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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v4.c30.s1: Chapter I: The Contents

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v4.c30.s1

Language
English

Contents

Chapter I: The Contents

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1-2. He (Brahmā), while causing the creation, the preservation, and the destruction of the worlds, brings forth earth, water, fire, air, and the sky. I bow to (His) lotus-like feet kissed by the waving lines of bees-like crowns of the kings of various gods.

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3-4. The science of architecture, enunciated by all the great sages beginning with Him (Śiva) who carries the Ganges on His head, the lotus-born (Brahmā), the lotus-eyed (Vishṇu), Indra, Bṛihaspati, and Nārada, has been elaborated by the sage Mānasāra having made the subject-matter even more than complete.

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5-6. In the first place (is described) the system of measurement preceded by (an account of) the qualifications of architects; then (comes) the classification of *vāstu*¹, (and) likewise the examination of the soil.

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¹ *Vāstu* comprises four things, namely, ground, building, conveyance, and couch (see chapter III, 3)

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7-8. Then is described the selection of the site, the rules for erecting the gnomon, (and) the arrangement of ground-plans for assigning the quarters of gods and others.²

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² Including divine and semi-divine beings, as well as demons.

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9-10. So also the rules regarding (architectural) offerings (to deities) and the details of (various) village-schemes, as also of the town-plans, together with the regulations regarding the dimensions of storeys.

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11-14. Similarly the rules for laying the foundations as well as the details of pedestals, the rules for bases, as also a description of pillars, of entablatures, and of wood joinery, similarly, the general description of mansions, together with the details of the one-storeyed buildings.

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15-20. The directions for the second storey, the description of the third storey, the rules for the fourth storey, the description of the fifth storey, of the sixth and the seventh storeys, and also of the eighth and the ninth storeys, the rules for the tenth storey, and an account of the eleventh storey, and the description of the twelfth storey, and the details of the courts (of a compound), the (temples of) attendant deities, and the description of gate-houses.

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21-22. The description of the *maṇḍapa* buildings (i.e., pavilions) and of the *śālā* buildings (i.e., halls) together with the arrangement of buildings (in a compound) and the directions for the first entry into the house.

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23-26. The directions for the location of doors and the description of door-measurement, so also the details of royal palaces, and an account of royal courts, and characteristics of kings, and the description of chariots, conveyances, etc., and the details of couches and the description of thrones.

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27-28. The details of the arches, the central theatres and the ornamental trees, the description of (crowns and) coronations, as also an account of all kinds of ornaments (and articles of furniture).

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29-30. The description of the images of the Triad consisting of Brahmā and others, the details of the phallus and the description of (its) pedestal, similarly an account of the female deities.

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31-32. The description of the Jain images and of Buddhist images, as also the description of the images of sages, and the description of the images of the (demi-gods,) Yakshas, Vidyādharas and others, and of the devotees.

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33–34. The description of the images of various riding animals of Brahmā and other deities, and the rules for images (in general) and an account of the large type of the ten *tāla*¹ measurement.

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¹ A technical term implying a kind of sculptural measurement.

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35–38. The description of the intermediate type of the ten *tāla* system for the measurement of the images of female (deities), the details of the plumb-lines, as also the rules for casting (images) in wax, similarly, is given an account of all defects of the component parts and (the directions for) chiselling the eyes (of images); all these descriptions are given in order.

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39–40. This treatise composed by the professors of architecture² was named (after) the sage Mānasāra. This has been accepted, complete as it is in all details, by the best among the teachers of the leading architects.

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² More literally ‘by the sages known as Mānasāra’ (literally essence of measurement), i.e., by those who specialize in mensuration or measuring which is a very important feature of the science of architecture. The term *mānasāra* has been used in three different senses: (i) as a generic name of architects, (ii) as the title of the treatise, and (iii) as the individual name of its author or compiler, *cf.* chapter LXX, concluding lines, chapter XXXIII, 2, LXVIII, 11, chapter LXIX, 216. As the possible name of an architect it is mentioned in the Holal inscription (Epigraphist’s Report, 1914-15, p. 90) and the *Agni-purāṇa* (chapter XLII, 127), and as the name of a king in the *Daśa-kumāra-charita* (ed. Kale, pp. 4, 12, 43). For more details see the writer’s *Indian Architecture*, pp. 2, 3, 4.

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Thus in the *Mānasāra*, the science of architecture, the first chapter, entitled:

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THE QUALIFICATIONS OF A CHITECTS AND THE SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

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1. I shall (now) describe the qualifications of architects (and) the system of measurement in order.

