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Source: pramana-mt · Machine translation by Gemini 3.8 Flash (2026-10-21) of in.bauddha.taisho.2795 · Machine output without human authorship: no copyright is claimed (CC0 1.0). The original text keeps its own…

1 — 33 parts
2 — 64 parts

Text

1.1

[…] save, one ought to protect and uphold the Buddha's precepts […]

First: Clarifying the Origins of the Vinaya Precepts. Second: Clarifying the Procedures for Ordination. Third: Clarifying the Procedures for Sīmābandha. Fourth: Clarifying the Procedures for Karman. Fifth: Clarifying the Procedures for Poṣadha Recitation. Sixth: Clarifying the Procedures for Varṣā and Receiving Leave of Absence. Seventh: Clarifying the Procedures for Pravāraṇā. Eighth: Clarifying the Rules for Robes. Ninth: Clarifying the Rules for the Kaṭhina Robe. Tenth: Clarifying the Rules for Pure Grounds and Maintaining Purity. Eleventh: Clarifying the Rules for Directing and Investigating the Saṃgha's Co-dwelling Assembly. Twelfth: Clarifying the Rules for the Property of the Three Jewels. Thirteenth: Clarifying the Rules for the Light and Heavy Property of Deceased Monks, Tending the Sick, and Bequests. Fourteenth: Clarifying the Upholding and Violating, Light and Heavy, of the Five Classes and Seven Groups [of Offenses]. Fifteenth: Clarifying the Procedures for Removing and Confessing [Offenses]. Sixteenth: Clarifying and Harmonizing the Contradictions and Differences among the Various Vinayas. Seventeenth: Clarifying the Miscellaneous Īryāpatha of the Various Schools.

1.3

First: The Origins of the Vinaya Precepts

1.4

The Great Sage, the Tathāgata, took pity on all sentient beings. He manifested his birth in Kapilavastu and attained enlightenment beneath the tree king. For forty-nine years, adapting to conditions, he transformed beings. When on the verge of nirvāṇa, he entrusted this Vinayapiṭaka to Upāli. After the Tathāgata passed into extinction, the Venerable Mahākāśyapa protected and investigated the Three Jewels, selecting five hundred great arhats to compile the Tripiṭaka at Rājagṛha. At that time, Upāli mounted the high seat eighty times in the course of a single summer, fully reciting the great Vinayapiṭaka in eighty recitations, and entrusted it all to Mahākāśyapa. When Kāśyapa was about to enter nirvāṇa, he in turn entrusted the Vinayapiṭaka to Ānanda. Ānanda, on the verge of extinction, entrusted it to two great beings: the first was named Śāṇakavāsin, and the second was named Madhyāntika. According to the Account of the Transmission of the Dharmapiṭaka, Madhyāntika went to Kashmir to carry out teaching and transformation; the scripture records nothing further [of him]. Śāṇakavāsin carried out teaching and transformation in Rājagṛha; when on the verge of extinction, he entrusted the Dharma to Upagupta. Up to Upagupta, there were five great masters, all of whom retained in their entirety the eighty thousand teachings of the Dharma-store, their wisdom and eloquence surpassing all others. Although Upagupta attained such retention, his supernormal powers and the power of his wisdom were beyond compare. Upagupta had five disciples. The first was Sarvāstivāda, the master of the Daśādhyāya-vinaya. The second was Dharmagupta, translated into this land as Fazheng, who possessed the nature and capacity of the Mahāyāna; he was the master of the Caturvargika-vinaya. The third was named Mahīśāsaka, the master of the Mahīśāsaka-vinaya. The fourth was named Bāṣpaka, the master of the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya. The fifth was named Kāśyapīya, [whose vinaya] has not yet reached this land. These five men were also all great arhats. Unable to retain the eighty thousand teachings of the Dharma-store in their entirety, each following his own views, they subsequently divided into five schools. The emergence of Śākyamuni in the world corresponded in this land to the time of King You of the Zhou dynasty. It was not until Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty that scriptures and images first arrived. Only after roughly a hundred years had passed did monks appear. Zhi [Qian] and Zhu [Shixing] had a slight grasp of the Chinese language and translated a few barbarian scriptures. When it came to the Qin ruler Yao Xing, he had deep faith in the Buddha's Dharma. In the eighth year of Hongshi, at Caotang Monastery in Chang'an, he invited the Indian śramaṇa Master Kumārajīva to retranslate the old [texts]. Master [Kumāra]jīva was well versed in regional languages and clearly understood the Buddha's Dharma; thereupon the Buddha's Dharma was widely disseminated. As for the Daśādhyāya-vinaya: In the eighth year of the Qin era Hongshi, there was a Tripiṭaka master from the country of Kashmir named Puṇyatāra. Upholding the Daśādhyāya-vinaya, he came to Chang'an, and together with Master Kumārajīva translated it. Before one portion was finished, the Tripiṭaka master passed away. There was also Master [Hui]yuan of Mount Lu, who continued the translation together with Dharmaruci. Later, there was another Tripiṭaka vinaya master named Vimalākṣa, who was also the teacher from whom Master Kumārajīva had received instruction. Arriving himself at Shijian Monastery in Shouchun, he re-collated the vinaya text and produced three more fascicles, placing a preface to the Vinaya [before it]. Thereafter, vinaya arose in this land, the Daśādhyāya-vinaya being the first. As for the Caturvargika-vinaya: The Jin śramaṇa Zhi Faling personally went to Khotan, obtained the barbarian text, and returned to the state of Qin. In the twelfth year of Hongshi, Yao Xing, the ruler of Qin, assembled three hundred śramaṇas of illustrious virtue at Zhongxing Monastery in Chang'an and invited the Kashmir Tripiṭaka and Mahāyāna vinaya master named Buddhayaśas to translate the Caturvargika-vinaya. The Liangzhou monk Zhu Fonian translated the barbarian into Chinese, and Dao Yun and others of the state of Qin wrote it down. In the eastward flow of the vinaya teachings, the Caturvargika-vinaya was the second. Third, the Mahīśāsaka-vinaya: There was a Tripiṭaka master from Kashmir named Dashi, who brought the barbarian text of the Mahīśāsaka-vinaya to Yangzhou. In the middle of the tenth month of the first year of the Jin era Jingping, Sima Lian, the Attendant-in-Ordinary of the Jin and Prince of Langya, together with the monk Zhu Daosheng and others, requested that it be translated. In the spread of the vinaya precepts, the Mahīśāsaka-vinaya was the third. As for the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya: There was the monk Faxian of this land who, holding his body lightly and valuing the Dharma highly, personally went to barbarian lands to seek out sūtras and treatises. Arriving in the city of Pāṭaliputra in the country of Magadha, he copied the barbarian text at the Devarāja Monastery south of King Aśoka's stūpa and brought it back to this country. In the eleventh month of the twelfth year of the Jin era Yixi, he arrived in Yangzhou, and at Douchang Monastery, together with the Tripiṭaka master Buddhabhadra, translated it along with the six-fascicle Nirvāṇa Sūtra. In the rise of vinaya in this land, the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya was the fourth. The Kāśyapīya-vinaya is also called the Single Vinaya of the Kāśyapīyas; because sentient beings have not had the karmic resonance for it, it does not circulate in this land.

