Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c40.s11.t4: Miscellaneous Treatises

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c40.s11.t4

Language
English

Miscellaneous Treatises

v6.c40.s11.t4.1

The works on royal polity deal with architectural matters in a more than casual way. The Kauṭilīya *Artha-śāstra*, for instance, devotes some seven chapters to the subject, containing a large number of structural details. There are interesting descriptions of forts, fortified cities, town-planning, and military and residential buildings.²

v6.c40.s11.t4.2

² Chapter 22—जनपद निवेश । 23—भूमिच्छिद्रविधान । 24—दुर्गविधान । 25—दुर्गनिवेश । The last two deal with the laying out of fortified towns and forts. 65—वास्तुक, गृहवास्तुक (residential and military buildings). 66—वास्तुविक्रय, सीमाविवाद, मर्यादास्थापन, etc. For full details, *see* the writer’s *Encyclopaedia* under *Durga*, *Nagara*, and *Grāma*.

v6.c40.s11.t4.3

The *Śukra-nīti* deals with both architectural and sculptural objects. Rules and structural details are given together with interesting descriptions of forts and fortified towns, of temples and other kinds of buildings, and of various sorts of images.³ In this treatise sculptural details are more numerous in some respects than even in the *Śilpa-śāstras*. Repair of broken images, for instance, is an important matter in sculpture, which has been dealt with in detail in this treatise. Another important contribution made by the *Śukra-nīti* to the *Śilpa-śāstras* is the description of the seven-*tāla* measures which are generally applicable, both in India and the West, to well-proportioned human figures only.

v6.c40.s11.t4.4

³ Chapter IV, Section 4 :
(1) देवमन्दिरनिर्माणव्यवस्था—the construction of temples and other kinds of buildings. For details of royal palaces, *see* the concluding portion of Chapter I.
(2) प्रतिमानिर्माणव्यवस्था—carving images in general.
(3) मूर्त्तिनः वाहननिर्माणव्यवस्था—the images of the riding animals of deities.
(4) गणपतिमूर्तिनिर्माणव्यवस्था—the image of Gaṇapati.
(5) शक्तिमूर्तिनिर्माणव्यवस्था—images of the female deities.
(6) बालमूर्तिनिर्माणव्यवस्था—images of Bāla (child Kṛishṇa).
(7) सप्ततालादिमूर्तिभेदस्य निर्माणव्यवस्था—the images measured in the seven (*sapta*) and other *tāla* measurements.
(8) पैशाचीमूर्तिनिगणव्यवस्था—the images of the demonesses.
(9) भग्नप्रतिमास्थापनव्यवस्था—the repair of the damaged images.
(10) उत्सवव्यापारव्यवस्था—Festival in connexion with installation of images. Section 6—
(11) दुर्गनिर्माण—the construction of forts (and fortified towns). For full details, *see* the writer’s *Encyclopaedia* under *Tālamāna*.

v6.c40.s11.t4.5

Avowedly historical works are not numerous in Sanskrit. Of the two treatises, one is concerned with the reign of a single king, and the other with the events of a country, covering many reigns. In both these treatises architecture has been given its already well-recognized place.

v6.c40.s11.t4.6

The *Harsha-charita* is a history of Harshavardhana of Kanauj, during whose reign the famous Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited India. In this history it is stated that ‘the palace had, besides the harem, always more than three courtyards; the outer one being for people and for state reception, the next inner one for chiefs or nobles, and the third one for intimate persons only. The palaces were stately buildings, though not of stone. The floors, however, are described as made of shining stones. The columns and walls were ornamented with gold and even precious stones. There was usually a several-storeyed building with inner gardens of flower-beds and large fruit trees.’¹ Mention is made also of detached buildings like the *maṇḍapas* or pavilions for the purposes of *sabhā* (council hall), *satra* (inn), *prapā* (water sheds), and *prāgvaṁśa* (an auxiliary shed to a sacrificial room).² The useful articles of house furniture, such as thrones (*siṁhāsana*), couches (*śayana*), and *āsandi*, meaning chairs, are also described.³

v6.c40.s11.t4.7

¹ *History of Medieval India*, Vaidya, p. 152. *See Harsha-charita*, p. 215–216, description of the palace of Prabhākara Vardhana of Thāneśvara.