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2. From the supreme Śiva (emanate) the creator Brahmā and also Indra.

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3-4. That He is the great architect of the universe is proclaimed by God Himself. It is He who as the architect of the universe creates the world again.

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5. This Viśva-karman (the architect of the universe) is born with four faces like those of Brahmā and others.

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6. I shall separately mention the four names (of the faces) beginning with the eastern one.

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7-9. Of these, the eastern face is known by the name of Viśva-bhū (progenitor of the universe), the southern face (is known by the name of) Viśva-vit (knower of the universe), and similarly, the northern face is named Viśvastha (resident in the universe), (and) the western face (bears) the designation of Viśva-sraṣṭar (creator of the universe). Thus (is named) the fourfold face.

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10. From these (faces) four (families of) architects were first born.

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11-12. From the eastern face was born Viśva-karmā, from the southern face Maya, from the northern face Tvaṣṭar, while (the one born) from the western face is known as Manu.

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13-16. Viśva-karmā married the daughter of Indra, and then in order Maya married the daughter of Surendra, afterwards Tvashtar married the daughter of Vaiśravaṇa, while, the fourth (one), Manu, married the daughter of Nala.

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17. The son of him bearing the name of Viśva-karman is called *sthapati* (master-builder).

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18. Maya's son is known as *sūtra-grāhin* (draftsman).

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19. The son of the sage Tvashtar is called *vardhaki* (designer).

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20. Manu's son is *takshaka* (carpenter). These are four (architects), (namely), the *sthapati* and the others.

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21. Among these four the *sthapati* is known as the *guru* (guide) of the other three.

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22. The *sūtra-grāhin* is now-a-days said to be the *guru* (guide) of the (next) two among the four.

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23. The *guru* (guide) of the *takshaka* is known by the name of *vardhaki*.

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24-25. The *sthapati* knows all the *śāstras* (branches of knowledge). The *sūtra-grāhin* holds the *sūtra* (measuring-string). The *vardhaki* is well-versed in the work of measurement. The *takshaka* is so called because of his carpentering.

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26-27. The *sthapati* is capable of directing, knows the Vedas, (and) is deeply learned in the *śāstra* (science of architecture). The *sthapati* is so called because he is the director-general (of architecture, i.e., the master-builder).

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28-29. Under the directions of the *sthapati* the *sūtra-grāhin* and all the others always carefully carry out the building-work in accordance with the rules of the science (of architecture).

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30. The four classes, consisting of the *sthapati* and the others, are distinguished by the architects.

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31. The *sthapati* is known to be endowed with the qualifications of an *āchārya* (director).

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32. The *sūtra-grāhin* (also) knows the Vedic literature, is well-versed in the *śāstras* (branches of knowledge), and is an expert in (architectural) drawing.

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33. The *vardhaki* also knows the Vedic literature, capable of (correctly) judging (architectural matters), and is an expert in the work of painting.

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34–35. The *takshaka* knows well (his) work (carpentry), is sociable, helpful (to his colleagues), faithful to his friends, and kind in nature. The Vedic literature should also be studied (by him). (Thus) all (his) qualifications are described.

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36–38 In this (building-work) nowhere in the world success can be achieved without the help of the architect and the guide; therefore, with the help of these (architects) (the building-work) should be carried out, because without following this instruction no one can successfully attain fruition and the final object (i.e, completion).

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39. The qualifications of the architects have been (thus) described; the system of measurement will (now) be elaborated.

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40–41. What is perceptible to the eye of the sages is called a *paramāṇu* (atom), and eight times this is known as a *ratha-dhūli* (lit. car-dust, molecule).

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42. Eight of the molecules combined are what is known as a *vālāgra* (hair-end).

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43. Eight hair-ends joined together make what is called a *likshā* (nit).

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44. Eight nits combined together are called a *yūka* (louse).

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45. Eight lice together are called a *yava* (barley-corn).

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46. Eight barley-corns combined together make what is called an *aṅgula* (finger-breadth).

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47–48. Each of these (modes of measurement) is said to be of three kinds, especially with regard to (the increment of) *yava*-measurement. With six, seven, and eight barley-corns are (distinguished respectively) the smallest, the intermediate, and the largest *yava* measurements.

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49. Twelve *aṅgulas* together are called one *vitasti* (span).

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50. Two *vitas!* make a *kishku* (small cubit) and an *aṅgula* added to them, it is a *prājāpatya* (cubit).