1.5

Second: Clarifying the Procedures for Ordination according to the Four Vinayas and Their Treatises

1.6.1

The Daśādhyāya-vinaya explains ten methods of ordination. First is ordination by self-enlightenment, referring to the Buddha’s self-awakening without a teacher. Second is ordination by natural disposition, referring to Mahākāśyapa. Third is ordination by seeing the truths, referring to the five monks, Ājñātakauṇḍinya and the others, who upon hearing the four truths expounded immediately attained upasampadā. Fourth is ehibhikṣukā ordination, referring to Yaśas and others, as well as those delivered by the "ehi" [call] throughout the Tathāgata's lifetime. Why so? Because the Buddha is the King of Dharma and personally conferred ordination upon them; these people were in their final rebirth, and as monks they would never be in the stage of training because of impermanence. Fifth is ordination by the threefold refuge, referring to the time before the karman was instituted; those delivered by arhats attained upasampadā merely by receiving the three refuges on their behalf. Sixth is ordination by questions and answers, also called [ordination through] debate, referring to the novice Sudāya, who at only seven years of age was questioned by the Buddha on the teachings; he answered each one, and as his answers pleased the sage's heart, [the Buddha] commanded the monks to confer upasampadā on him. Because it was obtained from questions and answers and was due to the command to the monks, it is also called ordination by royal decree. Seventh is ordination by the eight gurudharmas, also called the eight heavy [rules], the veneration of teachers rules, and the eight insurmountable rules; this refers to Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī and the five hundred Śākya women who sought to leave household life under the Buddha, whereupon the Buddha dispatched Ānanda to transmit the eight gurudharmas to them and permit them to leave household life; named after the eight gurudharmas, it is thus called ordination by the eight gurudharmas. (The Mahīśāsaka-vinaya states:) Gautamī, having heard the eight rules from Ānanda, joyfully accepted them on the crown of her head. She also said to Ānanda: "Speak to the Buddha on my behalf: among the eight rules, I make an additional request; I pray that he permit bhikṣuṇīs to pay homage to monks according to seniority. How could a hundred-year-old bhikṣuṇī pay homage to a newly ordained monk?" The Buddha told Ānanda: "If I were to permit bhikṣuṇīs to pay homage to monks according to seniority, there is no such possibility." When Ānanda heard this, he returned and reported it. Gautamī said again: "I accept them on the crown of my head with utmost reverence." The Buddha said: "Mahāprajāpatī joyfully practices them; by permitting the eight rules, she has left household life and received upasampadā." She said again to Ānanda: "What should now be done about these five hundred Śākya women? Speak to the Buddha on my behalf again." The Buddha said: "I allow Mahāprajāpatī to act as their upādhyāyā, and through a jñapti-caturtha-karman among an assembly of ten monks, let them be ordained. A single karman may confer it on three persons at once, but must not reach four." Thus, only Gautamī alone is called ordained by the eight gurudharmas, while the five hundred Śākya women received ordination by karman. The Daśādhyāya-vinaya also agrees with this. If relying on the Caturvargika-vinaya, the five hundred Śākya women all also attained ordination by the eight gurudharmas. Eighth is ordination by messenger, referring to the bhikṣuṇī Aḍḍhakāsī, whose countenance was extremely beautiful; if she stepped outside the saṃghārāma, there would be obstructions threatening her celibate practice. The Sage made an exception to permit dispatching a bhikṣuṇī as a messenger to go to the assembly of great monks (bhikṣus) to request ordination on her behalf; hence it is called ordination by messenger. Ninth is ordination by karman, which refers to ten monks performing the rite; in borderlands, five vinaya-holders confer upasampadā. Because the Buddha-Dharma is newly introduced in borderlands and the monastic assembly is sparse, making it extremely difficult to assemble them, the Great Sage made an exception to allow five people to confer ordination. Furthermore, the Caturvargika-vinaya states: One who attains arhatship is immediately regarded as having left household life and received upasampadā; this person attains the supreme Dharma, and it is called ordination by the supreme Dharma. Therefore, the Mātrikā treatise says: At that time, someone under twenty years old was ordained, and doubts arose, so the Buddha was asked. The Buddha said: "I permit counting the months in the womb and the intercalary months." Yet it was still not enough. The Buddha asked: "Has this person attained arhatship or not?" The reply was: "He has." The Buddha said: "This person is called one who has received upasampadā through the supreme [Dharma]." Furthermore, in the bhikṣuṇī saṃgha, a woman who has previously married is permitted to receive upasampadā at the age of twelve. Counting these, there are twelve types of ordination in total. Among these twelve types: Ordination by self-enlightenment is unique to the Buddha alone. Ordination by personal vow is unique to Mahākāśyapa alone. Ordination by seeing the truths is restricted to Ājñātakauṇḍinya and the five persons. Ehibhikṣukā ordination applied to both monks and nuns during the Buddha's presence; after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, there is no longer the method of ehibhikṣukā ordination. Ordination by the threefold refuge applied to the great monks; it was permitted before the institution of the karman, and not permitted after the institution of the karman. As for ordination by questions and answers, if in the present final age of the Dharma there were a novice like Sudāya, he would also be permitted to receive ordination. Ordination by the eight gurudharmas applied only to the bhikṣuṇī saṃgha, to Gautamī alone, and does not extend to others. Ordination by messenger applied only to the bhikṣuṇī saṃgha, to Aḍḍhakāsī; if in the present final age there were such a nun, it would be permitted, but slight beauty does not suffice. As for ordination by five persons in borderlands, today where the Buddha-Dharma is newly introduced in border areas, all are granted this exception. Ordination at twelve for the previously married applies to the bhikṣuṇī saṃgha. Ordination by the supreme Dharma applies to both monks and nuns; if someone today attains arhatship, they also directly attain the name of ordination. Only the single method of karman: its teaching encompasses both the ordinary and the noble, applies to both monks and nuns, and covers both present and future; one must know whether the execution of the rite succeeds or fails. Therefore, it is explained in detail according to the various schools. Question: How many conditions must ordination by karman possess to be termed according to the Dharma? Answer: According to the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya, it must possess six conditions to be valid according to the Dharma. What are the six? First, the ordinand is fully twenty years of age and equipped with the tricīvara and pātra. Second, the ordinand's person is free from the thirteen antāyikā dharmāḥ. Third, the marker boundaries must be successfully established. Fourth, the monks within the sīmā are all assembled, without any separate faction. Fifth, the text of the karman is recited in full without addition or omission. Sixth, the ten monks are fully present, according to the Dharma, and pure. Possessing these six conditions, it is called according to the Dharma; if lacking one among the six, the ordination is invalid. Question: How is one considered fully twenty years of age? Answer: The Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya says: One must be fully twenty years of age, having completed twenty rains. If one's age is fully twenty, but has not completed twenty rains, one does not obtain the ordination; only when the rains are completed can one receive ordination. If one was born in winter and receives ordination after the summer varṣā has ended, this is called not reaching twenty. If one was born in spring and receives ordination after the varṣā has ended, this is called reaching twenty. If one was born when the prior varṣā ended and receives ordination again when the prior varṣā ends, or was born during the latter varṣā and receives ordination when the latter varṣā ends, this is called reaching twenty. The Caturvargika tradition takes twelve months as one year; for those reaching twenty, one calculates from the month of birth, and all are called fully twenty and obtain upasampadā. The Mahāsāṃghika tradition requires passing through twenty full rains to obtain upasampadā. For example, one born in the twelfth month has only passed eighteen rains upon reaching twenty years, and so is called incomplete. In cases like this, one must complete twenty summers before being permitted to receive ordination. However, the matter of ordination is weighty; it is the foundation of leaving household life. If the original rite is not accomplished, then one is not a monk, no different from a white-robed layperson; receiving the offerings of faith and the prostrations of others is all termed stealing, incurring immeasurable guilt. If one definitively knows that someone received ordination under age...