v6.c40.s11.t4.8

² *Harsha-charita*, p. 176.

v6.c40.s11.t4.9

³ *H. C.*, p. 103, *ibid*, 153.

v6.c40.s11.t4.10

The *Rāja-taraṅgiṇī* of Kalhaṇa, dealing with the history of Kashmir, refers frequently to architectural objects like castles (*bāṇa-śālā*),⁴ monumental buildings (*chaitya*),⁵ and monasteries (*vihāras*).⁶ But in these references very few structural details are to be met with. The references of Kalhaṇa to temples and other buildings also generally lack constructive details.⁷ But interesting structural details of some shrines merely referred to in Kalhaṇa’s work are elaborated

v6.c40.s11.t4.11

⁴ VIII, 1666.

v6.c40.s11.t4.12

⁵ I, 103, 170; III, 380, 381; IV, 200, 204.

v6.c40.s11.t4.13

⁶ I, 93, 94, 98, 103, 140–144, 146, 147, 169, 199, 200; III, 9, 11, 13, 14, 355, 380, 464, 476; IV, 79, 184, 188, 200, 210, 215, 216, 262, 507; VI, 171, 175, 303; VII, 696, 1336; VIII, 246, 248, 2402, 2410, 2417, 2431, 2433, 3343, 3352, 3353.

v6.c40.s11.t4.14

⁷ Compare, e.g., the Śāradā temple (I, 37); Sāradā-sthāna (VIII, 2556, 2706), etc.

v6.c40.s11.t4.15

बहिरुपरचितविकटसभासत्रप्राग्वंशमण्डपैः प्रसूतागवे ग्रामैः।

v6.c40.s11.t4.16

*See also ibid*, p. 137.

v6.c40.s11.t4.17

by Major C. R. Bates in the *Gazetteer of Kashmir*¹ and have been given in a note by Sir M. A. Stein.²

v6.c40.s11.t4.18

¹ P. 339.

v6.c40.s11.t4.19

² ‘The temple is approached from the lower slope of the hill . . . by an imposing stone staircase . . . which leads up in sixty-three steps to the main entrance of the quadrangular court enclosing the temple. It is about 10 feet wide and rises rather steeply between two flanking walls of massive construction, broken in six steps or flights. The entrance to the court is through a gateway, provided with the usual double porch of Kāśmīrian architecture.’ ‘The temple, which occupies the centre of the quadrangle, forms a square cella conforming in plan and elevation to the usual features of Kāśmīr architecture. It is raised on a basement 24 feet square and 5 feet 3 inches high. The walls of the cella proper recede about 2 feet from the edge of the basement. They are adorned on the north, east and south by trefoil arches and supporting pilasters both projecting in relievo. Below these arches are small trefoil-headed niches covered by double pediments.’ ‘The entrance to the interior of the cella is . . . approached by stairs 5½ feet wide with flanking side walls. There is an open portico in front of the door projecting about 4 feet beyond the pilasters on each side of the doorway. It is supported on the outside by two pillars . . . The interior of the cella forms a square of 12 feet 3 inches, and has no decoration of any kind.’ —(Kalhaṇa’s *Rājātaraṅgiṇī*, Vol. II, notes, p. 283 fol.).

