisp and delicious. Hu wanted to put some in his bosom to bring back, but those around him laughed at Hu and said: “You can only eat it here; you cannot take it back.” Finally, Hu saw a place where the halls were magnificent and spacious, and the curtains and mats were exquisite and tidy. Two young monks resided there. Hu visited them, and the two monks set out assorted fruits, betel nuts, and the like for him. Hu traveled for a long time, fully witnessing the retributions of sin and merit, suffering and joy, and then took his leave to return. The uncle said to Hu: “Since you already know that good deeds can be practiced, why should you remain at home? The White-Footed Hermit (Araṇyaka) is of pure and lofty precept conduct; you may take him as a teacher.” A Chang'an practitioner of the Way had white feet, so people of the time called him the White-Footed Hermit. He was greatly respected by the Wei caitiffs, whose ruler served him as a teacher. After Hu served this hermit, in his temple he unexpectedly saw the young monks from Mount Song studying among the assembly. Hu was greatly astonished, recounted their parting, and asked when they had arrived. The two monks replied: “We have always lived in this temple; we do not recall having known you in the past.” Hu recounted their encounter on Mount Songgao again. The monks said: “You are mistaken; how could such a thing have happened?” The next day, the two monks departed without cause. Hu then told the śramaṇas in detail, recounting what he had seen on Mount Songgao previously. The assembly was all astonished and bewildered, and immediately searched for the two monks, but did not know where they were. They then realized they were divine beings. At the end of the Yuanjia reign era, there was a Chang'an monk, Shi Tanshuan, who traveled south of the Yangtze River and related this in full.
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Li Dan of the Song, styled Shize, was a native of Guangling. For his filial piety, prudence, and unadorned simplicity, he was renowned in his village. On the fourteenth day of the first month in the third year of the Yuanjia reign era (426), he died suddenly. His chest remained warm, and after seven days he revived. They fed him with gruel, and overnight he returned to normal. He said that a person holding an official pennant arrived at his bedside, declaring: “The Magistrate summons you.” Dan then followed him, going straight north. The road was very level and clean. Upon arriving at city walls and gates as lofty and grand as contemporary palaces, a message-bearer was sent to console and summon him. Dan stepped forward. In a great hall, he saw thirty people in unlined robes and green headscarves seated in solemn rows. One person sat facing east, wearing a gown and leaning on a table, with about a hundred attendants to his left and right. Looking at Dan, he said to the seated people: “We should show him the various hells so that the world may know of them.” After Dan heard these words, he raised his head and looked around in the four directions; the previous place was completely gone, and he was inside hell. He saw crowds of sinners receiving various painful retributions, groaning and wailing piteously beyond endurance. Soon a message-bearer said: “The Magistrate trusts that you may return; we will summon you again later.” Because of this, he returned. In the first month of the sixth year (429), he died again, and after seven days revived once more. He recounted what he had seen, roughly similar to before. Some prisoners sent messages through him to inform their families, saying that they had committed crimes in life and asked them to cultivate merits on their behalf, gradually detailing their names, relatives, and villages. Dan searched according to their words and found them all. He also said: “In the jiashen year, pestilence will spread and kill all evil people. If disciples of the Buddhist house observe the eight purificatory precepts (aṣṭāṅga-samanvāgatopavāsa), cultivating the mind and acting with goodness, they can be spared.” Dan originally served as a libationer (jijiu) of the Daoists and wished to renounce his original register and teachings, but the Daoist people admonished and restrained him, so he practiced both traditions, while constantly exhorting people to observe the eight purificatory precepts.
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Zheng Xianzhi of Xingyang, Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs under the Song, accompanied the imperial cortege on an inspection of the capital in the fourth year of the Yuanjia reign era (427). On the evening of arriving in the capital, he died suddenly. Then a spirit spoke through a possessed person, saying: “My lifespan had long been exhausted and I should have passed away early on. Relying on my reverent faith in the Buddha-Dharma, releasing living creatures, and practicing generosity over recent years, by these merits my life was extended by several years. The retribution of the unseen and manifest realms is like shadow and echo; one should cast aside worldly affairs and revere the Great Teaching.” At that time, many of the eminent and noble heard of this. (The above three verifications are from the Mingbao ji.)
