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Source: pramana-mt · Machine translation by Gemini 3.8 Flash (2026-10-21) of in.bauddha.taisho.2804 · Machine output without human authorship: no copyright is claimed (CC0 1.0). The original text keeps its own…

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1.1

[others] hold that apart from the mind there are no distinct mental factors (caitta). To refute these various divergent attachments, and to enable [practitioners] to attain understanding in accordance with reality within the profound and subtle principle of vijñapti-mātra, this treatise was composed.

1.2

As for the 'occasions' (pratyaya), there are moreover two kinds: first, explaining the composition of the treatise; second, presenting its transmission and translation. Although the teaching gates by which the Buddha, the Bhagavat, compassionately guided sentient beings are manifold, their essentials have four [approaches]: conditioned arising (pratītyasamutpāda), vijñapti-mātra, signlessness (animitta), and tathatā. These were spoken individually in various sūtras according to what was suitable to faculties. For the other three doctrinal gates there were already extensive treatises, but the profound intention of vijñapti-mātra had not yet been elucidated. Nine hundred years after the Buddha's nirvāṇa, the Bodhisattva Asaṅga attended upon the Great Compassionate Honoured One, Maitreya, and requested the exposition of such treatises as the Yogācārabhūmi and Madhyāntavibhāga. He himself composed such treatises as the Prakaraṇāryavācā and Abhidharmasamuccaya to elucidate the principle of vijñapti-mātra, yet it was not yet fully perfected and clear. Therefore our Bodhisattva of Ever-Increasing Radiance, Vasubandhu, subsequently composed two treatises to open and clarify the Single Vehicle. The first treatise is named Viṃśatikā-vijñaptimātratā; it illuminates the principle of vijñapti-mātra, broadly refutes heterodox doctrines, and briefly sets forth his own tenet. The second treatise is named the Triṃśikā; using thirty verses, it illuminates the principle of vijñapti-mātra, briefly refutes heterodox doctrines, and broadly sets forth his own tenet. Before he could compose a commentary, he was reborn in the Tuṣita Heaven. Afterwards, Dharmapāla and ten other great treatise masters profoundly attained the ultimate of the inner tenets and thoroughly penetrated the external treatises. Their knowledge and vision were ever broader, and the benefit and happiness [they brought] were immensely vast. In their time, people praised their virtue and thereupon called them bodhisattvas. Each composed a commentary to explain and proclaim the verses. Although their true teachings circulated together in the world, the repository of the Way was preserved in the Western Regions and had not yet spread to the Eastern Florescence. In our Tang dynasty, during the Zhenguan era, there was the Great Tripiṭaka Master of Complete Enlightenment, whose name was Xuanzang. Having left household life in his youth, his aspiration soared beyond the world. Without regard to distance he sought teachers, and his learning encompassed both the inner and outer [texts]. Having thoroughly investigated the Dharma principles of the Central Lands, he wished to seek and investigate the traces of the teachings in other regions. He then shook out his robes to leave the Eastern Florescence, leaning on his staff toward the Western Heavens. Traveling throughout the realms of the Way, he extensively sought out sūtras and authoritative texts, plumbing the erroneous views of former sages and penetrating what ancient worthies had not yet heard. His name established and his purpose accomplished, he returned to his native land. The late emperor of our Tang invited him to be the Preceptor of the State. Although he extensively translated the true sūtras and broadly rendered the correct treatises, regarding the profound meaning of vijñapti-mātra, he kept it secret as the jewel in the topknot; because transmission was not to just any person, he did not immediately translate and impart it. He solely instructed Ci'en in this purport alone. First, in the twenty-second year of Zhenguan, he translated these root verses at Ci'en Monastery. Later, at the end of the Xianqing era, at Yuhua Palace Monastery in Fangzhou, he then translated the commentary. When first translated, the ten commentaries were circulated separately. Later, following a request, they were blended into a single work, encompassing terms and marks, and incorporating the heterodox and the orthodox. Now, taking the correct meanings, [we] interpret the verses. The explanation of the treatise's occasions is concluded.

1.3

Regarding the 'central tenet' (siddhānta), there is the general and the specific. In general differentiation, vijñapti-mātra is the tenet, because the correct treatise is composed by relying on the principle of vijñapti-mātra—which is neither existent nor non-existent, and is devoid of anything to be attained. If one grasps at existence or emptiness, one does not abide in vijñapti-mātra, for a mind that has something to be attained is discursive proliferation (prapañca). If spoken of specifically, the teaching, principle, practice, and fruit based on vijñapti-mātra constitute the correct central tenet. This is because the treatise was composed to cause sentient beings to awaken to the principle of vijñapti-mātra by relying on the teaching of vijñapti-mātra, to cultivate the practice of vijñapti-mātra, and to attain the fruit of vijñapti-mātra. The teaching refers to the Laṅkāvatāra and other Mahāyāna [sūtras]. The principle refers to such dharmas as the eight consciousnesses and the three natures (tri-svabhāva). The practice refers to signless contemplation wisdom of the six perfections. The fruit refers to wisdom and abandonment, bodhi and nirvāṇa. These tenets will be distinguished when reaching the [relevant] text. Presenting the central tenet is concluded.