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51. A cubit of twenty-six *aṅgulas* is known as *dhanur-mushṭi*.

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52. A cubit of twenty-seven *aṅgulas* is called a *dhanur-graha*.

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53. Four *dhanur-mushṭi* cubits make a *daṇḍa* and eight *daṇḍas* make one *rajju*.

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54. The *kishku* cubit is used in measuring conveyances and couches.

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55. The *prājāpatya* cubit is used in measuring all kinds of mansions.

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56. And the edifices are measured in what is (called) the *dhanur-mushṭi* cubit.

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57. Measurement of villages and such other objects should be carried out in the *dhanur-graha* cubit.

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58. But the measurement in *kishku* cubit may otherwise be used in measuring all the objects.

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59-60. *Samī* (Acacia suma), *śāka* (Ocinum sanctum), *chāpa* (? bow-tree), *khadira* (Acacia catechu), *tamālaka* (Xanthochymus pictorius), *kshīriṇī* (milk-tree) and *tindiṇī* (tamarind tree) are known as the kinds of wood for the yard-stick.

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61-63. After selecting the wood (for the yard-stick) it should be dipped into water for three months. After having been washed it should be taken out (of water) and be split by the carpenter. The sapped part of that hewn timber should be shaped into a (solid) four-sided (piece).

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64-65. It should be one cubit long, one *aṅgula* (three-fourths inch) broad, and its thickness is stated to be a half *aṅgula*. The yard-stick (lit. cubit-measure) should be accurately marked.

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66-67. Either *kramuka* (betel nut tree) or *veṇu* (bamboo) is stated to be (fit as) the timber for the (measuring) rod (which should be) neither bent, nor broken, nor porous but smooth.

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68. Vishṇu is stated to be the tutelary god of (the wood for) both the yard-stick and the (measuring) rod.

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69-71. The rope-marker should make the rope (*rajju*) with the split husk of cocoanut, with the *kuśa*-grass (poa cynosuroides), the bark of the banyan tree, silk cotton, and *kiṁśuka* (butea frondosa) thread, bark of the palm tree, and *ketaka* (pandanus odoratissimus), or with any other suitable bark.

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72. Measuring sidewise, the width of the measuring rope should be one *aṅgula*.

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73-74. The rope should be made free from knots and three-fold for (measuring the architectural objects of) the Gods, Brahmins (earthly-gods) and Kings (Kshatriyas), two-fold for (those of) the Vaiśyas, and of single-fold for (those of) the Śūdras.

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75. Vāsuki (serpent-god) is the presiding deity of the (measuring) rope, and Brahmā is known as the presiding deity of measurement.

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76-77. Thus ascertaining the yard-stick (cubit), the rope and similarly, the measuring rod, and remembering those presiding deities the *vardhaki* should carry out the measurement (of an object).

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78. Thus measured the architectural objects are attended with success.

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79. One who does what is not prescribed becomes recipient of scanty result.

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80. The architect should, therefore, avoid (the unprescribed things) but he should thoroughly do that (which has been prescribed)

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Thus in the *Mānasāra*, the science of architecture, the second chapter, entitled :

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The description of the details of measurement.

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THE CLASSIFICATION OF ARCHITECTURE

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1-2. The various abodes where gods and men dwell have been noticed by the divine sages; those objects will also be elaborated now (in this science of architecture).

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3. The ground, the edifice and other buildings, the conveyance, and the bedstead and other couches are the four classes (of architectural objects).

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4. Of these classes the ground is the chief object for all purposes.

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5-6. The mansion and other buildings are truly called dwellings because of their connection with the (chief) object (the ground). Indeed these buildings are stated to be the (main architectural) object by those who specialise in the knowledge of architecture.

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7-8. The palace, the pavilion, the council-chamber, the hall, similarly the water-shed, and also the theatre: all these are stated by the ancients to be (understood by the term) edifice (*harmya*).

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9-10. The fast conveyance, the car, the palanquin, and similarly, the chariot: all these, Oh architect, are known as the kinds of conveyance. The bedstead will similarly be described (now).

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11-12. The cage, the swing, the sofa, the eight-legged crow-(shaped) bed, the plank-bed, similarly the small bed: all these are stated to be (implied by the term) couch (*paryaṅka*).

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13. These are said to be the four main topics, namely, the ground and the others.

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14. The earth becomes the abode of all beings because of the sun.

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15-16. The contour, the colour, the odour, the features, the sound, the taste, and the touch: by examining these in order the site (for a building) is ascertained for measurement.