1.6.2

"Even after passing a hundred years, [one] is still called a śrāmaṇera; he should not receive the salutations and respect of fully ordained monks, nor receive offerings from the faithful. He must be ordained again."
Question: "Since this ordination, he has fully participated in poṣadha and karman. Why is he permitted to be ordained again?"
Answer: "He did so believing he had received the upasampadā, intending to listen to the karman and poṣadha, not with a mind to steal [the Dharma]. The Caturvargika-vinaya permits re-ordination."
Answer: "The Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya says: If a person does not know his own age, he must ask his parents and relatives. If they also do not know, one must look at the birth register tablet. If there is no such thing, one must examine whether his facial features, hands, and feet are mature or not. If he still does not know in this way, one must ask: which king, which year, whether the realm experienced abundance or famine, drought or flooding, and so forth. This does not mean everyone is like this; it is only for those who are particularly difficult to ascertain. One investigates thoroughly in this way: if it is genuinely unknown whether he has completed twenty [years], then even if his hands and feet are mature, he still does not obtain the precepts."
Question: "The Caturvargika-vinaya says: 'If he has not completed twenty years of age, it is permitted to count the months in the womb, intercalary months, and so forth.' How is this handled later?"
Answer: "There was someone who, when first receiving ordination, believed his age had completed twenty years. Only after completing ordination did he realize he had not completed them. Harbouring doubts, he asked the Buddha. The Buddha said: 'I permit counting the months in the womb and intercalary months. If one counts all the poṣadha recitations on the fourteenth day to complete the count of years, there is no offense.' This is an allowance made by the Great Sage enabling one to obtain the precepts. Following the law of this land [China], there are two intercalations in five years. The Daśādhyāya-vinaya says: 'King Bimbisāra had one intercalation every six years.' The Mahīśāsaka-vinaya says: 'One intercalation every five years.' It is not known which one is definitive.
Second, as to having no impediments in one's person: why must one be questioned?
Answer: "Persons with the thirteen impediments are bound by the three hindrances and cut off from the noble path. Because the impediments obstruct the arising of the precepts, they are called 'impediments'. For this reason, one must inquire."
Question again: "What are the names and meanings of the thirteen impediments?"
Answer: "First is the impediment of an extreme offense: this person previously received the upasampadā, committed a pārājika, and was expelled by the Saṃgha. Later he returned on his own to leave the household again, but was dismissed to outside the community. It is called 'extreme'; because it obstructs and prevents the arising of the precepts, it is called an impediment.
Second is the impediment of corrupting a nun of pure conduct: one who, since leaving the household, has not committed unchastity is called of 'pure conduct'. If a layperson defiles and violates her, this person is therefore designated as an impediment.
Third is the impediment of receiving ordination with the mind of a thief: this person shaved his own hair without a preceptor, put on the kāṣāya without receiving the precepts, and joined others in poṣadha and karman, stealing the Buddhadharma. Therefore it is called 'mind of a thief'. If members of the lower three assemblies steal-listen to the poṣadha recitation or karman and falsely pretend to take part in Saṃgha affairs, they also commit [this offense].
Fourth is the impediment of breaking between inner and outer paths: this person was originally a non-Buddhist who came to leave the household; after receiving the precepts, without renouncing the precepts, he returned to the non-Buddhist path. His mind of wrong views being heavy, he naturally lost the precepts. If he wishes again to seek leaving the household and receiving the precepts in the Buddhadharma, this is called an impediment.
Fifth is the impediment of being a paṇḍaka: this person has many defilements by nature and is deficient in upholding the precepts. Because the hindrance of defilements is heavy, the upasampadā does not arise; therefore it is called an impediment.
Sixth is the impediment of killing one's father. Seventh is the impediment of killing one's mother: as a layperson, killing one's father or killing one's mother. In terms of violating gratitude, the offense is profound; it obstructs and prevents the arising of the precepts.
Eighth is the impediment of killing an arhat: as a layperson, killing a monk whose facial complexion did not change when facing death.