1.4

Regarding 'what is subsumed' (saṃgṛhīta), according to various sūtras and treatises there are briefly three kinds, namely, subsumption under pitakas, subsumption under vehicles, and subsumption under periods. Pitakas refers to the two pitakas: the Bodhisattva and the Śrāvaka. Each of these two has three: sūtra, vinaya, and abhidharma, which respectively augment and explain concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (prajñā). Vehicles refers to the five vehicles: namely, the Unsurpassed, Pratyekabuddha, Śrāvaka, and the Human and Deva vehicles. Periods refers to the three periods: namely, the initial, middle, and final. The initial spoke solely of existence; the next spoke solely of emptiness; the final period spoke doubly of neither emptiness nor existence. This treatise is subsumed under the Abhidharma within the Bodhisattva Pitaka, because it displays the meaning of the bodhisattva's principle, practice, and fruit, and expounds the training in wisdom. Within the five vehicles, it is subsumed under the Unsurpassed Vehicle, showing that what is conveyed and that which conveys have nothing superior above them. Within the three periods, it is subsumed under the third period, showing that its exposition of existence and emptiness is the ultimate and complete principle. Clarifying what is subsumed is concluded.

1.5

Next is explaining what is established. In this there are two parts: first, explaining the title; second, explaining the verses. In explaining the title, as the commentary on the treatise says: the name of this root treatise is Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā ('Thirty Verses on Vijñapti-mātra'). Because the principle of vijñapti-mātra is fully perfected by thirty verses without addition or subtraction, its name was established based on the number of its verses, just like the Śataka-śāstra and Śataka-śāstra-vaipulya. 'Only' (mātra) refutes external objects, showing that they do not exist; 'consciousness' (vijñāna) indicates the internal mind, showing that it is not non-existent. Being neither existent nor non-existent, it is therefore called vijñapti-mātra. Expounding, analyzing, and determining, it is therefore called a treatise (śāstra). This is because it expounds and analyzes the meaning of the nature and characteristics of vijñapti-mātra, and determines the true from the erroneous meanings. Explaining the title is concluded.

1.6

Regarding the explanation of the text of the treatise: according to various treatises, there may be three parts: paying homage and stating the intent, directly presenting the substance of the treatise, and the concluding dedication of merit. The presence or absence of the first and last depends on the author's intention. Now, this treatise contains only the main body (pradhāna). In it, there is a major division into three sections: the first verse and a half briefly explains vijñapti-mātra; next, twenty-three and a half verses broadly explain vijñapti-mātra; and the final five verses display the stages of cultivation. Regarding its initial brief explanation, the arising of the treatise says: if there is only consciousness, why do worldly conventions and the sacred teachings say that there are ātman and dharmas? The verse says:

1.7

Due to metaphor, ātman and dharmas are spoken of, / and various aspects arise.
They depend on the transformation of consciousness; / these transformations are only three:
namely, maturation (vipāka), cogitation (manana), / and the consciousness of perceiving objects (viṣaya-vijñapti).

1.8

Explanation: The verse has six lines, divided into two meanings. The first three lines resolve the objection and state the thesis; the latter three lines present the names of the transformations (pariṇāma). Within the former, there are also two: the first two lines resolve and explain the external objection; the third line states the thesis and correctly explains it. Worldly conventions and sacred teachings speak of ātman and dharmas only through metaphorical establishment (prajñapti), not as possessing real substantial existence. Ātman means a master and controller; dharma means that which holds to its own rule. Both of these arise in various aspects. The various aspects of ātman refer to sentient being, living soul, and so forth, or stream-enterer, once-returner, and so forth. The various aspects of dharmas refer to substance, quality, action, and so forth, or aggregates, bases, elements, and so forth. 'Arise' means that designations differ according to conditions. If such aspects are established through metaphor, on what basis can they be accomplished? Those aspects are all metaphorically designated dependent on the transformation of consciousness. 'Consciousness' means discernment (vijñapti); consciousness here also subsumes mental factors (caitta), because they necessarily correspond (samprayukta). 'Transformation' means the substance of consciousness transforms into the semblance of two divisions, because both the objective aspect (nimittabhāga) and the subjective aspect (darśanabhāga) arise dependent on self-awareness (svasaṃvedana). Dependent on these two divisions, ātman and dharmas are designated, for without them the two would have nothing on which to depend. Although these aspects of ātman and dharmas reside in internal consciousness, due to conceptual discrimination they appear like external objects. Sentient beings, from beginningless time, conditioned by this, grasp them as real ātman and real dharmas. Just as a person suffering from illness or dreams, through the power of illness or dreams, has the mind appear like various aspects of external objects, and conditioned by this grasps them as real external objects. The real ātman and real dharmas grasped by foolish people are completely non-existent; because they are designated merely in accordance with deluded feelings, they are said to be metaphorical. The semblances of ātman and dharmas transformed by internal consciousness, though existent, do not possess the real nature of ātman and dharmas; yet because they appear as semblances, they are said to be metaphorical. External objects, being designated according to deluded feelings, are not existent like consciousness. Internal consciousness, necessarily arising dependent on causes and conditions, is not non-existent like objects. Thereby, the two attachments of addition and subtraction are refuted. Because objects are metaphorically established dependent on internal consciousness, they exist only conventionally (saṃvṛti-sat); because consciousness is the substantial basis upon which metaphorical objects depend, it also exists ultimately (paramārtha-sat). The three lines below present the names of the transformations: the first line introduces them, and the remaining two lines list them. Although the aspects transformed by consciousness are of immeasurable kinds, the categories of transforming consciousness are only three: first is maturation (vipāka), because the eighth consciousness is predominantly of the nature of maturation; second is cogitation (manana), because the seventh consciousness constantly deliberates and cogitates; third is perceiving objects, because the coarse aspects of the first six consciousnesses perceive objects. The word 'and' indicates combining the six into a single type. That all three are called transforming consciousnesses is because transformation is twofold: first, transformation as cause, which refers to the two causal seeds (vāsanā) in the eighth consciousness—the outflow (niṣyanda) and the maturation [seeds]. Outflow seeds are perfumed and caused to grow by the wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate [states] among the seven consciousnesses. Maturation seeds are perfumed and caused to grow by the defiled wholesome and unwholesome [states] among the six consciousnesses. Second, transformation as effect, which means that through the power of the former two kinds of seeds, the eight consciousnesses arise and manifest various aspects. With outflow seeds as the causal condition (hetu-pratyaya), the substances and aspects of the eight consciousnesses arise distinctly; this is called the outflow fruit (niṣyandaphala), because the effect resembles the cause. With maturation seeds as the augmenting condition (adhipati-pratyaya), they induce the eighth consciousness; because it recompenses the power of leading karma and continues constantly, it is given the name 'maturation'. Inducing the first six consciousnesses to recompense completing karma, they arise from maturation; they are called 'born of maturation' (vipākaja), not called 'maturation', because they have interruptions. The aforementioned maturation and that which is born of maturation are called the fruit of maturation (vipākaphala), because the effect differs from the cause. Here, provisionally speaking, the transforming resultant consciousness that holds the defiled seeds through grasping at ātman and love is named maturation; it does not mean all [aspects]. The initial brief explanation is concluded.

