Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v1.c6.s13: Ch

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v1.c6.s13

Language: English

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CHAKRA—The disc of Vishṇu, a type of building. See Mānasāra (lxv. 145, liv. 147, xxxii. 125, etc). A class of octangular buildings:
(1) Agni-Purāṇa (chap. 104, v. 20-21, see under Prāsāda).

v1.c6.s13.2

In connection with the foundations:

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Madhye chakraṁ tu bhaumena bhājanāntaṁ vinikshipet |
(M. XII. 137, see also 158).

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CHAKRA-KĀNTA—A class of the eleven-storeyd buildings. (M. XXXIX. 11-15, see under Prāsāda).

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CHAṆḌITA—A type of storeyed building, a ground-plan.

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A class of the nine-storeyed buildings (M. XXVII. 11-12, see under Prāsāda).

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A ground-plan in which the whole area is divided into sixty-four equal squares (M. VII. 9, see, for details, 77-110, cf. also VIII. 39 ; IX. 166, in connection with the village ; xv. 390, etc).

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CHATUR-AŚRA—(see Chatushkoṇa)—A type of building which is quadrangular in plan, has one storey and five cupolas.

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(1) Bṛihat-saṁhitā (LVI. 28 and Kaśyapa, J. R. A. S., N. S., vol. VI. p. 320, note 1).

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(2) Matsya-Purāṇa (chap. 269, v. 28, 53, see under Prāsāda).

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(3) Bhavishya-Purāṇa (chap. 130, v. 25, see under Prāsāda).

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CHATUR-MUKHA—(see under Grāma and Śālā)—Literally four-faced, a class of villages, a type of building, a kind of hall.

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A class of the four-storeyed buildings (M. XXII. 12-23, see under Prāsāda).

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A class of villages (M. IX. 3, cf. the description in detail, 490-507, see also XIX. 212).

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A class of śālās (halls, pavilion, etc., M. XXXV. 3-4, see under Śālā).

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Cf. Sarvvatobhadra-chatur-mukha-ratna-traya-rūpa-tri-bhuvana-tilaka-Jina-chaityālayavanu—“the Tribhuvana-tilaka-Jina-chaityālaya (temple) (which is) auspicious on every side (sarvatobhadra), has four faces (chaturmukha), and is the embodiment of the three jewels.”

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“The temple has four doors each of which opens on three identical stone images of the Tīrthaṁkaras Ara, Malli and Munisuvrata”.

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(Karkala Inscrip. of Bhairava II, line 17, Ep. Ind. vol. VIII. pp. 132, 135, notes 11, 12, and p. 134, note 3).

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CHATUR-VARGA—A set of four mouldings of the door, consisting of vedikā (platform), pāda (pillar), śiraḥ (spire) and śikhā (finial). (M. XXXIX. 154-156).

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CHATUR-VARGA-KĀNTAKA—A set of four architectural members. (M. XXXIII. 531).

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CHATUR-VIMŚATI-TĪRTHA—The twenty-four Jain saints or apostles. (M. LV. 90). Cf. Fergusson, Hist. of Ind. and East. Arch. (p. 748) :

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For reference to their images see Jina(ka).

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CHATUSH-KOṆA—Literally four-cornered, a type of quadrangular building (see under Chatur-aśra).

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(1) Bhavishya-Purāṇa (chap. 130, v. 25, see under Prāsāda).

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(2) Bṛihat-saṁhitā (Chap. LVI. 18, 28, see under Prāsāda).

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CHATUḤ-ŚĀLĀ—A house with four śālās (rooms, or halls), an open or closed quadrangle surrounded by buildings on all four sides, an enclosed court-yard.