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17. The site, selected after all these tests, is (further tested) differently for the different castes (lit. the twice-born).

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18-20. That site is auspicious for the Brahmins, which is square (in shape), whitish in colour, possessing the fig tree, sloping towards the north, and sweet and fragrant in taste.

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21-23. With (the length) exceeding the breadth by one-eighth, reddish in colour, with declivity towards the east, bitter in taste, possessing the peepal tree (ficus religiosa), and wide in size: such a site is suitable and prosperous to the Kshatriyas (lit. the kings).

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24-26. With the length exceeding the breadth by not more than one-sixth, yellowish in colour, possessing the fig tree (ficus infectoria), with declivity towards the east, and sour in taste: such a site is auspicious and the source of all success to the Vaiśyas (lit. the merchant class).

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27-29. With the length exceeding the breadth of four parts by one part (i. e. one-fourth), possessing the banyan tree, black in colour, pungent in taste, and with declivity towards the east: such a site bears prosperity to the Śūdras.

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30. Of the sites described above the (first) two are stated to be the best and the (last) two fair.

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31. The ground (which is) the chief of the (four classes of architectural) objects is thus described; all the four classes are (treated in) the same (manner).

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32. The classification of architectural objects is thus described. They are (further) distinguished (separately) for (the different castes, namely,) the twice-born and the other.

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33-34. All (kinds of sites) are suitable to the Brahmins, especially to the Gods, and for the Kshatriyas similarly; for the Vaiśyas and the Śūdras (the sites) should be as stated above in order.

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Thus in the *Mānasāra*, the science of architecture, the third chapter, entitled:

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The classification of architecture.

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THE SELECTION OF SITE

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1. I shall now describe the selection of site briefly in this science (of architecture).

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2-3. The quadrangular ground which is elevated towards the south and towards the west is suitable (for the buildings of) the gods and the men respectively.

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4. (Associated) with horses, elephants, bamboos, reeds, and water-snakes.

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5. Associated also with cows and reptile species.

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6-7. Associated with lotus-seeds and trumpet-flower-fragrances conducive to the growth of all (other) seeds, and possessing colour.

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8. Attended with dense softness and being (lit. should be) of pleasant touch.

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9-10. Associated with the sacred fig tree, the *nimb-tree* (azadirachta Indica), the *aśoka* (Jonesia Asoka Roxb), the *sapta-parṇaka* (Alstonia Scholaris), the mango tree, and the poison-tree (upas tree), and level.

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11-12. White, red, golden, black or grey in colour, and hexagonal (in shape): such a ground brings forth all prosperity.

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13-14. The (other) features: having a pond surrounding the south (and) a southern aspect, looking green to the sight and attractive to the mind (when) tested by (holding in the hollow of) a man's palms.

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15-16. Free from worms, white-ants, rats, skulls, bones, shells, sand and holes: (such a ground) brings prosperity.

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17. The land (being) held up by various kinds of pikes and pillars.

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18. The soil should be clayey, scratchy and crusty.

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19. Without husks, ashes and gravels.

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20. Such a ground brings prosperity to the people of the Brahmin and the other castes.

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21-22. Bearing the smell of honey, oil and clarified butter, and that (ground) which bears the bad smell of burnt things, (and also that) bearing the smell of bird, fish and dead body: (all these kinds of land) should be avoided.

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23. Associated with royal palaces, adjacent to (public) meeting-places and tombs.

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24. Associated with thorny trees, and abounding in *śāla* trees a*stica robusta*

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25. Uneven (lit. high) like a tortoise, circular, triangular, and resembling the club.

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26. Clouded (with the smoke) from the dye-factories, surrounded by the workshops of blacksmiths.

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27. At the junction of four paths, three paths, two paths, or the city-path (i.e., trade route).

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28. Looking like the *mṛidaṅga* (small drum), and resembling a cavity and a bird's beak.

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29. Resembling the *jhasha* (large) fish and everywhere possessing lightning (*prabhā*) trees.

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30. Having the *śāla* trees (shorea robusta) at the four corners, and abounding in tomb-trees.

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31. Infested with poisonous (lit. great) snakes, and being a garden of *śāla* trees (vatica robusta).

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32. Frequented by boars and monkeys, and being the abode of jackals (or demigods of roaring wind, *rudra*).

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33-35. (The ground) containing the abodes of owls, lions¹ and snakes, species of fish, kinds of birds, cats, and of bird-like (beings), and also the abodes of buffalo-like (large animals) and goat-like small animals.

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¹ This is a translation of पञ्चानन which seems to have been implied by पञ्चाकृति.