1.9

Next below is the broad explanation. In this there are three parts: first, fourteen and a half verses distinguish the three transformations; next, one verse demonstrates the meaning of vijñapti-mātra; and finally, eight verses resolve and explain external objections. Distinguishing the three transformations is divided into three. First, what are the characteristics of the initial transformation? The verse says:

1.10

First, the ālaya-vijñāna, / which is maturation and all seeds,
with imperceptible appropriation, / place, and discernment, always associated
with contact, attention, / feeling, perception, and volition;
its feeling is solely equanimity. / It is unobscured-indeterminate;
contact and the rest are also like this. / It constantly turns like a violent torrent, / and is abandoned in the stage of arhat.

1.11

Exposition: These two and a half verses explain the first pariṇāma through ten thematic doors. [1] "First, the ālaya-vijñāna" is the door of its self-characteristic. This first pariṇāma is called ālaya in the teachings of both the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Because this consciousness possesses the meanings of being that which stores and that which is appropriated as a store—namely, because it and defilements are mutually conditions for each other, and because sentient beings cling to it as their inner self—this therefore reveals its full self-characteristic, since upholding cause and effect constitutes its self-characteristic. Although the states of this consciousness's self-characteristic are many, the fault of being a store is most grave at the beginning; therefore, it is specifically stated here. [2] The term "vipāka" is the door of its fruit-characteristic. Because this is the ripened fruit of the wholesome and unwholesome karma that projects the realms, destinies, and births, it is called vipāka. Apart from this, no other dharma can be found that can universally uphold the supreme ripened fruit. Although the fruit-characteristics of this consciousness have many states and many kinds, vipāka is broad and non-shared; therefore, it is stated universally. [3] "Possessing all seeds" is the door of its causal characteristic. Because this can hold fast the seeds of all dharmas without letting them be lost, it is called "possessing all seeds." Apart from this, no other dharma can be found that can universally hold fast the seeds of all dharmas. Here, what dharma is called a "seed"? It refers to the differentiation of capacities in the mūla-vijñāna that directly produce their own fruits. These are neither identical to nor different from the mūla-vijñāna and the fruits they produce, for reason dictates that substance and function, cause and effect, should be so. Although seeds rely on the substance of the eighth consciousness, they are the nimittabhāga of this consciousness and nothing else, because the darśanabhāga constantly takes them as its object. Because the impure seeds are not distinct in substance from the vipāka consciousness, they are subsumed under the neutral nature; and because both cause and effect are of the nature of wholesomeness and so forth, they are also named wholesome and so forth. Because pure seeds are not subsumed under the nature of the vipāka consciousness, and because both cause and effect are subsumed under the wholesome nature, they are named solely wholesome and so forth. By virtue of being able to uphold these seeds, it is called "possessing all seeds." This is its self-characteristic. Although the causal characteristics of this consciousness are of many kinds, upholding seeds is non-shared; therefore, it is specifically stated. [4] "Its appropriation, location, and discernments are ungraspable" is the door of its object and cognitive aspect. Here, "discernment" means that the vipāka consciousness has the function of cognizing its own objects. Cognition is precisely the cognitive aspect of consciousness, because consciousness takes cognition as its cognitive aspect. This function of cognition is subsumed under the darśanabhāga. What is called "location" is the vessel world, because it is the dwelling place relied upon by sentient beings. That is, through the power of the maturation of seeds of common characteristics, the vipāka consciousness transforms to resemble the appearance of the vessel world of form and so forth—namely, the external primary elements and derived forms. Although the transformations of various sentient beings are individually distinct, their appearances are similar and their locations do not differ, just as the lights of many lamps each pervade everywhere yet resemble one light. "Appropriation" is twofold: all seeds and the body with sense faculties. "All seeds" refers to the vāsanās of characteristics, names, and conceptualization—namely, the seeds of all impure dharmas upheld by the vipāka consciousness. Because they are subsumed under the nature of this consciousness, they are its objects. Although pure seeds rely upon this consciousness, they are not subsumed under its nature and thus are not its objects. Even though they are not its objects, they are not separate from it, just as the nature of tathatā does not contradict vijñapti-mātra. "The body with sense faculties" refers to the material sense faculties and their physical bases. Through the power of the maturation of seeds of non-common characteristics in the vipāka consciousness, it transforms to resemble the material sense faculties and their physical bases—namely, the internal primary elements and derived forms. Through the power of the maturation of seeds of common characteristics, it also transforms into the likeness of the bodies and physical bases of others; otherwise, there would be no meaning of experiencing and utilizing others. Both these seeds and the body with sense faculties are its objects. By the power of causes and conditions, when the ālaya-vijñāna's own substance arises, it internally transforms into seeds and the body with sense faculties, and externally transforms into the receptacle. It takes what it has transformed as its own objects, and its cognitive aspect relies on them to arise. "Ungraspable" means that because this cognitive aspect is