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Sui Renqian of the Tang was a native of Handan in Zhaojun. In his youth he studied the classics and did not believe in ghosts and spirits. Constantly wishing to test whether they existed or not, he studied under those who could see ghosts for more than ten years, but could not manage to see any. Later he moved his household to the county seat. On the road he saw a person like a celestial official, whose cap and garments were very resplendent; he was riding a fine horse and accompanied by more than fifty mounted attendants. He looked at Renqian without speaking. Later he saw him frequently, and it was always like this. After ten years they had seen each other dozens of times. Later, [the official] suddenly halted his horse, called to Renqian, and said, "Having seen you frequently of late, affection and admiration have arisen in my heart; I wish to associate and travel with you." Qian then bowed to him and asked, "What kind of person are you, sir?" He replied, "I am only a ghost. My surname is Cheng and my given name is Jing. Originally from Hongnong, during the Western Jin I served as an aide-de-camp (biejia). Now I serve as chief clerk (zhangshi) of the Hu Kingdom." Renqian asked where his kingdom was and what the king's surname and given name were. He replied, "North of the Yellow River is collectively called the Linhu Kingdom. Its state capital is northwest of Loufan, which is the gravel desert. Its king is none other than the former King Wuling of Zhao. Now he governs this kingdom, and all [of it] is controlled and governed by Mount Tai. Every month he sends a prime minister to pay court at Mount Tai, which is why I frequently come past here and meet with you. I can indeed be of benefit to you: I can cause you to know misfortunes and disasters beforehand, so that by avoiding them in advance you may escape accidental harms. Only the decrees of life and death, and retributions of great misfortune or fortune, cannot be altered." Renqian agreed to this. Jing then ordered an attendant horseman of his, Chang Zhangshi, to be given to him as a gift, dispatching him to accompany Qian wherever he went; whenever anything happened, he was to inform him in advance. "If there is anything you do not know, come and tell me." Thereupon they parted. Chang [Zhang]shi constantly followed him like an attendant. Whenever [Qian] needed to ask something, there was nothing he did not know beforehand. At the beginning of the Daye era, Ling Cen Zhiqiang was the magistrate of Handan. His son Wenben was not yet twenty years of age. Zhiqiang invited Sui Renqian to his home to teach Wenben calligraphy and books. Qian told Wenben about this matter and further said to him, "Chief Clerk Cheng told me: 'There is one matter I am ashamed to mention to you, but since I am in fellowship with you, I cannot keep it from you either. In the path of ghosts and spirits there is also food, but one cannot get full and is constantly afflicted with hunger. If one obtains human food, one can be full for a year. Many ghosts steal human food; since I am of noble status, I cannot steal it. I would ask you for a meal.'" After Qian told Wenben, Wenben prepared a banquet for him, setting out delicacies of all kinds. Qian said, "Ghosts do not wish to enter human houses. You may pitch a tent and set up mats outside by the water, laying out the wine and food upon them." Wenben did as he said. When the time came, Renqian saw Jing and two guests arrive and take their seats, followed by more than a hundred horsemen. After they were seated, Wenben bowed twice toward the mats and apologized for the plainness of the food; [Qian] also conveyed Jing's words of gratitude. Earlier, when Wenben was about to set out the food, Renqian had requested gold and silk to present to him. Wenben asked what kind of goods they were. Qian said, "The goods used by ghosts are all different from those of humans. Only yellow gold and plain silk can be used in common, yet they are not as good as artificial ones: coating large pieces of tin with yellow to make gold, and using paper for plain silk, are considered the most precious and superior." Wenben made them as instructed. When Jing finished eating, he ordered his attendant horsemen to take turns sitting and eating. Wenben presented the fabricated gold money and silk to him. Jing was deeply pleased, thanked him, and said, "Through Mr. Sui, I have troubled the young gentleman for this provision. Would the young gentleman at all like to know his lifespan?" Wenben declined, saying, "I do not wish to know it." Jing laughed and departed. Several years later, Renqian fell ill; he was not critically incapacitated, yet he could not get up. After more than a month, Qian relied on Chang Zhangshi [to inquire], but Zhangshi did not know. He then asked the chief clerk. The chief clerk reported back, "It is not known within the kingdom. Next month, on the occasion of paying court at Mount Tai, I will ask for news and report back to you." In the following month, the chief clerk came and reported, "It is your fellow townsman, a certain Zhao, who serves as registrar (zhubu) of Mount Tai. One registrar post was vacant, and he recommended you for this office; therefore, he has drafted official documents to summon you. When the case is finalized, you must die." Qian asked, pleading, to have the case dismissed. Jing said, "Your lifespan should be more than sixty years, and you are now only forty. It is merely that Registrar Zhao has improperly drafted a summons for you. I will plead for you." [Jing] then said, "Registrar Zhao sends his regards: 'Brother Sui, formerly we were fellow students and our affectionate feelings were profound. Now, fortunately, I have become the registrar of Mount Tai. Just as an official post fell vacant, the prefect is now selecting a person. I have already petitioned his honor, and he has permitted