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Evaṁ chatur-gṛihaṁ proktaṁ śālāyāṁ kalpayen na vā ||
Chatuś-śālā-pradeśe tu tad-adho-bhūmir uchyate ||
Madhya-maṇḍapa-saṁyuktaṁ chatur-gṛihaṁ udāhṛitam ||
(Kāmikāgama, XXXV. 5-7, 70, 93).
Chatuḥ-śāla-gra(gṛi)haṁ śreshṭhaṁ tri-śālaṁ madhyamaṁ bhavet |
Dvi-śālaṁ adhamaṁ proktaṁ hīnaṁ syād eka-śālakam ||
(Ibid. XXV. 13, 14).
Śālaikā daṇḍa-khaṇḍābhā dvi-śālā tad-dvayena tu |
Tat-trayena tri-śālā syāt chatuḥ-śālā chatushṭayī ||
Saptabhiḥ sapta-śālā syād evaṁ anyaṁ tu kīrtitaḥ (-m) ||
(Ibid. XXXV. 34, 35).
Shaḍ-bhāgena mahā-śālā chatuḥ-śālā tri-bhāgikām |
Madhya-śāla(-ir) yugāṁśena bhadra-śālā cha madhyame |
Anuśālā cha madhye cha chaika-bhāgena bhadrakam |
(M. XXVI. 17-19).

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Chatuḥ-śālam (Amarakosha, II. ii, 6).

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CHATUḤ-ŚILĀ—Literally four pieces of stone, a pedestal.

v1.c6.s13.32

Benasyaika(-kā)-śilā proktaṁ liṅgānāṁ tach-chatuḥ-śilā |

v1.c6.s13.33

CHATUH-STALA—The fourth storey, the general description (M. XII. 89-106), the eight classes (Ibid. 1-88). (See under Prāsāda).

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CHANDRA-KĀNTA—A ground-plan in which the whole area is divided into 1024 equal squares (M. VII. 50, see under Pada-vinyāsa), a class of the ten-storeyed buildings (M. XXVIII. 6-8, see under Prāsāda), one of the five Indian orders (Suprabhed-āgama, XXXI. 65, 66, see under Stambha).

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CHANDRA-ŚĀLĀ (-LIKĀ)—A room at the top of a house, a kind of windows.

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(1) Tri-chandra-śālā bhaved valabhī—the roof must have three dormer-windows. (Bṛihat-saṁhitā, LVI. 25, 27, *J. R. A. S., N. S., vol. VI. pp. 319, 320).

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(2) Pārśvayoś chandra-śāle'sya uchchhrāyo bhūmikā-dvayam | (Matsya-Purāṇa, chap. 269, v. 38, see also v. 40, 41, 42, 46).

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(3) Chandra-śālānvitā kāryyā bherī-śikhara-saṁyutā || (Garuḍa-Purāṇa, chap. 47, v. 44).

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(4) Tri-chandra-śālā bhaved valabhī | Bahu-ruchira-chandra-śālāḥ shaḍ-viṁśad-bhāga-bhūmiś cha | (Bhavishya-Purāṇa, chap. 130, v. 32, 34).

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(5) Hasti-pṛishṭha-yuktaṁ chandra-śālābhiś cha samanvitam (vimānam) || (Kāmikāgama, L. 92).

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(6) Kuṭṭimo'strī nibaddhā bhūś chandra-śālā śirogṛihaṁ | Commentary: chandrādi-dvayaṁ gṛihoparitana-gṛihasya uparam ādi-aṭṭālī ityādi prasiddhasya | (Amarakosha, II. 5, 8).

v1.c6.s13.42

CHARAṆA—A synonym of the pillar (M. XV. 4); a foot (M. LVIII. 3, etc.) (See under Stambha).

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CHARA-VĀSTU—A movable structure, a temporary building.

v1.c6.s13.44

Grāmādīnāṁ nagarādīnāṁ pura-pattana-kharvaṭe |
Koshṭha-kolādi-sarveshāṁ garbha-sthānaṁ ihochyate |
Sthira-vāstu-kukshi-deśe tu chara-vāstu tathāpi cha |

v1.c6.s13.45

CHARUKA — (see Ruchaka)—A type of building.

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Nishpaṭaṁ charukaṁ vidyāt sarvatraiva viśeshataḥ |

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(Kāmikāgama, xxxv. 91, see also 88-90 under Nandyāvarta).

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CHALA-DAṆḌA—The movable lamp-post.

v1.c6.s13.49

Chatur-aśraṁ vā tad ashṭāgraṁ vṛittaṁ vā chala-daṇḍakam |
Sthira-daṇḍa-viśāle tu mānāṅgula-vaśān nayet |

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(M. L. 84-85).

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CHALA-SOPĀNA—The movable stair-case. (M. xxx. 130, see under Sopāna).

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CHĀRA — A platform.