extremely subtle, it is difficult to cognize clearly; or because the internal appropriated objects of this object are also subtle, and the external vessel world is difficult to measure, it is called "ungraspable." [5] "Constantly associated with contact, attention, feeling, perception, and volition" is the door of association with caittas. From beginningless time until it undergoes transformation, the ālaya-vijñāna in all its states is constantly associated with these five caittas, because they are subsumed under the omnipresent caittas. The characteristics of these omnipresent ones will be explained in detail later. Although these five, including contact, differ in cognitive aspect from the vipāka consciousness, they are called "associated" because they are simultaneous, share the same support, have the same object, and have the same substantial entity. The reason why it is not associated with the five object-specific caittas is that desire aspires toward desired objects, whereas this consciousness operates spontaneously without aspiration; resolve determines and holds fast to decided objects, whereas this consciousness operates obscurely without holding fast; mindfulness clearly remembers previously experienced objects, whereas this consciousness is dim and weak, unable to remember clearly; concentration enables the mind to focus single-pointedly on one object, whereas this consciousness operates spontaneously, taking different objects moment by moment; and discernment only investigates merits and other properties, whereas this consciousness is subtle and dim, unable to investigate. Therefore, it is not associated with the object-specific ones. Because this consciousness is exclusively of the nature of vipāka, it is not associated with wholesome or defiled states and the like. The four neutral caittas such as regret are intermittent and thus are definitely not vipāka. [6] "Only neutral feeling" is the door of association with feeling. The word "associated" applies to both places. The cognitive aspect of this consciousness is extremely indistinct and cannot differentiate agreeable and disagreeable objective appearances; therefore, it is associated only with neutral feeling. Furthermore, this associated feeling is exclusively vipāka; it operates in accordance with prior projecting karma without waiting for present conditions, operating spontaneously through the momentum of wholesome and unwholesome karma; therefore, it is only neutral feeling. Painful and pleasant feelings are born of vipāka, not true vipāka, because they depend on present conditions; thus they are not associated with this. Moreover, because this consciousness constantly does not shift or alter, sentient beings constantly cling to it as their inner self; if it were associated with painful and pleasant feelings, it would have shifts and alterations, and how could they cling to it as an ātman? Therefore, it is constantly associated with neutral feeling. [7] "It is unobstructed and neutral" is the door of distinction among the three natures. Dharmas are of four kinds: wholesome, unwholesome, obstructed neutral, and unobstructed neutral. This consciousness is exclusively unobstructed and neutral because it is of the nature of vipāka. If vipāka were wholesome or defiled, saṃsāra and the attainment of nirvāṇa could not be established. Furthermore, this consciousness is the support of both wholesomeness and defilement; if it were wholesome or defiled, they would mutually conflict, and it could not serve as the support for both. Furthermore, this consciousness has the nature of being perfumed; if it were wholesome or defiled, like an extremely fragrant or foul odor, it would not receive perfuming; and without being perfumed, the causes and fruits of both defilement and purification would fail to be established. Therefore, this is exclusively unobstructed and neutral. "Obstructed" refers to defiled dharmas, because they obstruct the noble path and can veil the mind, rendering it impure. Because this consciousness is not defiled, it is called unobstructed. "Determinable" refers to good and evil, because their desirable and undesirable fruits, as well as their superior and inferior natural states, can be determinately recorded. Because this is neither good nor evil, it is called neutral (indeterminate). [8] "Contact and the others are also like this" is the door of the caittas following the lead of the sovereign [mind]. That is, just like the ālaya, contact, attention, and the rest are also vipāka; their objects and cognitive aspects are both ungraspable; they grasp three kinds of objects; they are associated with five dharmas; and they are unobstructed and neutral. Therefore, it says "contact and the others are also like this." This is spoken in accordance with what is applicable, not meaning everything. Otherwise, just as consciousness is called "possessing all seeds," contact and the rest would also receive perfuming and hold seeds, which would mean a single sentient being would have six seed-substances. [9] "Constantly revolving like a torrential stream" is the door of the principle and simile of dependent origination. "Constantly" means that from beginningless time, this consciousness continues in a single uniform category without interruption, because it is the basis for positing realms, destinies, and births, and because its nature holds fast to seeds without letting them be lost. "Revolving" means that from beginningless time, this consciousness arises and ceases moment by moment, undergoing mutation before and after; cause ceases and fruit arises, so it is neither permanent nor single; it can be said that the pravṛtti-vijñānas perfume and form seeds. "Constantly" precludes cessation; "revolving" expresses impermanence. It is just like a torrential stream, where cause and effect are naturally so. As the water of a torrential stream is neither interrupted nor permanent, continuing for a long time and carrying things along, so too is this consciousness: from beginningless time, arising and ceasing in succession, it is neither permanent nor interrupted, carrying sentient beings along so they cannot escape. Again, as a torrential stream, though struck by