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36. (The grounds) of these (descriptions) should be avoided: this is the injunction of the professors of the science of architecture.

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37. The ground accessible from many directions (lit. doors) and holed by worms should (also) be avoided.

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38-39. Such being the case (i.e., instruction) concerning this first object of building, he who commits any blunder out of ignorance will be the sea (source) of (all) evils; therefore, the first (lit. root) object, the ground, should receive more consideration (than the other objects).

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40-42. Should the ground with other features be of various colours, of various tastes, productive of seeds (i.e., fertile), redolent like musk by black-bees, it, containing (as it does) all the (good) features, should be purified (i.e., selected, for the purpose of erecting buildings on it) by all the leading architects.

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Thus in the *Mānasāra*, the science of architecture, the fourth chapter, entitled:

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The selection of site.

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18–19. In an auspicious moment, *karaṇa* (eleven divisions of the day) and *lagna* (conjunction), while the highly learned Brahmins keep pronouncing all auspicious benediction (lit. good day).

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20–22. In the (selected) spot the earth should be dug extending to the building site. It (the tank thus dug out) should be made quadrangular (in shape) and one cubit deep, and filled with water to the same level on four sides.

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23–25. According to the scriptural injunction (*śāstra*), the beautiful Ambikā (goddess) should be worshipped and adored with all jewels, water, perfumes, flowers, as well as unhusked rice. Then in the morning the wise (builder) should offer her an oblation of milk, rice and sugar.

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26–27. (Sitting on) *kuśa* grass spread on the ground near the tank, the faithful and self-possessed (builder) with concentrated mind and his head towards the east (should pray as follows).

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28–29. 'May the great earth prosper in corn and riches. I bow to Thee, the fount of blessings and (prithee) keep thyself dry and good.'

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30. After having repeated this prayer (lit. incantation), the (ceremony of) fasting should be observed.

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31. In the morning, the wise builder together with the architects should examine the condition (of water in the tank).

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32–33. If it is seen that there is left some water, it (the soil) should be taken to be for good; if (on the other hand) it be (entirely) dried up, it means the loss of wealth and sustenance; and if it be wet, it means destruction.

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34–35. If it (the cavity) be filled up with earth (dug out before) from all sides, the soil is fair; if it be not filled up with the (same) earth, the soil is bad; and if it be overfilled, the soil is good.

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36. After seeing (the results of these tests) it will be good for the master to walk round the site (in order to ascertain that all parts are equally good).

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37. The ground (which) like the all-productive cow (is good in every way) should be selected (as a building-site) in order to secure (all) prosperity (out of it).

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38. The characteristic marks of oxen for ploughing (the selected site) are now described.

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39-40. Whitish and brown as well as red and yellow, each of these oxen is auspicious.

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41. The one of variegated colour and the one with a mark of the stick should be avoided.

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42. Those with horns bent downwards, with superfluous horn, or with horns crossing each other should also be avoided.

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43. Those who are too young or too old should also be avoided: this is the view (of the experts) on the matter of yoking (oxen in ploughing the selected site).

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44. The ox who bears a spot caused by biting and who is of defective sight should be avoided.

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45. Those who have short tail, disc-like hoof and are devoid of strength should (also) be avoided.

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46. Those who have torn ears and fallen teeth and are lame in legs should be avoided.

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47-50. The one who is naturally white in colour and is stamped with a spot at the forepart of the four feet, at the root of the horns and at the centre of the forehead, and who possesses eyes resembling flowers, red, well-socketed and extended: a learned man should not miss such an ox, but should make this a rule for characteristic marks.

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51-52. Gold rings should be filleted round the foreparts of the horns and hoofs (of selected oxen). The forehead-plate as well as the ears should also be ornamented with gold.

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53-55. On the day previous to ploughing the wise builder should make, as stated (by the ancients), an experimental yoking of the oxen to the plough for the first preliminary ploughing. I shall (now) describe the details of the plough.

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56-57. Babūl tree, Acacia catechu, *nīmb* (Azadirachta Indica), pines (Pinus Longifolia), and plants containing milky sap and blood: these are the desirable trees to make the plough with.

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58-59. The length of the plough should be one, one-and-one-fourth, or one-and-one-half cubits; and the width at the bottom should be three, four or five *mātras* (i.e., *aṅgulas* of three-fourths inch each).

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60. At the middle of its length the plough should be somewhat bent, and have an (ear-like) edge.

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61. Its bottom should be octagonal, half being three-stripped like a bamboo-leaf.

