Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c17: Appendix I: Symbols and Icons in Classical Art & Religion

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c17

Language: English

Appendix I: Symbols and Icons in Classical Art & Religion

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Indian art from the earliest times had been evolved on the basis that it is of auspicious character (*bhadrakrit*). All the gods invested with the heavenly powers and the material forms created in nature are repeatedly mentioned in Vedic literature. They are of benevolent form for man (*bhadrāṇi*), and whatever turns amiss becomes *abhadra*. Many such auspicious forms filled the life of the Vedic people between earth and heaven. It is said that the gods born from the womb of Mother Aditi were a team of auspicious and immortal brothers (*taṃ devā anvajāyanta bhadrā amṛtabandhavaḥ*, RV. 10.72.5). The most typical auspicious symbol evolved in Vedic times was the *Pūrṇa-Kalaśa* (RV. 3. 32. 15) and it is stated that in each home the artistic form of a women bearing the full vase (*pūrṇakumbhanārī*) was installed (AV. 3.12.8). In the RV. itself the parallel word *maṅgala* came into existence and a young bride loaded with manifold blessings was called *sumaṅgalī vadhū*. In the very first hymn of the RV. the truth of Agni's nature is stated to confer auspiciousness upon one who invokes him. Of all the auspicious signs which became universal for all occasion, the archetypal mark was *svastika*, a solar symbol, since in the sun all the good things of life were believed to exist. Many a term expressing these beautiful objects begin with the prefix *su*, e.g. *sudṛśīka* (of handsome form), *supratīka* (of beautiful face), *sudraviṇa* (of good wealth), *subhadra* (of goodly nature), *sudevatā* (benign godhead), *suchakra* (perfect wheel), *suvijñāna* (good mind), *surūpakṛtnu* (fashioner of beautiful forms), and so many others. Gradually the number of such auspicious forms, both concrete and abstract, was much expanded, and a collective offering was made to them (*maṅgalikebhyaḥ svāhā*, AV. 19. 23 28).

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The auspicious symbols as part of religious thought and ritualistic signs penetrated all walks of society, and took such deep roots as to have survived through the ages up to our own times. They were accepted amongst all denominations, viz. Buddhist, Jaina and Brāhmaṇas. In fact, no religious ownership should be claimed for them but a universal cult was taken for granted as their basis. They were freely admitted in the decoration of the Stūpa as *Pūrṇaghaṭapaṅkti*, *Chakrapaṅkti*, Lotus-garland, etc. (see pp. 125-6); in civic architecture, e.g. five defencive circles (*pañcharakshā*) round a city, viz. Nāga kings half-emerging from ponds (*udakaniśrita nāga*), cup-bearing deities (*karoṭapāṇi deva*), garland-bearing gods (*mālādhara deva*), merry-making godlings (*sadāmattaka deva*) and four lokapāla guardian kings (*chatvāraḥ mahārājānaḥ*) (Divyā- vadāna, p. 218); and in domestic architecture as conch, lotus, full-vase, etc. An unlimited and manisided elaboration of the earliest symbols took place in course of time as we see a full stock of over five hundred symbols on punchmarked coins (c. 700 B. C.-100 B.C.). The tradition was still further developed on tribal coins (c. 200 B.C.-c. 200 A. D.) and on clay sealings (c. 200 A.D.-500 A.D.). The evolution of religious forms in the iconography of gods and goddesses required a twofold effort, viz. a stock taking of the traditional symbols and their assimilation in the various divine images that were being produced from about the first century A. D. in the beginning of the Kushāṇa period under the stress of the Bhakti movement. The Harivaṃśa Purāṇa (2.109.95-103) enlists hundred and eight such symbols (Maṅgalāṣṭaśatam) although the actual names are somewhat less.

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The number was variable as in the two necklaces carved on the Sanchi Stūpa. By the first century A. D. the list had been standardised to a selection of eight, known as aṣṭamaṅgalaka, as depicted on the Jaina Āyāgapaṭas of Mathura. This list was far flung in place and time since the word aṭṭhamaṅgala occurs in the Mahāvaṃsa (30.65), Aṅgavijjā and Harshacharita.