Ninth is the impediment of causing schism in the Saṃgha: falsely expounding evil teachings, or disordering the minds of the multitude, performing separate legal acts within the same sīmā, cutting off and destroying the Buddhadharma, doing so knowingly and intentionally; therefore it is called an impediment.
Tenth is the impediment of maliciously causing blood to flow from a Buddha's body: this person employed expedients desiring to kill the Buddha, but could not end his life; injuring the sacred body, in terms of violating principle, the offense is profound, incurring a grave anantarya-karma. Nowadays, in the Final Age, burning and destroying monasteries, images, and relics, if auspicious signs are seen, also incurs an anantarya-karma, and one cannot receive the precepts; therefore it is called an impediment.
Eleventh is the impediment of being a non-human: if a ghost or a deva transforms into human form desiring to receive the upasampadā, it is called the impediment of being a non-human.
Twelfth is the impediment of being an animal: if a nāga or a fox transforms into human form, one must not confer the precepts upon them.
Thirteenth is the impediment of having two sexual organs: this person physically possesses both male and female sexual organs, and has no placement in either the assembly of monks or that of nuns; therefore it is called an impediment.
Among these thirteen persons, the first four and the five anantaryas are subsumed under the hindrance of karma. The single person who is a paṇḍaka is subsumed under the hindrance of defilements. The last three persons are subsumed under the hindrance of retribution. Bound by the three hindrances, throughout an entire lifetime they cannot be altered: those who have not left the household must not be ordained; those who have already left the household must be expelled. Detailed explanations are as stated in the treatises."
Question: "If one does not inquire about the thirteen impediments, are the precepts conferred?"
Answer: "The Caturvargika-vinaya says: 'From the time of the Buddha's promulgation onward, one does not obtain the precepts.'"
Question again: "Originally it was for the sake of preventing impediments; now, if there truly are none, why must one inquire?"
Answer: "Although one inquires for the sake of impediments, if there truly is an impediment, whether one inquires or does not inquire, in neither case does he obtain the precepts. If there truly is no impediment, if one inquires, he then obtains the precepts; if one does not inquire, he does not obtain the precepts.
Third, clarifying whether the demarcation of the sīmā is valid or invalid: this will be explained below in the procedure for sīmābandha.
Fourth, the monks within the sīmā must gather entirely: those who do not come must convey their consent (chanda), and the Saṃgha must be harmonious without forming a separate faction.
Fifth, the karman matches the text: if one performs a jñapti-caturtha-karman, performing a jñapti-pañcama, jñapti-tṛtīya, jñapti-dvitīya, or jñapti-prathama are all invalid.
Sixth, the number of monks is complete: there must be ten pure fully ordained monks. If there are more than ten, it is called a multitude; if it falls short of the full number, it is invalid."
Question: "If a person who committed a grave offense or a person with one of the thirteen impediments acts as the upādhyāya, does one obtain the precepts?"
Answer: "The Caturvargika-vinaya says: 'Such a person does not count toward the number of the Saṃgha; one does not obtain the precepts.' As for the remaining witnessing monks who have committed a grave offense: provided the witnessing monks are numerous, one obtains the precepts; if few, one does not obtain the precepts.
The Caturvargika-vinaya says: Once there was someone who received the precepts from an upādhyāya who did not uphold the precepts. Later, having doubts, he asked the Buddha. The Buddha asked, 'Did you know whether the upādhyāya upheld the precepts or not?' He answered, 'I did not know.' The Buddha said, 'You have obtained them; it is called receiving the upasampadā.'
There was another who received the precepts from an upādhyāya who did not uphold them. The Buddha said, 'Did you know your upādhyāya did not uphold them?' He answered, 'I knew.' 'Did you know that you should not receive the upasampadā from such a person?' He answered, 'I did not know.' The Buddha said, 'This is called receiving the upasampadā.'
Further, later another person had doubts and asked the Buddha. The Buddha said, 'Did you know that your upādhyāya broke the precepts?' He answered, 'I knew.' 'Did you know that you should not receive the precepts from a person who broke the precepts?' He answered, 'I knew.' The Buddha said, 'Did you know that by receiving the precepts from a person who broke the precepts, you would not obtain the precepts?' He answered, 'I did not know.' The Buddha said, 'It is called receiving the upasampadā.'
The fourth person, who knows all three propositions, is not called having received the upasampadā."
Question: "Can one obtain the precepts without an upādhyāya?"