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Vṛishabhasya lakshaṇaṁ samyag vakshyate'dhunā |
Vimāne maṇḍape vāpi chāropari parinyaset |

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(M. LXII. 1, 3).

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CHĀRU-BANDHA—A type of base.

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Tato jāṅgala-bhūmiś ched adhishṭhānaṁ prakalpayet |
Tach chatur-vidham ākhyātam iha śāstre viśeshataḥ ||
Padma-bandhaṁ chāru-bandhaṁ pāda-bandham pratikramaṁ ||

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(Suprabhedāgama, XXXI. 16-17).

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CHĀRYĀ—A road which is eight cubits broad.

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Ashṭa-hasta-pramāṇa-mārgaḥ |

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(See Kauṭilīya-Arthaśāstra, under Patha).

v1.c6.s13.61

CHITRA—An image, a painting, a marble. A painting (M. xxxv. 402, etc). A kind of marble (M. LVI. 15, etc). A kind of octangular building (Agni-Purāṇa, chap. 104, v. 20-21, see under Prāsāda). A full relief or image whose whole body is fully shown :

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Sarvāṅgaṁ dṛiśyamānaṁ yat chitraṁ evaṁ prakathyate |

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(M. L. 1-9). See Suprabhedāgama (XXXIV, 3) under Ābhāsa.

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CHITRA-KALPA— A head-gear, an ornament.

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Patra-kalpaṁ chitra-kalpaṁ ratna-kalpaṁ cha miśritam।
Eshāṁ chatur-vidhaṁ proktaṁ kuryād ābharaṇaṁ budhaḥ।

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(M. L. 3-4).

v1.c6.s13.67

CHITRA-KARṆA —A kind of pillar. (M. xv. 30, see under Stambha).

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CHITRA-TORAṆA—(see Toraṇa) - A type of arch.

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Tad eva (like the Makara-toraṇa) pārśvayor madhyaṁ pūritaṁ cha dvayor (makarayor) api।
Nakra-tuṇḍa-prāg-grahaiś cha tayor āsya-vinirgataiḥ॥
Vidyādharaiś cha bhūtaiś cha siṁhe(-hairi)va vyāla-haṁsakair api।
Bāle srag-daṇḍakair anyair maṇi-bandhair vichitritam॥
Chitra-toraṇam etat syād devānāṁ bhū-bhṛitāṁ varam।
Ihāsu pratimādyāsu pādāḥ sarvāṅga-śobhitāḥ॥
Chatur-asrāshṭa-vṛittābhā kumbha-maṇḍyā saṁyutāḥ।
Pottikā-sahitā vā syur viyuktā vā prakīrtitāḥ॥
Utsandhād avalambaṁ tu kuryān makara-pṛishṭhakam॥

v1.c6.s13.70

(Kāmikāgama, LV. 66-70).

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CHITRA-PAṬṬA—A moulding of the pillar. (M. xv. 34, see the lists of mouldings under Adhishṭhāna and Upapīṭha).

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CHITRA-SKAMBHA—A column with all characteristics of the Padma-kānta (see below) except the āsana (seat). (M. xv. 39, see under Stambha).

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CHITRĀBHĀSA—(see Ābhāsa)—A kind of marble, an image. (M. LVI. 15, see under Ābhāsa).

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Śilodbhavānāṁ vi(bi)mbānāṁ chitrābhāsasya vā punaḥ।
Jalādhivāsanaṁ proktaṁ vṛishendrasya prakīrtitam॥

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(Liṅga-Purāṇa, part II, Uttara-bhāga, chap. 48, v. 43).

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An image painted on a paṭa ' a piece of cloth, a tablet, a plate) or wall (Suprabhedāgama, XXXIV. 4, see under Ābhāsa).

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CHITRĀRDHA—A half relief or an image half of whose body is shewn.

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CHULLĪ—A building lacking a southern hall, an apartment of three divisions, one looking north, another east, and the third west.

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Yāmyā-hīnaṁ chullī tri-śālakaṁ vitta-nāśa-karam etat ।

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(Bṛihat-saṁhitā, LIII. 38, J. R. A. S., N. S., vol. VI. p. 282).

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CHŪLIKĀ—(CHŪLĪ)—A tower, a head-ornament, the capital, the top.