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62. At the upper part of its bottom the top-end of a bamboo-rod should be pushed in.

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63. The length of the rod should be three cubits and the breadth proportional, so that it may be strong.

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64. The length of the plough-tail should be one-and-one-half cubits, and the width at the bottom five *aṅgulas* (of three-fourths inch each).

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65. As an alternative the length of the tail may be one-and-one-fourth cubits, or one cubit.

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66. The top of the tail ending by the plough-root should be two *aṅgulas* (of three-fourths inch each).

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67. From one to one-half *aṅgulas* should fittingly be the thickness of the tail.

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68. The root of the tail should in particular be furnished with a lotus leaf (-like device).

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69-70. The length of the ploughshare at the forepart of the tail should be three, four, five or six *aṅgulas* (of three-fourths inch each); and its height should be two or three *aṅgulas*, and it should be furnished with all devices.

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71. At the hole (therein) the carpenter should drive in an iron nail.

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72. The length of the yoke should be made two cubits and a half.

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73. The width at the middle of the ploughshare should be three, four or five *aṅgulas* (of three-fourths inch each).

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74. The width of its two ends should be two or three *aṅgulas* each.

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75. This should be the measurement of the yoke which diminishes gradually from the middle towards the forepart and the hindpart.

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76. There should be two holes for yoking oxen, one on each half of the yoke.

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77. Half way between these two holes the plough(-rod) should be fitted in.

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78. In an auspicious moment and zodiacal conjunction the ploughing should be commenced.

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79. (Both) the oxen and the architect should be tastefully ornamented with perfumes and flowers.

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80-82. Being furnished with ornaments on the five limbs and putting on a piece of white cloth and upper garment the wise architect should meditate on the two oxen as the sun and the moon, on the plough as the Boar god (Vishṇu), and on the builder as Brahmā.

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83. The Brahmins should pronounce the benediction to the best of their power.

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84. Then the architect should plough amidst all auspicious sounds.

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85. He (the chief architect) should plough (only) three rounds and all the ploughing (of the selected site) should be done by the Śūdras (i.e., tillers).

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86-87. During ploughing the tiller too should be pure and attentive, and inform the architects when the ploughing is completely finished.

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88. The ground is known as the foundation of all kinds of building.

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89. The wise builder should, therefore, make the selection of the site (and the preparation of soil) as enjoined above.

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90. Anything beginning from the selection (of the site) up to the end (of the preparation of the soil), done through ignorance, would lead to the destruction of all prospects.

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91. Consequently this object of building (i.e., the ground) should be done in accordance with all these characteristics.

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Thus in the *Mānasāra*, the science of architecture, the fifth chapter, entitled:

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The examination of soil.

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ERECTION OF GNOMONS AND PEGS

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1. After this I shall fully describe the rules for erecting a gnomon¹.

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¹ For dialling, finding out cardinal points, and orientation and planning of buildings.

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2. At sun-rise the erection of the gnomon should be undertaken.

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3-6. In a month of the northern (December 22 to June 21) or the southern (June 22 to December 21) solstice, in the bright or dark fortnight, on the most auspicious day, excepting the full moon (day) and the new moon (day), and at a very auspicious moment, in the morning the gnomon should be erected. Thereafter it should remain there till the evening.

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7-9. On the day previous to the erection (of a gnomon), purification of the place (where the gnomon is to be erected) should be carried out: in the middle of the selected site a spot, quadrangular (in shape) and measuring four cubits each way, (should be made) watery all over (in order to secure the accurate levelling).

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10-12. The trees (from the timber) of which the gnomon is stated to be made are these: *kṛitamāla* (cassia fistula), the branch of *śamī* (a kind of fire-producing) tree, sandal (sirium myrtifolium), red sandal (caesalpina sappan), *khadira* (acacia catechu), *tinduka* (diosphyros embryopteris), white milk-tree (mimusops kanki), or *śubhadanta* (tooth-tree).

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13-14. The length of the gnomon should be one cubit (i.e., eighteen inches) and the width at the bottom six *aṅgulas* (of three-fourths inch each); the width at the top-end should be two *aṅgulas*, (the whole) gradually tapering from the bottom to the top.

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15. Its top should be quite circular, smooth and shaped like an umbrella.

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16. This is the large type of gnomon, the intermediate one is now described.

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17-18. Its length should be eighteen *aṅgulas* and the width at the bottom five *aṅgulas* and the width at the top-end one *aṅgula*, and the rest should be made as aforesaid.

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