1.6.3

The Buddha said, "They do not." The Daśādhyāya-vinaya states: Upāli asked, "If there is no upādhyāya, can one receive the full ordination or not?" The Buddha said, "It is reckoned as receiving the upasampadā, but the karman-master and the saṃgha commit an offense." The Caturvargika-vinaya states: At that time, there was an upādhyāya of nine years [standing] who conferred upasampadā on a person; not knowing whether the ordination was validly received or not, the Buddha said, "The upasampadā is validly received, but the saṃgha commits an offense." Question: "Can one receive ordination without robes and a bowl or not?" The Caturvargika-vinaya states, "Without robes and a bowl, one cannot receive ordination." Further question: "Can one receive ordination with borrowed robes and a bowl or not?" The Mahīśāsaka-vinaya states, "For one who borrows robes and a bowl, one should instruct the owner of the robes to relinquish them, and then one may receive ordination." The Vinayavibhāṣā-śāstra states: "Does one obtain the precepts without robes and a bowl or not?" The answer says: "One does obtain them. If so, why are robes and a bowl required?" The answer says: "First, for the sake of deportment (īryāpatha); second, to engender goodness in people beforehand; third, to mark a distinctive appearance. Therefore robes and a bowl must be complete." Furthermore, the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya states: "If the upādhyāya is counted to make up the number of ten persons, it is not called receiving the upasampadā. Furthermore, if one does not declare one's own name, does not declare the upādhyāya's name, or does not request the precepts, in all such cases it is not called receiving the upasampadā." One who acts as an upādhyāya for others should possess ten virtues: first, keeping the precepts; second, extensive learning in the Abhidharma; third, extensive learning in the Vinaya; fourth, training in moral discipline; fifth, training in concentration; sixth, training in wisdom; seventh, training in clearing one's own offenses and enabling others to clear offenses; eighth, ability to nurse the sick oneself; ninth, if a disciple encounters an obstacle to the religious life (brahmacarya), ability to personally escort or send someone to escort him to escape the difficulty; tenth, having completed ten rains retreats (from the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya). The dependence-giving ācārya (niśrayācārya) should possess ten virtues: first, fully keeping the two hundred and fifty precepts; second, extensive learning; third, ability to instruct disciples in the Abhidharma; fourth, ability to instruct disciples in the Vinaya; fifth, ability to teach disciples to abandon evil views and maintain right views; sixth, knowing the prātimokṣa precepts; seventh, knowing how to recite the prātimokṣa precepts; eighth, knowing how to conduct the poṣadha; ninth, knowing how to perform poṣadha karman; tenth, having completed ten rains retreats (from the Caturvargika-vinaya; the ten virtues of an upādhyāya in the Section of Tens are also the same). The deportment master and karman master, these two kinds of ācāryas, should possess five virtues: first, knowing higher deportment (this is the precept of purifying body and speech, also called the precept of restraint); second, knowing higher pure practice (called the precept of purifying the mind, also called the precept concurrent with concentration); third, knowing higher prātimokṣa precepts (this is the precept of purifying wisdom, also called the precept concurrent with the Path; because supramundane dharmas surpass mundane dharmas, they are called 'higher'); fourth, knowing the karman itself (this phrase means competence in communal liturgical procedures, being eloquent and clear); fifth, having completed five rains retreats (having studied the precepts for five years, one's own practice being accomplished, one is qualified to serve as a teacher for others). The witnessing [monks] present at the ordination platform should possess five virtues: first, being well-versed in dharmas concerning the presence of impediments; second, being well-versed in dharmas concerning the absence of impediments; third, being well-versed in the method of motion (jñapti); fourth, being well-versed in the method of karman; fifth, purity in precept conduct. Possessing these five virtues, they can enact the communal rites (manifesting and certifying the deportment). There are five conditions under which one must not be without dependence (niśraya): first, unable to diligently cultivate the deportment (precepts); second, unable to increase pure practice; third, unable to increase prātimokṣa precepts; fourth, unable to abandon evil views and abide in right views; fifth, not having completed five summers (from the Caturvargika-vinaya). The Daśādhyāya-vinaya states: A monk of five years who has accomplished five dharmas is permitted to live without relying on dependence: first, knowing what is an offense; second, knowing what is not an offense; third, knowing what is light; fourth, knowing what is heavy; fifth, fluently reciting the prātimokṣa. If one lacks these five dharmas, even after many years one must live depending on another for the rest of one's life. Question: "May a senior monk live depending on a junior monk or not?" The answer says: "He may; except for bowing down, all else is to be done according to the rules for a disciple." There are five conditions under which dependence is lost: first, death (the teacher passes away); second, departure: if the teacher travels away for an overnight stay, or the disciple determines to leave the boundary; third, abandoning the Path (if the teacher renounces the precepts); fourth, not granting dependence (the teacher gives up giving instruction); fifth, returning to live under the sight of the upādhyāya: if the upādhyāya takes charge of him, the ācārya should not cause him to request instructions. The Daśādhyāya-vinaya lays down the rules of dependence, even to the extent of not being allowed to ask for water to rinse the mouth [before requesting dependence]; first one requests dependence, and if later, due to unfamiliarity with character, faults arise, an exception is made; even to the extent of staying overnight together, living without dependence is not permitted to continue. The Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya states: Upāli had two śrāmaṇeras who wished to undergo karman ordination at the same time; he reported the matter to the Buddha. The Buddha said, "Those who have the same upādhyāya are permitted to do so." The Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya mentions four kinds of teachers: first, lacking Dharma and lacking food (permitted to leave without asking); second, lacking Dharma but having clothing and food (must ask before leaving); third, lacking clothing and food but having Dharma (though suffering, one should stay); fourth, having Dharma and having clothing and food (this is a pleasant stay; for the first two kinds of teachers who lack Dharma, one should apologize and leave; for the latter two kinds of teachers who have Dharma, one must not leave for the rest of one's life). If a teacher has five faults, the disciple should apologize and depart (first, one should say to the upādhyāya: 'When I act according to the Dharma, the upādhyāya does not know; second, when I act contrary to the Dharma, the upādhyāya does not know; third, when I violate the precepts, he neglects and does not reprimand me; fourth, if I violate them, he also does not know; fifth, if having violated them I repent, it still does not match the benefit of being trained after leaving household life; therefore I request to go outside to consult and cultivate the superior Dharma'). Although there are many types of ordination according to faculties, the general summary comes down solely to manifest and non-manifest. Initially, before the teacher, one generates the intention to receive the precepts, moving body and speech to effect this dharma; this is called the manifest precept (vijñapti-śīla). Once the precept is obtained, having established it, it remains in the mind without further deliberate exertion, hence it is called the non-manifest precept (avijñapti-śīla). This is a supramundane dharma: when one generates the intention to receive it, one obtains it; when one generates the intention to abandon it, one loses the wholesome karma; otherwise, it will certainly bring about retribution. Unlike the precepts, it entails relinquishment. The Caturvargika-vinaya states: At that time, someone conferred upasampadā without first giving the śrāmaṇera precepts; not knowing whether it was valid or not, the Buddha said, "Upasampadā is obtained, but the saṃgha commits an offense." The Vinayamātṛkā states: At that time, someone received ordination from a precept-breaking teacher; having doubts, he asked the Buddha. The Buddha said, "Did you know beforehand whether your upādhyāya had received ordination from his teacher or not?" He replied, "I did not know." The Buddha said, "It is reckoned as receiving the precepts." Question: "May the full monks confer the six dharmas and the ten precepts on a nun or not?" Answer: "The full monks may only perform three kinds of karman for nuns: first, ordination; second, mānatva; third, rehabilitation (āhāna). For all other ritual matters, the various Vinayas contain no text; if they were to perform them, the karman would be invalid, and both monks and nuns would incur an offense." Question:

1.6.4

"Why do fully ordained nuns take monks as teachers, while śikṣamāṇās and śrāmaṇerikās do not?" Answer: "Women lack independent resolve; therefore the Sage instituted that in receiving the upasampadā, one must take a monk as teacher. But śikṣamāṇās and śrāmaṇerikās have just left the household life, are young in years and weak in resolve, so they only rely on senior nuns as teachers to seek instructions and study the precepts, without requiring monks." Question: "When receiving the six dharmas, is it necessary to further request an upādhyāyikā or not?" Answer: "It is not necessary. Why is this so? The śikṣamāṇā merely trains further in six of the ten precepts; this is not yet a change of status, hence no request is needed. Furthermore, all four Vinayas state that it must be done where one is visible to sight but out of earshot; if the karman is performed face-to-face, the reception of the six dharmas is invalid and an offense is incurred." Question: "Some say that a fully ordained nun may pay homage to a śrāmaṇera; is this according to the Dharma or not?" Answer: "This person does not understand the vinaya principles and makes such an assertion falsely. Why? In the Khandhaka on Dwellings of the Caturvargika-vinaya, the Buddha himself instituted the rules of reverence for the monks: junior śrāmaṇeras should pay homage to senior śrāmaṇerikās, how much more so should they not pay homage to fully ordained nuns? Who should not be paid homage to? Persons with the thirteen impediments, persons subject to the three formal motions of suspension, expelled persons, and persons who speak contrary to Dharma—such persons should not be paid homage to; if one pays homage to them, both parties commit an offense." Next is explained the method of relinquishing the precepts: Precepts are pure dharmas that should carry one beyond entanglements; therefore the five groups of monks and nuns protect and maintain the Buddha's precepts, preferring death to transgression. If one intentionally violates them, it would have been better not to have left the household in the first place. Why? One ruins the Path's dharmas oneself, dishonors the teacher and the saṃgha, defiles and disorders the Three Jewels, betrays the four kinds of kindness, fails to assimilate the offerings of the faithful, and commits exceedingly heavy offenses. If a person is oppressed in mind by afflictions, has little inclination toward the Path, and recklessly desires evil without being able to stop, the Buddha said: He is permitted to relinquish the precepts and return home, and must not lean upon the Buddha's Dharma while violating the pure prohibitions. If one wishes to relinquish the precepts, one should go before a senior monk, kneel with palms joined, and say: "Venerable One, with single-minded attention, I, monk so-and-so, now relinquish the upasampadā and return to being a white-robed layperson; may the Venerable One know that I am a white-robed layperson." Saying this three times. If one wishes to retain the five precepts, one should say, "return to being an upāsaka." If one wishes to retain the ten precepts, one should say, "return to being a śrāmaṇera; may the Venerable One remember that I am a śrāmaṇera." Having originally received the precepts from the saṃgha, now one should return them to the saṃgha according to Dharma, and the saṃgha will verify and witness it. From this it follows that one cannot relinquish them before other persons (if a bhikṣuṇī, she returns and relinquishes them before nuns). If after relinquishing the precepts one again takes joy in the Buddha's Dharma and seeks to leave household life, one is permitted to leave household life again. For nuns, it is not permitted. Why? In the Daśādhyāya-vinaya, because laypeople, seeing a nun return to lay life, ridiculed her saying, "This nun previously respected our teachings, later she was respected by us, and now she respects us again; she has no firm determination." The monks reported this matter to the Buddha. The Buddha said: "If a bhikṣuṇī once returns her precepts, she is no longer permitted to leave household life and receive the upasampadā."