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(1) Antar vapra(ḥ) bahir bhittiś cheshṭaṁ dīrghaṁ cha chūlikā ।

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In connection with the joinery :
Etat suvṛitta-pādānāṁ tri-karṇaṁ vakshyate 'dhunā ।
Tad eva cha tri-karṇaṁ syāt tri-chūlikam eva cha ।

v1.c6.s13.84

In connection with the gopura or gate-house (M. XXXIII. 313).

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In connection with the maṇḍapa (pavilion) :

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Tad(prastara)-ūrdhve maṇḍapānāṁ cha chūlikā-karṇa-harmyakam ।

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An ornament for the head :
Lamba-hāraṁ api chūlikādibhiḥ । (M. L. 301).

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(2) Stambhasya parikshepāsh shaḍ-āyāmā dvi-guṇo nikhātaḥ chūlikāyāś chatur-bhāgaḥ—“in fixing a pillar 6 parts are to form its height on the floor, twice as much (12 parts) to be entered into the ground, and one-fourth for its *capital*.”

v1.c6.s13.89

(3) Trichūlī vaiśya-śūdrāṇāṁ pañcha sapta mahībhṛitāṁ । Brāhmaṇānāṁ tathaiva syur ekādaśa tu vedikaḥ ॥ Pāshaṇḍāśramiṇāṁ yugma-saṁkhyā chūlī vidhīyate ॥

v1.c6.s13.90

The synonyms of chūlikā :
St(h)ūpikā cha ghaṭaḥ kīlo śūlakaḥ st(h)ūpir ity-api ।
Śikhā st(h)ūpir iti khyātā chūlikā cha dvijottamāḥ ॥

v1.c6.s13.91

CHŪLI-HARMYA—(cf. Chulli)—A tower, a room at the top of a house.

v1.c6.s13.92

(1) Prastarordhve viśesho'sti chūli-harmyādi-maṇḍitam।
(2) Ekāneka-talāntaṁ syāt chūli-harmyādi-maṇḍitam।
(3) Chūli-harmya-yutaṁ chorddhve chāgra-dvāra-śamanvitam ॥
Sorddhva-vāstavya-saṁyuktaṁ chūliharmya-yutaṁ tu vā ॥
Sā bhūmir maṇḍapāgāra-chūli-harmya-vibhūshitā ॥
Athavā maṇḍaporddhve tu chūli-harmya-vibhūshitāṁ ।
Talādhishṭhāna-pādebhyah kiṁchid-ūna-pramāṇakam ॥
(4) Prākāra-madhye kṛitvā vāpīṁ pushkariṇīṁ dvāraṁ chatuśśālam adhyardhāntarāṇikaṁ kumārī-puraṁ muṇḍa-harmyaṁ dvi-talaṁ muṇḍaka-dvāraṁ bhūmi-dravya-vaśena vā tribhāgādhikāyāmāḥ bhāṇḍa-vāhinīḥ kulyāḥ kārayet!
"In the centre of the parapets, there shall be constructed a deep lotus pool; a rectangular building of four compartments, one within the other; an abode of the goddess Kumāri (?) having its external area 1½ times as broad as that of its innermost room; *a circular building with an arch way*; and in accordance with available space and materials, there shall also be constructed canals (?) to hold weapons and three times as long as broad."

v1.c6.s13.93

Pandit Shama Śāstri's translation, as given above, does not seem to have resulted from a happy construction of the text. 'Kumārīpura', '*muṇḍa-harmya*' and 'dvi-tala (two-storeyed) muṇḍaka-dvāra' bear apparently some technical meanings which are not well expressed in the translation.

v1.c6.s13.94

'Muṇḍa-harmya' might be identical with 'chūli-harmya' inasmuch as 'muṇḍa' and 'chūli' are almost synonyms, both meaning top or summit (see Kumārī-pura).

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CHAITYA—(CHAITYĀLAYA)—A monumental tomb, a sanctuary, ate , | .

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(1) Tasminn Iruga-daṇḍeśa-pure chāru-śilāmayam |
Śrī-Kunthu-Jinanāthasya chaityālayam achīkarat ||
“In this city the general Iruga caused to be built of fine stones a temple (chaityālaya) of the blessed Kunthu, the Lord of Jinas.”
(Vijayanagara Inscrip. of Harihara II, v. 28, H. S. I. I. vol. I. no. 152, pp. 158, 160).