v6.c40.s11.t4.20

The astrological and astronomical treatises frequently refer to architectural topics, especially those bearing upon auspicious times. In a pamphlet of this class twenty-one things are stated to be observed in connexion with building a house.³ A famous astronomical treatise, the *Gārga-saṁhitā*, deals with a large number of purely architectural subjects, such as the courts, compounds, compartments, rooms, dimensions, and location of doors.⁴

v6.c40.s11.t4.21

³ आयराशिश्च नक्षत्रं व्ययस्तारांशकस्तथा । ग्रहमैत्री राशिमैत्री नातिभेदगणेन्दवः ॥ आधिपत्यं वारलग्ने तिथ्युत्पत्तिस्तथैव च । आधिपत्यं वर्गवैरं तथैव योनिवैरकम् ॥ ऋक्षवैरं स्थितर्नांशो लक्षणान्यकविंशतिः । कथितानि मुनिश्रेष्ठैः शिल्पविधिर्गृहादिषु ॥ —(*Laghu-Śilpa-jyotiḥ-sāra*, 3–5).

v6.c40.s11.t4.22

⁴ The manuscript in the Trinity College, Cambridge, is in a mutilated condition. The contents of the first and second chapters, fols. 67–68, are almost illegible. The following are a little better :
(i) वास्तुविद्यायां चतुर्थागत्रिभागप्रतिभागविधिः (fol. 60a).
(ii) गार्गियायां वास्तुविद्यायां चतुःशालाद्वित्रिशालैकशालाविधिः (fol. 60a).
(iii) द्वारनिर्देशः (Chap. 3, fols. 57a and 68b). द्वारप्रमाणविधिः (fol. 57b). द्वारस्तम्भोच्छ्रायः (fol. 60b).
(iv) गृहप्रवेशः (fol. 68b).

v6.c40.s11.t4.23

The more authoritative works like the *Sūrya-siddhānta*,⁵ the *Siddhānta-Śiromaṇi*,⁶ and the *Līlāvatī*⁷ deal exhaustively with a very technical matter bearing upon architecture, namely, the description of gnomons which were used for finding out cardinal points. The subject is architecturally very important, inasmuch as it refers to the orientation of buildings.¹

v6.c40.s11.t4.24

⁵ Chapter III, 1–4.

v6.c40.s11.t4.25

⁶ Chapter VII 36–49.

v6.c40.s11.t4.26

⁷ Part II, Chapter II, section vii.

v6.c40.s11.t4.27

¹ Compare the writer's *Encyclopaedia* under *Śaṅku*, and for full details, *see* pp. 100–101.

v6.c40.s11.t4.28

The poetical works of Māgha, Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti, and others refer occasionally to architectural matters. In the *Śiśupālavadha*, the sea-side city of Dvāraka, and the assembly halls and palaces of Yudhishṭhira and Krishṇa are described at length; the ornaments for the body and weapons, cars and chariots are also referred to.² In the *Vikramorvaśīya*, for instance, mention is made of a flight of stairs made like the waves of the Ganges; in the *Meghadūta* a market-place in Viśālā and the city of Alakā are elaborately described.³ The *Uttara-Rāma-charita* refers to an architecturally important matter, namely, cement which is specially described in some *Śilpa-śāstras*.⁴ In the same work Nala, the son of the heavenly architect Viśvakarman, is mentioned as an engineer who built the bridge joining India with Ceylon.⁵

v6.c40.s11.t4.29

² III, 33–64, XIII, 51–63, II, 4–5, III, 2–11, 17–23, 27–28.

v6.c40.s11.t4.30

³ गङ्गातरङ्गस्फटिकमणिसोपान, *see also* मणिहर्म्य (*Vikramorvaśīya*, Kale's ed. 1898, Act III, p. 73); *Meghadūta*, I, 33–34; II; 1–22.

v6.c40.s11.t4.31

⁴ वज्रलेप, Act III, preceding verse 40.

v6.c40.s11.t4.32

⁵ Act III, verse 45. Compare the *Rāmāyaṇa* युद्धकाण्ड, Chapter 22, verses 41–42. In the *Mānasāra* also Nala is mentioned as an architect, *see Mānasāra*, Chapter II.