winds and the like, gives rise to waves while its flow is unbroken, so too is this consciousness: though encountering various conditions to give rise to the eye-consciousness and so forth, it is constantly continuous. Again, as a torrential stream carries water up and down while fish, grasses, and other things follow the current without leaving, so too is this consciousness: it constantly revolves in continuous succession together with internal vāsanās and external dharmas such as contact. These principles and similes are intended to reveal that this consciousness's beginningless cause and effect have the meaning of being neither interrupted nor permanent. That is, the nature of this consciousness from beginningless time is that in every single moment, the fruit arises and the cause ceases. Because the fruit arises, it is not interrupted; because the cause ceases, it is not permanent. Being neither interrupted nor permanent is the sublime principle of origination; therefore, it is said that this consciousness "constantly revolves like a stream." [10] "Abandoned at the stage of the arhat" is the door of the stage of transformation and abandonment. When the noble ones completely sever the kleśāvaraṇa once and for all, they are called arhats. At that time, because the heavy corruptions of defilements in this consciousness are forever cast away, it is spoken of as being abandoned. What is referred to here as "arhat" generally encompasses the unlearning fruit-stages of the three vehicles: because they have forever slain the thieves of defilement, are worthy of receiving the wonderful offerings of the world, and will never again undergo portioned birth. Furthermore, for bodhisattvas from the Immovable Ground onward, because all defilements never again operate, because they turn spontaneously within the swift torrent of the Dharma, because they can initiate all practices in the midst of all practices, and because they increase and flourish moment by moment, this stage is only then called irreversible bodhi. Since the view of self, craving, and the like directed at this consciousness no longer cling to and store it as their inner self, this stage may also be called that of an arhat. Due to this, the name ālaya is forever lost. However, because an arhat completely severs the heavy corruptions of defilements within this consciousness once and for all, they no longer cling to and store it as their inner self; they forever lose this name, and this is spoken of as being abandoned. It is not that the entire substance of the eighth consciousness is abandoned, lest an arhat would lack a consciousness to hold seeds and would immediately enter nirvāṇa without remainder at that time. However, although all sentient beings possess the eighth consciousness, various names are established according to different meanings. That is: it is sometimes called citta, because it is an accumulation perfumed by the seeds of various dharmas; it is sometimes called arhat, [or rather, ādāna,] because it holds fast to seeds and the material sense faculties without letting them go; it is sometimes called the support of the knowable, because it can serve as the support for all dharmas, both defiled and pure, that are knowable; it is sometimes called the seed-consciousness, because it can universally uphold all worldly and transworldly seeds. These names apply to all states. Or it is called ālaya, because it stores and collects all dharmas of the defiled category without losing them, and because the view of self, craving, and the like cling to and store it as their inner self. This name exists only among ordinary persons and those in training, not in the stage of non-training or among irreversible bodhisattvas, who lack the meaning of clinging to and storing defiled dharmas. Or it is called the vipāka consciousness, because it is the ripened fruit of wholesome and unwholesome karma that projects birth and death. This name exists only in the stages of ordinary persons, the two vehicles, and bodhisattvas, not in the stage of the Tathāgata, because [the former] possess the neutral dharma of vipāka. Or it is called the immaculate consciousness (amala-vijñāna), because it is the direct support of all pure dharmas of supreme purity. This name exists only on the ground of the Tathāgata, because bodhisattvas and the two vehicles hold impure seeds that can receive perfuming and have not yet attained the well-purified eighth consciousness. Because the name ālaya carries grave faults and is abandoned first, it is specifically spoken of here. The substance of the vipāka consciousness is abandoned by a bodhisattva when about to attain bodhi, and is abandoned by śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas when entering nirvāṇa without remainder. The substance of the immaculate consciousness is never abandoned, because the benefiting of sentient beings has no end. However, the eighth consciousness has two general states: (1) The impure state, which is subsumed under the neutral nature, is associated only with the five dharmas such as contact, and takes only the previously mentioned objects of appropriation and location as its sphere. (2) The pure state, which is subsumed exclusively under the wholesome nature, is associated with twenty-one caittas—namely, the five omnipresent, the five object-specific, and the eleven wholesome caittas. [This is because:] it is constantly associated with all minds; it always delights in directly knowing the observed object; it constantly holds fast to the observed object; it constantly remembers clearly the previously experienced object; the World-Honoured One has no unconcentrated mind; it constantly investigates all dharmas; it is constantly associated with extremely pure faith and the rest; it is free from defilement; and it is free from distraction. This [state] is also associated only with neutral feeling, because it operates spontaneously, constantly, and equanimously; and it takes all dharmas as its cognitive sphere, because the Great Mirror Wisdom universally grasps all dharmas. The characteristics of the first pariṇāma have thus been explained. What are the characteristics of the second pariṇāma? The verse says:

1.12

Next is the second transformation; / this consciousness is called manas.
It evolves dependent on that, taking that as its object; / its nature and characteristic are manana.
Four afflictions are constantly associated with it: / namely, self-ignorance and self-view,
together with self-pride and self-love, / and it is also associated with the remaining [caittas] such as contact.
It is subsumed under obscured indeterminate, / bound to whatever [plane] one is born into;
it does not exist in the arhat, in the attainment of cessation, / nor on the supramundane path.

1.13

Exposition: These three verses are broadly divided into two parts: first, showing the sequence; second, explaining the characteristics of the consciousness.
“Next is the second transformation” shows its sequence. Therefore the treatise's commentary states: “Following the first transforming consciousness of vipāka, next the characteristics of the transforming consciousness of manana should be distinguished.” Below, the characteristics of the consciousness are distinguished through ten gates.
“This consciousness is called manas” is the first: explaining the name. In the noble teachings, this consciousness is specially named manas because its constant and deliberate manana surpasses the other consciousnesses. How does this name differ from the sixth mano-vijñāna? This is a karmadhāraya compound, like the name “storehouse consciousness” (ālaya-vijñāna)—consciousness itself is manas. That [sixth consciousness] is a tatpuruṣa compound, like the name “eye-consciousness”—the consciousness is distinct from manas. However, fearing that this might be confused with that one, the noble teachings only establish the name “manas” for the seventh. Furthermore, the name “manas” is designated to distinguish it from citta and vijñāna, because its accumulation and viṣaya-vijñapti are inferior to the other consciousnesses. Or, it is named simply “manas” because it is intended to show that it is the immediate support for that mano-vijñāna.
“It evolves dependent on that” is the second: the support. “That” refers to the aforementioned first transforming consciousness. Because the noble ones teach that this consciousness depends on the storehouse consciousness, it only arises by taking the seeds of the consciousness and that actual consciousness as its simultaneously existing support (sahabhū-āśraya). Although it is without interruption, it undergoes changes, and it necessarily requires a support to arise. “Evolves” means flowing and turning, showing that this consciousness constantly relies on that consciousness to take its intentional object. Here, the meaning of the three kinds of supports should be clarified; fearing verbosity, it is not recorded here, as it is explained in the Commentary on the Hundred Dharmas.
“Taking that as its object” is the third: the intentional object. “That” refers to the aforementioned consciousness on which this relies. Because the noble ones teach that this consciousness takes the storehouse consciousness as its object, it only takes the darśanabhāga of the storehouse consciousness as the ātman; it does not take the nimittabhāga, the seeds within the consciousness, or the associated phenomena, grasping them as the possessions of an ātman (ātmīya), because the graspings of ātman and ātmīya do not arise simultaneously. This is because this consciousness constantly and continuously arises in a single uniform category, spontaneously driven by satkāya-dṛṣṭi, with no room for a separate view of ātmīya to arise. This is because within a single moment of mind, there can be no co-occurrence of distinct graspings of two objects such as permanence and so on. Nor should it be said that the two graspings occur in sequence, since from beginningless time this has evolved in a single uniform category. When it is said that the grasping of ātman and ātmīya is constantly associated [with it], this means that this grasps that as “the ātman of my ātman”; hence two expressions are spoken with regard to the meaning of a single view. In the state prior to āśraya-parāvṛtti, it only takes the storehouse consciousness as its object; if āśraya-parāvṛtti has been achieved, it universally takes all dharmas as its object, because the equality wisdom takes both the ultimate and the conventional as its objects.
“Its nature and characteristic are manana” are the fourth: self-nature, and fifth: cognitive operation (ākāra). Manas has manana as its self-nature, and it also uses that as its ākāra. From this, the distinct name established for it is also explained, for that which can deliberately deliberate is named manas. In the state prior to āśraya-parāvṛtti, it constantly and deliberately deliberates upon the grasped characteristic of ātman; in the state after āśraya-parāvṛtti, it also deliberately deliberates upon the characteristic of non-self.
“Four afflictions are constantly associated with it,” etc., is the sixth: association with the four afflictions. Here, “associated” shows the meaning of conjunction (saṃprayukta). This means that from beginningless time until āśraya-parāvṛtti, this manas spontaneously and constantly takes the storehouse consciousness as its object and is associated with four fundamental afflictions: namely, self-ignorance, self-view, together with self-love and self-pride. “Self-ignorance” refers to avidyā: being ignorant of the characteristic of ātman and deluded about non-self. “Self-view” refers to grasping at an ātman: falsely positing an ātman in phenomena that are not an ātman. “Self-pride” refers to haughtiness: producing self-elevation relying on the grasped ātman. “Self-love” refers to attachment to the self: producing indulgence and attachment toward the grasped ātman. “Together with” indicates that self-pride and self-love co-occur with self-view and self-pride, refuting the tenet of other schools that there is no such association. These four constantly arise, agitating and polluting the inner mind, causing the external pravṛtti-vijñānas constantly to become defiled. Due to this, sentient beings wander in saṃsāra and cannot escape; thus they are named afflictions (kleśa). There are ten kinds of them; why are there only four here? Because self-view is present, the remaining views do not arise, since two [distinct] wisdoms (prajñā) do not exist within a single moment of mind. Why must this consciousness have self-view? The two graspings [of views and precepts] and false views arise only through conceptual discrimination and are abandoned only by seeing [the truth] (darśana-heya), whereas the afflictions associated with this [manas] are purely innate (sahaja) and abandoned by cultivation (bhāvanā-heya). The view of possessions of an ātman and extreme views arise relying on self-view; the view associated with this [manas] does not rely on those. Because it constantly grasps internally that there is an ātman, it must have self-view. Because the view is decisive, doubt has no room to arise. Because it loves and clings to the ātman, hatred cannot arise. Therefore, only four afflictions are associated with this consciousness.