1.7

Part 3: Explaining the Methods of Demarcating Boundaries (sīmābandha) According to the Four Vinayas and Treatises

1.8

There are two kinds of sīmā: first, established sīmās (kṛtasīmā); second, natural sīmās (abaddhasīmā). As for established sīmās, they are obtained when the saṃgha performs the ritual of establishing a sīmā (sīmābandha) through a jñapti-dvitīya-karman; therefore they are called 'established sīmās'. As for natural sīmās, they exist naturally without depending on an intentional act; therefore they are called 'natural sīmās'. The texts of the four Vinayas differ and are not identical. The Caturvargika[-vinaya] states: A natural sīmā of a village extends five hundred bow-lengths away from the village. The bow is four cubits long for an average person. The Daśādhyāya[-vinaya] states: Beyond the village as far as one arrow-shot, [or] up to where modest persons go for major and minor defecation, is called a natural sīmā. The Mahāsāṃghika[-vinaya] states: Beyond the village, wherever cattle and sheep walk smoothly, is called a village natural sīmā. It also says: [A distance of] seven trees. In the ritual of sīmābandha, one cannot accept [absentee] consent (chanda); because there is no [established] sīmā yet, one orders a resident monk of long standing to announce the boundary markers (sīmānimitta) three times. When about to perform the karman to establish the sīmā, from within the natural sīmā all monks who should gather must gather completely, and then the sīmābandha is accomplished. If they do not gather, the sīmābandha is not accomplished. If the sīmābandha is not accomplished, all legal acts, ordinations, and so forth performed therein are completely invalid. If one has not yet established a non-separation from robes sīmā (avicpravāsa-sīmā), the area up to where a stone thrown by an average person reaches outside the great sīmā (mahāsīmā) constitutes the natural non-separation from robes sīmā. Once one has established the non-separation from robes sīmā, there is no natural non-separation from robes sīmā. Question: The three Vinayas explain that natural sīmās are variable. If the monks within the natural sīmā do not gather, is the ritual act invalid? Various masters say either that it is valid or that it is invalid. Which Vinaya should be taken as authoritative now? Answer: What the three Vinayas explain concerning natural sīmās does not refer to the natural [sīmā] for establishing a sīmā, but to the natural sīmā for residing alone. This was explained because empty land and village sīmās have distinct differences. Question: What is the natural sīmā for establishing a sīmā? Answer: The other Vinayas have no further clear text; we now rely on the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya to explain the natural sīmā for establishing a sīmā. At that time, in the country of Śrāvastī, there was a brahman who asked the Buddha about the method of planting mango trees. The Buddha then answered him. At that time Upāli, knowing the proper time, asked the Buddha, saying: 'We have already heard the delimitations regarding mango [trees]. We now ask further: if there is a location, a city, town, or village whose boundary cannot be known, if one wishes to perform a karman, how far an area should be circumscribed for it to be called a well-performed karman, such that different saṃghas can see one another and yet accomplish their karman without committing [the offense of] a divided assembly (bhinna-parisa)?' The Buddha told Upāli: 'Using a bow-measure of five cubits, [at intervals of] seven bows, plant mango trees; within the span of seven trees spaced that far apart, performing a karman is called a well-performed karman. Even though different assemblies see one another, there is no eating in a divided assembly.' (One cubit is one foot eight inches; five cubits is nine feet long. The space between each tree is ten and a half paces; for seven trees, it amounts to seventy-three and a half paces.) The Daśādhyāya[-vinaya] states: In the questions of Upāli, he asked, and the Buddha said: 'If monks build a monastery in a village without a monastery, and have not yet established a sīmā, how far an area is called the sīmā?' The Buddha said: 'The area through which the boundary of that village is commonly traversed.' He also asked: 'If monks initially build a monastery in an araṇya place where there is no village, and have not yet established a sīmā, how far an area therein is called the sīmā?' The Buddha said: 'One krośa on each side. The monks therein must all assemble to perform the karman. If they perform it in a divided assembly, all the monks commit an offense.' (One krośa is five li.) Question: If a monk revokes the great sīmā, is the non-separation from robes sīmā also revoked? The Buddha said: 'It is also revoked.' He also asked: 'If one revokes the non-separation from robes sīmā, is the great sīmā also revoked?' The Buddha said: 'It is not revoked.' Question: 'Without revoking the former sīmā, may one further establish a larger or smaller one?' The Buddha said: 'One may not.' The Caturvargika[-vinaya] explains ten kinds of sīmās, each having its natural sphere of influence: First, a saṃghārāma sīmā, which has four types: 1. surrounded by walls; 2. fences; 3. a mix of fence and wall; 4. surrounded by buildings. Second, a tree sīmā, which refers to the area covered by the shade of a tree. Third, a threshing-floor sīmā, which is where the five grains are processed. Fourth, a cart sīmā, which is where carts turn around. Fifth, a boat sīmā, which is where boats turn around. Sixth, a village sīmā, which has four types, as explained for the saṃghārāma. Seventh, a house sīmā, which is where laypeople with their wives and children live. Eighth, a storehouse sīmā, which is where goods are accumulated. Ninth, a hall sīmā. Tenth, a granary sīmā, which is where