v6.c40.s11.t4.33

Of this class of works, the *Mṛichchhakaṭika*, which deals with the ordinary affairs of wordly people, refers very frequently to architectural matters which are two numerous to be included here.⁶ A very interesting description of the gateway and as many as eight courtyards into which the whole compound is divided is given in the fourth act.

v6.c40.s11.t4.34

⁶ Act I, गृहदेहली, threshold (verse 17); पक्षद्वारक, side entrance (38; also II, 83; V, 129; VI, 209, 211, etc.); चतुःशाला, courtyard (39); प्रासादबालाग्रकपोतपालिका dovecot on the top palace (52; VIII, 282, 283; IX, 347, 349, 350, 351). Act II, श्रेष्ठिचत्वर, merchant quarters (88, 136); बहिर्द्वारशाला, outer hall (101, 117). अभ्यन्तरचतुःशाला, inner court (107, 108, 109; VI, 204). पक्वेष्टक, आमेष्टक, baked and unbaked brick (111). Act V, प्राकार, fence (177); आरामप्रासादवेदिका, roof of the garden-house (177). Act VI, प्रतोलीद्वार, main gate (216). Act IX, व्यवहारमण्डप court of justice (289, 291). अधिकरणमण्डप, court of justice (289, 302, 305, 307, 320, etc.). दूर्वाचत्वर, grass lawn (291).

v6.c40.s11.t4.35

This description is full of further architectural details. This reference is specially important owing to the fact that in the *Mānasāra*, as well as the *Purāṇas* and the *Āgamas*, the compound, however big it may be, is divided into not more than five courts, the fourth of which is technically called *Prākāra* in the *Mānasāra*.

v6.c40.s11.t4.36

The construction of the play-house is referred to in the *Nāṭya-śātra* on dramaturgy, and several other texts on dancing, singing, and instrumental music. The *Nāṭya-śāstra* of Bharata describes in great detail the stage proper and the auditorium. The audience-house, as it is designated, admits of three varieties, namely, the circular or semi-circular, quadrangular, and triangular pavilions.¹ There is also given a similar account of the stage proper. On the two sides of it an entablature is raised over four pillars and green-rooms at the back and sides, and the platforms or theatre proper at the front are erected upon a higher level than the auditorium. Two of these three types of theatres have been referred to in the *Vishṇu-dharmottara*. The *Saṅgīta-makaranda*² of Nārada supplies an account of an unspecified type of the stage and the auditorium. The *Saṅgīta-Ratnākara* of Niḥśanka-Śārṅgadeva³ describes the auditorium alone.

v6.c40.s11.t4.37

¹ Chapter II, 7, 8, 25.

v6.c40.s11.t4.38

² V. 2–9.

v6.c40.s11.t4.39

³ VII, 1351–61.

v6.c40.s11.t4.40

Traces of an advanced state of architecture are found also in works like grammars and lexicons. Yāska in his *Nirukta* mentions several words which can be used for masonry houses only.⁴ In the later lexicons, like the *Amarakosha*, lists of several architectural terms are met with.⁵ Derivations of words like *bhāskara*, sculptor; *ishṭaka*, brick; *stambha*, pillar; *aṭṭālikā*, edifices, are found in Pāṇini's grammar. They no doubt imply the existence of brick and stone buildings in those times.⁶

v6.c40.s11.t4.41

⁴ R. L. Mitra, *Indo-Aryans*, I, 25–26.

v6.c40.s11.t4.42

⁵ *Amarakosha*, section on towns and houses (Chapter II, section ii, named *pura-varga*, verses 1–2; pages 116–126, ed. Sivadatta, Bombay, 1915).

v6.c40.s11.t4.43

⁶ Mitra, *ibid*, I, 19.

v6.c40.s11.t4.44

ŚILPA-ŚĀSTRAS

Linked texts (21)