“And it is also associated with the remaining [caittas] such as contact” is the seventh: association with contact and so on. Here, “and” has the meaning of conjunction. The word “remaining” indicates the secondary afflictions (upakleśa). That is to say, it shows that manas is not only associated with the preceding four afflictions, but also arises together with those remaining secondary afflictions, contact, and so on. There are eighteen caittas associated with this manas: namely, the preceding four afflictions, the five dharmas of contact and so on, the eight major secondary afflictions, together with the specific-object [caitta of] understanding (mati/prajñā). The presence of the four afflictions has been explained as above. “Contact and so on” refers to the five omnipresent dharmas (sarvatraga), which are necessarily associated [with it]. The eight major secondary afflictions universally pervade defiled minds; since obscured manas is a defiled mind, [they are present]. Although self-view is subsumed under the specific-object understanding, because there is a difference in meaning they are opened into two. For what reason does this manas not have the remaining caittas? The ten [minor secondary afflictions] such as anger are coarse and active in their ākāra, whereas this consciousness is deliberate and subtle; hence it is not associated with them. Although lack of shame and lack of conscience are unwholesome, this [manas] is indeterminate; hence it is not associated with them. Zeal (chanda) desires a matter that has not yet been achieved and united with; this consciousness spontaneously takes as its object a realm that has already been achieved and united with. Resolve (adhimokṣa) determines an object that was previously not yet certain; this consciousness from beginningless time constantly takes as its object a determined thing. Mindfulness (smṛti) functions only by clearly remembering previously experienced things; this consciousness constantly takes as its object things currently manifested [by the storehouse consciousness]. Concentration (samādhi) functions only by binding the mind and focusing intently on a single point; this consciousness spontaneously takes different objects from moment to moment. Therefore, this is not associated with the four specific-object [caittas]. Wholesome [caittas] are purely clean; this consciousness is defiled; therefore, this is not associated with faith and so on. Remorse (kaukṛtya) regrets previously performed actions; this [manas] takes present objects. Drowsiness (middha) depends solely on the power of multiple external conditions; this consciousness arises internally. Applied thought (vitarka) and sustained thought (vicāra) function by taking coarse and subtle external matters as objects; this [manas] is of a single uniform kind. Therefore, the four indeterminate [caittas] are not associated with the four afflictions. Since from beginningless time it has spontaneously and uniformly taken the internal [storehouse consciousness] as object, grasping it as an ātman constantly without change, it is not associated with shifting feelings; therefore, this is associated only with equanimity (upekṣā). In the state prior to āśraya-parāvṛtti, it is associated with the minds described above. In the state after āśraya-parāvṛtti, only twenty-one caittas arise together with it, just like the eighth consciousness. In the state after āśraya-parāvṛtti, it is associated only with equanimity, because it arises spontaneously and constantly functions equally toward its objects.
“Subsumed under obscured indeterminate” is the eighth: distinction of the three natures. Because the four afflictions and so on associated with this manas are defiled, obstructing the noble path and obscuring its own mind, it is called obscured (nivṛta). Because it is neither wholesome nor unwholesome, it is called indeterminate (avyākṛta). Just as all the afflictions of the upper two realms, being held by the power of concentration, are indeterminate, the defiled dharmas associated with this [manas], because their support is subtle and they function spontaneously, are also subsumed under the indeterminate. If āśraya-parāvṛtti has been achieved, it is purely wholesome in nature.
“Bound to whatever [plane] one is born into” is the ninth: binding to planes. This means that the manas consciousness arises following the storehouse consciousness; whichever plane one is born into, it is bound to that plane. If one is born in the desire realm, the active manas and its associated caittas are bound to the desire realm; up to the summit of existence (bhavāgra), it should be known to be likewise. This is because it spontaneously and constantly takes the storehouse consciousness of its own plane as an intentional object, grasping it as an internal ātman, not that of other planes. If the vipāka storehouse consciousness of that plane is activated and present, one is called “born in that plane”; the defiled manas takes that as its object and grasps it as ātman, and is thereby bound and belongs to that plane, hence called “bound to that plane.” Alternatively, it means that being bound by the afflictions of that plane, it is called “bound to that plane.” If āśraya-parāvṛtti has been achieved, it is not bound.