your appointment. Since you, elder brother, cannot attain long life, you are destined to die. When you die, if you miss this opportune encounter, you will not necessarily obtain an office. Why begrudge ten or twenty years to prolong life in vain? Now the documents have already been issued and can no longer be stopped. I hope you will firmly resolve to come and have no doubts.'" Qian was filled with worry and fear, and his illness grew more severe. Jing advised Qian, saying, "Registrar Zhao is determined to bring you there. You may go yourself to Mount Tai and present a petition to the prefectural lord; then you can be spared." Qian asked, "How can I see the prefectural lord?" Jing said, "Those who are ghosts can see him. Go to the Mount Tai Temple, cross a small ridge to the east onto flat ground, and that is his capital seat. If you go, you will naturally see him." Qian told Wenben, and Wenben prepared traveling provisions for him. A few days later, Jing told Qian again, "The document is about to be finalized. I fear you will not escape even if you petition. Quickly make an image of the Buddha, and that document will naturally dissolve." Qian told Wenben, who used three thousand cash to paint a seated image on the west wall of a monastery, and recorded it. Then Jing came and announced, "You are spared!" In his heart Qian did not believe in the Buddha and still doubted this. He therefore asked Jing, "The Buddhist Dharma says that there are karmic causes and effects across the three periods of time. Is this false or true?" He replied, "All are true." Qian said, "If so, when humans die they should be allocated into the six paths. How could they all become ghosts, and why are King Wuling of Zhao and you still ghosts now?" Jing said, "How many households are there in your county?" Qian said, "More than ten thousand households." He further asked, "How many prisoners are in the jail?" Qian said, "Constantly twenty or fewer." He further asked, "Among the ten thousand households, how many fifth-rank officials are there?" Qian said, "None." He further asked, "How many officials of the ninth rank and above are there?" Qian said, "Several dozen." Jing said, "The principle of the six paths is apportioned in just this way. Those who attain the celestial path are not one in ten thousand, just as in your county there is not a single fifth-rank official. Those who attain the human path are several people in ten thousand, just as there are several dozen ninth-rank officials in your county. Those who enter hell are also several dozen in ten thousand, like the prisoners in your jail. Only ghosts and beasts are the most numerous, like the corvée-bearing households in your county. And within this path there are further ranks." He then pointed to his attendants and said, "Those men are far inferior to me, and those who do not equal them are still more numerous." Qian said, "Do ghosts die?" He said, "Yes." Qian said, "When they die, what path do they enter?" He replied, "I do not know. Just as living humans know life but do not know death, so it is with that matter." Qian asked, "Are Daoist petitions and offerings of benefit or not?" Jing said, "Daoists are mandated by the Heavenly Emperor to oversee the six paths; this is the Celestial Bureau. King Yama is like the Son of Heaven among humans. The Prefectural Lord of Mount Tai is like the Director of the Department of State Affairs. The spirits that record the five paths are like the various ministers. Kingdoms like ours are like large prefectures and commanderies. Whenever people in the human realm practice Daoism and present petitions to request blessings, it is like seeking the favor of the spirits. The Celestial Bureau receives them and sends them down to King Yama, saying: 'On a certain month and day, we received a petition from a certain person stating such-and-such; you should examine the matter thoroughly according to reason and not allow injustice or overreach.' King Yama respectfully receives and executes it, just as humans receive an imperial decree. If there is no principle [supporting it], one cannot seek exemption; if there is an injustice, it will certainly be redressed. How could it not be of benefit?" Qian also asked, "What of cultivating blessings in the Buddhist Dharma?" Jing said, "The Buddha is a great sage; no official documents are handed down [by him]. For those who cultivate blessings, the celestial spirits respectfully revere them, and they mostly obtain pardon and leniency. If one's blessings are abundant, even if there are registers for the evil destinies, they cannot pursue and seize him. This is beyond my comprehension, nor do I know why it is so." Having finished speaking, he departed immediately. In one or two days Qian was able to get up and then recovered. Wenben's father died, and [Wenben] returned to his home village. Qian sent a letter saying: "Ghosts and spirits are certainly greedy and flattering. Formerly, wishing for the young gentleman's food and drink, he was attentive to such an extent; lately, knowing there is no further gain, when he meets me he is utterly aloof and neglectful. However, Chang Zhangshi can still be seen. When this county fell to rebels and almost all died, I was guided by Zhangshi as usual, and the rebels did not see me; in the end, I was completely preserved." On the eighth day of the ninth month in the sixteenth year of the Zhenguan era, civil officials were bestowed an archery contest at the Xuanwu Gate. At that time, Wenben was a vice director of the Secretariat (zhongshu shilang), and he sat facing his elder brother the minister of the Court of the Imperial Treasury, alongside the assistant imperial censor Ma Zhou and the supervising secretary Wei Kun. Wenben personally related this to others (the above single verification is taken from the Mingbao ji).
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- 法苑珠林 — 道世, Classical Chinese