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The stock of ancient symbols which now filled the picture and which naturally entered the iconographic formulas may be shortly stated as follows :

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Animal and Reptile :

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matsya (fish), kūrma (tortoise), varāha (boar), makara (crocodile), lizard, mṛiga (deer), siṃha (lion), aśva (horse), hastin (elephant), go (cow or bull), nāga (serpent), aja (goat), nakula (mangoose), śvā (dog), etc., grotesque creatures with composite limbs, etc.

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Bird :

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Garuḍa, haṃsa, sārasa (crane), śyena, etc.

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Human :

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muni (ascetic), aṣṭakanyās (eight maidens), aṣṭadikkumārikās (eight maidens of space), chakravartin (sovereign monarch), seven sisters, nara, śiśu (child), Semi-divine (Devayonis) :

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Nāga, Yaksha, Vidyādhara, Gandharva, Kinnara, Suparṇa, Kumbhāṇḍa, Lokapāla gods, Apsarasas, nymphs and dryads, chātumahārājika devas,

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Floral :

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tree, kalpavṛiksha, kalpalatā, padma (lotus), pipal, vaṭa, (also other seven various trees of the Buddhas), mālā (garland, vanamālā, kiñjalkinīmālā, vaijayantī-mālā, etc.), muchakunda (so-called honey-suckle) tāla (palm), many other floral designs and patterns.

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Inanimate Objects :

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pātra (bowl, cf. pātridharā or karoṭapāṇi deva), maṇi (semi-precious gem), bhadramaṇi (auspicious gem), kaustubha etc. maṇis, śaṅkha (conch-shell), muktā (pearl), aṣṭanidhi mālā (including padma, śaṅkha, kharva, nikharva, etc.), kaṇṭhā (torque), hāra (necklace), chhatra (umbrella), nakula (purse), ratha (chariot), vimāna (divine car), cart, rock-mountain, river, etc., vāruṇi, ghaṭa (jar), pūrṇaghaṭa (brimming jar), kārṣāpaṇa (coin), mekhalā (girdle), chāmara (flywhisk), ādarśa (mirror), yūpa (stake), sthūṇārāja (great pillar), Stūpa, mansion, kuṭī or parṇaśālā kapiśīrshaka (battlement), viṣāṇa (horn), jewels, mukuṭa (crown), chaṅgerī (basket), vīṇā (flute), vaṃśī (lute), mṛdaṅga, cymbals, devavādya, etc.

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Weapons :

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triśūla, śūla (spear), vajra, chakra or rathāṅga, (wheel), dhanusha (bow), bāṇa (arrow), hala (ploughshare), musala (pestle), gadā (mace), khaḍga (sword), khaṭvāṅga, charma (shield), kavacha (coat of mail), etc.

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Abstract designs and symbols :

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svastika, śrīvatsa, śrīchakra, śrīvṛiksha, triratna, nandipada, chakra, pañjaka (five-fingers with palm), etc.

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There was much elasticity in grouping these symbols and freedom to incorporate them into iconographic forms as desired. Thus it became possible to formulate a large number of images by the different religionists and then to start a new chain of their glorification. The symbols assumed a fresh exalted position in association with the different deities and they did not suffer any abatement either of meaning or high rank enjoyed by them for many centuries. For example, Suparṇa became the Garuḍa of Viṣṇu; Chakra the Dharmachakra of Buddha and Mahāvīra and Sudarśana Chakra of Viṣṇu; Vṛitra the serpent of Indra as the serpent in connection with the life-stories of Buddha, Mahāvīra, Śiva and Viṣṇu.