“In the arhat, in the attainment of cessation, etc.” is the tenth: abandonment and suppression. “Arhat” generally designates the fruit of the stage of non-learning (aśaikṣa) in the three vehicles. At this stage, both the seeds and the active manifestations of the defiled manas are eternally severed and extinguished; therefore, it is said that it “does not exist.” In the attainment of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti) and the supramundane path of the stage of learning (śaikṣa), it is temporarily suppressed and halted; therefore, it is said that it “does not exist.” That is to say, defiled manas has functioned subtly, uniformly, and spontaneously since beginningless time; the various mundane paths are incapable of suppressing or halting it, whereas the noble paths of the three vehicles have the capacity to suppress and halt it, because the true understanding of non-self opposes grasping at an ātman. When the subsequently attained non-outflow [wisdom] manifests, being an outflow (niṣyanda) of that, it also opposes this manas. Because both the true understanding of non-self and the subsequently attained [wisdom] are free of outflows, they are named the supramundane path. Since the attainment of cessation is an outflow of the noble path and is extremely tranquil, this [defiled manas] also does not exist in it. Because its seeds have not yet been permanently severed, after one arises from the attainment of cessation and the noble path, this becomes active again until it is permanently extinguished. However, because the afflictions associated with this defiled manas are innate, they are not severed by seeing [the truth]. Because they are defiled, they are not non-severable. Because they are extremely subtle, all their seeds are severed at once and instantaneously together with the lowest-of-the-low afflictions of the stage of the summit of existence, because their strength is equal. When the vajropama-samādhi manifests, it abruptly severs these seeds and one becomes an arhat; therefore, in the stage of non-learning they never arise again. When the non-learners of the two vehicles turn toward the Mahāyāna, from the initial aspiration of mind until Buddhahood has not yet been attained, although they are truly bodhisattvas, they are also named arhats; because their meaning is equal, they are not separately mentioned. The statement that manas does not exist in these three stages is spoken with respect to the defiled portion; it does not mean there is no purified portion. Just as it is said that the ālaya does not exist in four stages, yet it does not mean there is no eighth consciousness, here too it should be understood likewise. There are roughly three varieties of this manas: first, associated with the view of a personal self (pudgala-ātmadṛṣṭi); second, associated with the view of a phenomenal self (dharma-ātmadṛṣṭi); third, associated with the equality wisdom (samatā-jñāna). The first extends to the continuities of all ordinary beings (pṛthagjana), the learners of the two vehicles, and the state of minds with outflows of a category of bodhisattvas prior to the eighth stage; they take the ālaya-vijñāna as object and produce the pudgala view. The second extends to the continuities of all ordinary beings, śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas, and the states where the fruit of the wisdom of the emptiness of dharmas is not present for all bodhisattvas; they take the vipāka-vijñāna as object and produce the view of a phenomenal self. The third extends to the continuities of all Tathāgatas, and the states where the fruit of the wisdom of the emptiness of dharmas is present during the path of seeing and the path of cultivation for bodhisattvas; they take the stainless vipāka consciousness and so on as objects and produce the equality wisdom. When the view of a personal self arises, that view of a phenomenal self is also active. Grasping at a self also arises based on grasping at phenomena, just as one must be confused about a stump before mistaking it for a person, and so on. Therefore, although the functions of the two views of self and phenomena differ, they are not contradictory; they rely on the same single understanding (mati). Just as eye-consciousness and so on are single in substance yet have multiple non-contradictory functions such as viṣaya-vijñapti of blue and so on, this too should be understood likewise. When the noble path and attainment of cessation of the learners of the two vehicles manifest, and during the path of cultivation of sudden-awakening bodhisattvas, or when the fruit of the wisdom of the emptiness of persons manifests for learners of gradual awakening, they all give rise to grasping at phenomena, because grasping at a self has already been suppressed. When the fruit of the wisdom of the emptiness of dharmas is not present for non-learners of the two vehicles and these gradual-awakening [bodhisattvas], they also only give rise to grasping at phenomena, because grasping at a self has already been severed. For all bodhisattvas of the eighth stage and above, all grasping at a self is permanently non-operational, because it has been permanently severed or permanently suppressed; when the fruit of the wisdom of the emptiness of dharmas is not present, they still give rise to grasping at phenomena, because they are not contradictory. Although the manas associated with grasping at phenomena is called undefiled for the two vehicles and so on, for bodhisattvas it is still called defiled, because it obstructs their wisdom. Therefore, this is also named obscured indeterminate; for the two vehicles and so on it is called unobscured, because it does not obstruct their wisdom. It is born of vipāka, because it is constantly produced from the vipāka consciousness; it is not the fruit of vipāka (vipāka-phala), because this name is general—just like the sovereign condition (adhipati-pratyaya), whatever is not subsumed under the rest is all subsumed under this. Thus the second transformation has been explained. What are the characteristics of the third transformation? The verse says:

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