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(2) Pārśvanā thasya Arhataḥ śilāmayaṁ chaityālayam achīkarat |'
“—caused a temple (chaityālaya) of stone to be built to the Arhat Pārśvanātha.”
Cf. Bhavya-paritosha-hetuṁ śilāmayaṁ setum akhila-dharmmasya |
Chaityāgāraṁ achīkarad ādharaṇi-dyumaṇi-hima-kara-sthai-ryyam ||
(Vijayanagara Inscrip. of Devaraja II, v. 20, H. S. I. I. no. 153, pp. 162, 164, 166).

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(3) Śrī-yogasvāminaḥ...........eshā Malukaya-chaityā—this is the Malukaya temple of the god Yoga Svāmin.
(Sanskrit and old Canarese Inscrip. no. 170, Asni Inscrip. of Mahipala, line 7 f. Ind. Ant. vol. XVI. p. 175, note 12).

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(4) Abode chātiyaṁ—“The chaitya on (Mount) Arbuda.”
Miga-samadakaṁ chetaya—“The chaitya which gladdens the antelopes.”
(Bharaut Inscrip. nos. 5, 11, Ind. Ant. vol. XXI. pp. 227, 228).

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(5) “Kāyastha Palhadeva (or Palhaja)...........built a tank and a temple (chaitya) of Śambhu (Śiva), and also laid out a garden.”
(Narwar Stone Inscrip. of Ganapati of Nalapura, v. 22-25, Ind. Ant, vol. XXII. p. 81).

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(6) Boppaṇāpara-nāmāṅkaś chaityālayam achīkarat---" he, having another name Boppaṇa, had the Jaina temple made."

v1.c6.s13.102

" They caused to be erected the lofty chaityālaya called Trijagan-maṅgalam, and set up (the god) Māṇikya-deva; also caused to be repaired the Parameśvara-chaityālaya which the blessed ones (or Jains) had formerly erected in Hullanahaḷḷi and granted lands to provide for the offerings at the two chaityālayas." (Ep. Carnat. vol. III. Nanjangūd Taluq, no. 64, Transl. pp. 101, 102, Roman text, p. 193).

v1.c6.s13.103

(8) " Caused to be set up afresh the image of the Tīrtha(ṅ)-kara Chandraprabha, the god Vijaya and the goddess Jvālini, in the chaityālaya at Kelasūr, which he had caused to be repaired and painted anew." (Ep. Carnat. vol. IV. Guṇḍlupet Taluq, no. 18, Transl. p. 38).

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(9) Aneka-ratna-khachita-ruchira-maṇi-kalaśa-kalita-kūṭa-koṭi-ghaṭitam apy-uttuṅga-chaityālayamaṁ---" having erected in...........a lofty chaityālaya, with kalaśas or towers surmounted by rounded pinnacles set with all manner of jewels." (Ep. Carnat. vol. VI. Muḍgere Taluq, no. 22, Roman text, p. 148, line 12, Transl. p. 63, para 2).

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(10) " Chaityas or Assembly halls—These in Buddhist art correspond in every respect with the churches of the Christian religion. Their plans, the position of the altar or relic-casket, the aisles, and other peculiarities are the same in both, and their uses are identical, in so far as the ritual forms of the one religion resemble those of the other." (Fergusson, Hist. of Ind. and East. Arch. pp. 50-51).

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For architectural details of the existing (Buddhist) chaitya-halls see Fergusson :

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Plans of chaity hall at Sanchi (p. 105, fig. 41).

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Lomas Rishi cave (p. 109, figs. 43, 44). Plan and elevation of Chaitya cave at Bhaja (pp. 110-111, figs. 45-47). Plan of cave at Nassick (p. 115, fig. 49). Plan, section, elevation and view, of Cave at Karli (pp. 117-118, 120, figs. 54, 53, 55, 56). Cross section and view of Caves at Ajunta (pp. 123-125, figs. 58, 57, 59, 60). Cave at Ellora (p. 128, fig. 63). Plan of Cave at Dhumnar (p. 131, fig. 65).