the five grains are stored. (Each of these ten kinds of sīmā extends from the edge of the sīmā up to where five stone-throws reach, which is called the natural robe [sīmā].) The Mahīśāsaka[-vinaya] states: If traveling on water, the distance reached by water sprinkled by a strong person in the saṃgha is the natural sīmā. The rule for establishing a sīmā permits establishing it at a maximum distance of three yojanas; exceeding this is not permitted. The Samantapāsādikā states: The smallest established sīmā enclosure may accommodate twenty-one guest [monks]. Furthermore, the Samantapāsādikā explains eight kinds of objects used as boundary markers, which may or may not be valid: First, mountain boundary markers: the large ones may be as large as Mount Sumeru; the small ones, at minimum, as small as a bird. Second, stone boundary markers: the large ones may be as large as an ox; the small ones, thirty square spans; a flat rock slab may not serve as a boundary marker, and a separate stone should be placed. Third, forest boundary markers: the large ones may be a hundred yojanas; the small ones, at minimum, down to four trees adjoining one another, which is also called a forest; bamboo and grass cannot serve as boundary markers because their substance is hollow and insubstantial. Fourth, tree boundary markers: the large ones may be as large as the Jambū tree; the small ones, down to eight inches high and as thick as a needle, may serve as boundary markers; if there are no wild trees, planted trees are also valid; dead trees cannot serve as boundary markers. Fifth, road boundary markers: either a cart road, an ox path, or even passing through three or four villages may serve as markers; paths into fields, paths toward wells to draw water, paths toward rivers for water, dead ends, and the like cannot serve as boundary markers. Sixth, anthill boundary markers: the large ones may be as large as a mountain; the small ones, down to eight inches high, may serve as boundary markers. Seventh, river boundary markers: if a good king rules and rain falls once every five days, this rainwater river cannot serve as a boundary marker; if it does not rain for four months and the river water constantly flows without interruption, being two feet deep, it can serve as a boundary marker. Eighth, water boundary markers: natural pond water can serve as a boundary marker; water channeled into fields or vessel water cannot serve as boundary markers. These are called the eight kinds. After these eight kinds of boundary markers have established a sīmā, even if the boundary markers disappear, the sīmā is not lost. Even if people dig down to the water table, it is still not lost. The Mahīśāsaka[-vinaya] states: At that time there were monks who did not announce boundary markers, but established a sīmā using the four cardinal directions as markers, or used living beings, smoke, fire, and the like as boundary markers. The Buddha said: 'The sīmābandha is not accomplished, nor are they valid boundary markers; they commit a duṣkṛta.' The Vinayavibhāṣā-śāstra states: A bhikṣuṇī's established sīmā may only be one krośa square (a monks' sīmā is ten krośas square). Question: Why, when establishing a robe sīmā, does one specifically say 'excluding villages and their boundaries'? Answer: The Vibhāṣā-śāstra says: Villages are scattered and unfixed, while a robe sīmā is fixed; therefore they must be excluded. Moreover, it is to eliminate slander, to eliminate contention, and to protect the celibate life; therefore they are excluded. Question: When there is a village, it must be excluded; why exclude it when there is no village? Answer: Such is the principle of the karman. If there is none, exclude everything. Why? If there is no village at the time of establishing it, and after the sīmā is established a village comes in, one need not establish it again, because it was already established beforehand. If there was originally a village and it later moves away, that very empty place is called the non-separation from robes sīmā. If a village was originally small and later grows large, wherever the village reaches is not a robe sīmā. If it was originally large and later grows small, whatever empty space there is, all of it is a robe sīmā. It also says: If a king enters within the monastery's sīmā and pitches a tent, his dwelling and its immediate surroundings, the place where food is prepared, and the places for major and minor defecation are all not robe sīmās. Question: If bhikṣuṇīs do not establish a separate sīmā over the great saṃgha's sīmā, can they perform legal acts? Answer: Their performance of legal acts is invalid, because the sīmās of monks and nuns are distinct and do not subsume one another; they must establish it separately. The Mahāsāṃghika[-vinaya] states: During the summer varṣā, if there are perils from kings, bandits, or threats to life or celibacy, or if the water has many insects and cannot be strained clean, they may freely establish a sīmā of three yojanas in each of the four directions. If a danger arrives suddenly so that they cannot perform the karman ritual and they leave, they are without offense. (That is, leaving into the sīmās of other regions.) The Daśādhyāya[-vinaya] states: When monks perform the karman of establishing a sīmā, if the entire saṃgha all change their faculties into women, is it called a monks' sīmā or a nuns' sīmā? When establishing a sīmā, if some change and some do not change, what sīmā is it called? The Buddha said: 'If the remaining saṃgha transforms but the person performing the karman does not transform, it is called a monks' sīmā. If the person performing the karman transforms into a woman, it is called a nuns' sīmā.' For bhikṣuṇīs establishing a sīmā, transforming or not transforming is also like this.

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