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An analysis of the dispersal and assimilation of these ancient symbols holds the key to the understanding of Indian art forms as they had been handed down from the past, as they became absorbed in the statuary and architecture of the future. The handling of symbols from these two points of view was a very subtle and universal movement which was quietly perfected in accord and harmony which is unparalled in the art history of the world. The Kuṣāṇa and Gupta period is like a threshold from which one can look before and after and the full meaning of Indian art cannot be perceived without a close attension to the individual history of each symbol with which the art of the age is so profusely saturated. We may visualise this as a great experiment in the assimilation of diverse art forms or a vast crucible in which the whole people filled their offering with a optimum feeling of life's full assembly.

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Let us pursue these forms more closely :

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Śrī-Lakṣmī—An ancient goddess referred to in the Yajurveda as the two consorts of Viṣṇu; of universal adoration as shown in the Śrī-Sūkta; standing midst lotuses, bathed by two elephants with inverted jars, under the new name of Gaja-Lakṣmī in this form her image assimilated the symbolism of lotus, elephants, pūrṇaghaṭa, golden necklace (hemamālā); perfected as the genius of fertility and abundance; the pose of the Earth Goddess as on a golden leaf from Lauria Nandangarh was transferred to Lakṣmī in some examples; she became the prototype of mother goddess with a child as in the painted example from Dandan Ulique; she became the goddess par excellence being depicted on the reverse of the gold coins of the Guptas and Gāṅgeyadeva; she was also conceived as the ocean-born maiden of fleet nature who makes herself manifest in the fluctuating fortunes of persons; in her form of Padminī she became the mistress of the eight treasures (aṣṭanidhi), viz. Padma, Mahāpadma, Makara, Kachchhapa, Mukunda, Nanda, Nīla, Śaṅkha; of these Padma and Mahāpadma symbolise gold and precious gems respectively; [Makara was the symbol of Varuṇa's ocean, a very popular motif of early Indian art and representing water cosmology; its gaping mouth was the source of many kinds of meandering lotus creepers and rising lotus rhizomes and Yakṣas and Yakṣīs are shown struggling to extract jewels from its teeth; firstly the Makara was identified with a particular kind of treasure obtained by trade in arms and weapons and then for the future as the vehicle of Varuṇa, king of the Asuras, and thirdly as the auspicious animal of the River Gaṅgā. It may be noted that as an auspicious creature the Makara was placed in Śuṅga and early Kuṣāṇa period on the beams of the toraṇa gateways, a recurrent feature at Bharhut and Mathura; the motif being mentioned as Śiṃśumāraśiraḥ in the Ādiparva. It is also the decorative spout on numerous examples of Kuṣāṇa and Gupta pottery and also a beautiful decorative sign of the forehead ornament (sīmantamakarikā); etc. The tortoise, a Vedic symbol mentioned as Kūrma which symbolised the two inverted shells of earth and heaven. It was then made a part of Lakṣmī's icodography as shown in a figure at Sanchi, and lastly made the vehicle of the River Goddess Yamunā. The exact nature of Mukunda nidhi is not certain, but probably it denoted a hermaphrodite (varshadhara). Its owner devotes himself to music and dance, acts like a Gandharva or Apasaras. In art many dancing figures conform to this description, specially the Vīṇāvidyādharas which were evolved as figures serving new functions in the iconography of Mahāpuruṣas. The exact meaning of the term Vidyādhara has not been explained but seems that the term vidyā referred to these various sciences of dance, music and other allied subjects related to śṛingāra and prasādhana, represented with garlands by which they were known as mālāvidyādhara, gems and beads by which they were named gulikāvidyādhara. Another treasure is named Nanda Nidhi, probably related to the Nandipada symbol which continued to be depicted on the pedestals of images and stamped on pottery. The Nīla treasure may be identified with the nīlotpala, blue lotus, which is a constant element of the nature of lotus design both as a flower or a creeper. The Śaṅkha is depicted in early art of Bharhut and Mathura as auspicious symbol of Kubera oozing coins from its mouth. Its association with the Kalpavṛiksha was early recognised. Later on it was counted as one of the Eight Nidhis of Lakshmī, and finally assimilated in the iconography of Vishṇu as one of his four attributes.]