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(11) See Buddhist cave-temples (Arch. Surv. new Imp. Series vol. IV. the chaitya-cave at Kondane, photo, facing the title page).

v1.c6.s13.110

(12) “The word chaitya is derived from the root ‘chin chayane,’ to collect, and the commentary on Amara, called the Gurubālaprabodhikā, says that it denotes a building, because it is the result of the collection or puttiug together of stones (chīyate pāshāṇādinā chaityam). But it will be seen that in some of the above quotations the word is used in close connection with yūpa, the sacrificial post. The ceremony performed at the end of the great sacrifices is called chayana, i.e., the collection of the sacred ashes and other relics and the grouping them into the form of a tortoise, or of the bird Garutmat as in the sacrifice called Garuḍachayana; chita being the sacred things thus collected, it appears that the building constructed to preserve them for the purpose of worship was called chaitiya or chaitya.”

v1.c6.s13.111

“This place of worship. from its connection with Vedic rites. is probably of older date than the devāyatanas.”

v1.c6.s13.112

“It is, therefore, clear that the Rāmāyaṇa alludes to the Brāhmaṇical and not to the Bauddha Chaitya. The commentators are not consistent in saying that chaitya means a Brāhmaṇical building when it is mentioned in connection with Rāma and his country, a Buddhist building when mentioned in connection with the enemy’s country, forgetting that Vālmīki has peopled Laṅkā with Vedic students and sacrificers without ever mentioning the Buddhists”.

v1.c6.s13.113

“No. 7 (Rāmāyaṇa, v. 12, 17) mentions chaitya trees, so called probably because instead of constructing a building it was also the custom to plant trees with revetment round their stems, where the chayana ceremony was performed. In course of time, however, all reveted trees began to be called chaitya trees; and to such trees, which are generally found in all villages, Kālidāsa evidently alludes when describing the Daśārṇa country in his Meghadūta. Mallinātha quotes Viśva (chaityaṁ āyatane Buddhavandye choddeśapādape).”

v1.c6.s13.114

“The ceremony performed after the burning of dead bodies is saṁchayana, in which, after collecting the bones, a portion of the ashes is grouped into a human form, and baśāli or food offered to it. I take the śmaśāna-chaitya alluded to in no. 9, to be a monumental building erected on such spot in memory of departed kings and other great personages.”

v1.c6.s13.115

“It may, therefore, be presumed that in accordance with custom a chaitya was built in memory of Buddha, and that his disciples began to worship and multiply it by taking his funeral relics to different parts of the country, while the sacrificial chaityas of the Brāhmaṇs became scarce owing to the opposition made by the Bauddhas to animal sacrifices, and the Brāhmaṇs themselves having prohibited the aśvamedha for the Kaliyuga.”

v1.c6.s13.116

“It will be seen that the Rāmāyaṇa mentions temples and idolatry; but these seem to be of old date in India, though not so very prevalent as at present. Stenzler’s Gautama Sūtra (9, 66) prescribes the going round of Dēvāyatana; griha-dēvatās or household gods are mentioned (in 5, 13).”

v1.c6.s13.117

(13) "Properly speaking it is not the temple (Chaitya-griha) but the dagaba inside it that is called a Chaitya. In a secondary sense it is used by Jainas and Buddhists, however, to denote a temple containing a Chaitya, and is also applied in Buddhist books to a sacred tree as well as to a stūpa".
"Hence it is closely connected in meaning with stūpa. Chaityas were known before Buddha's time (see J. As. Soc. Beng., vol. VII, p. 1001, cf. Alwis, Buddhism, pp. 22, 23)." Dr. Burgess.

Linked texts (19)

Mānasāra — Sanskrit
Suprabhedāgama — Sanskrit
Liṅgapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Bṛhatsaṃhitā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
Gautamadharmasūtra — Gautama (dharmasūtrakāra), Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Agnipurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Kāmikāgama — Sanskrit
Garuḍapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Matsyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Bhaviṣyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Viśvaprakāśa — Maheśvara (lexicographer), Sanskrit
Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod) — Classical Tibetan
Meghadūta — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Epigraphia Carnatica
Sāñcī
Lomas Rishi Cave
Asni Inscription of Mahipala.—(Vikrama)-Samvat 974 (ed. Fleet 1887) — Sanskrit
Bhārhut inscription (No. 84) — Prakrit