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Another elastic symbol was the Śrīvatsa, literally ‘Darling Babe of Śrī;’ as a mother goddess Śrī often carried in her arms a babe of conventionalised form with a squat torso, short neck and undigitated arms and legs, being a crude representation of a child. This became part of the aṭṭhamaṅgala signs and in Jaina iconography found an invariable place on the chest of the Arhats. Later on with Vishṇu.

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We may also note the sacred sign of Śrīvṛiksha, ‘Tree of Goddess Śrī’ which is the Indian tree-of-life and like the same motif in Iran and Assyria was formed by a series of superimposed repeat designs. This is referred to by Varāhamihira as a decoration on one of the bands of a doorway, and actually represented on both Brāhmanical and Buddhist shrine-doors of the Gupta period and also on the door-jambs of the Kushāṇa relief. It appears that the artists were in search of new contexts for these symbols in order to attain fresh meanings and forms of beauty.

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At one time Lakshmī and Padminī were regarded as two separate goddesses, as shown by their separate mention in the Purusha-Sūkta of the Yajurveda, and also in a passage of the Sundarakāṇḍa (babhūva devī cha kṛitā suhastā lakshmīstathā padminī padmahastā). She was separately known as Padmāśrī in both the epics (evam te bhāsamānyasya padmāśrī rupatishṭhaṭām, Ayodhyā, 79. 15; abhajat padmarūpāśrī svayameva śarīriṇī, Mbh. 3. 229. 3), or merely as Śrī. But there was great elasticity in her cult. She is reckoned as consort of Nārāyaṇa Vishṇu, and also Kubera. In the later case, she is represented in several Mathurā statuettes with Bhadrā and Hārītī. Śrī-Lakshmī, Bhadrā and Shashṭhī were present in the Brāhmī Sabhā (Sabhā., 11. 40). Out of this amalgam Śrī-Lakshmī emerged as supreme over all whose worship was far spread. Her figure is said to be carved as an auspicious motif in Rāvaṇa’s palace in Laṅkā.

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With the cult of Padmāśrī was associated the ancient Taḍāga Mahā, i.e. the Worship of the Lotus-pond, Padmavana (Nalinī, Pushkariṇī) in which Lakshmī was said to have her abode with her gamboling elephants. The cult of the lotus itself was elaborated in several forms having close links with Lakshmī, e.g. in the Padmavaravedikā, the lotus-decorated railing round Stūpas, Padmamālā, the heavy lotus garland comprising one thousand flowers offered to a Stūpa or Deity. The motif of the Puṇḍarīka-kīḍā became popular as part of water sports. (Ante, pp. 47, 81-2, 135, 184, 259-60).

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BALARĀMA—Various elements of his iconography consisted of a canopy of serpent hoods taken from the Nāga cult, a long plough from the religious form of the Kshetrapāla gods, a stout club from the Yaksha iconography (cf. Moggarapāṇi Yaksha); seen in a Śuṅga image from village Junsuti of Mathura. In some cases the plough is surmounted by a tailed loin (Siṃhalāṅgūla), a motif described in the Mbh. as an independent emblem of an epic hero, but here fused in the general iconography of Saṅkarshaṇa.

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The tradition of Bacchanalian gods also entered into the iconography of Balarāma. Thus the mingling of these several strands became concrete in the form of a new image in the Hindu pantheon. His progressive absorption in the Vaishṇava pantheon is indicated by the big Vanamālā garland of lotus flowers adorning his figure in Gupta art.

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VISHṆU—In the iconographic reorganisation of the auspicious signs and symbols the figure of Vishṇu was the earliest to be evolved and a focal one towards which everything seemed to flow to take its proper place. Vishṇu was said to have a universal form measuring earth and heaven with all the gods and Ṛishis worshipping him; then a human form with four or eight hands.

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Śaṅkha + Padma + Chakra + Gadā + Garuḍa + Lakshmī + Srīvatsa Vanamālā + Cosmic Serpent + Ocean.

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Vishṇu was regarded as the Yaksha of Dvārakā by the Buddhists and the club in his hand was indicative of Yaksha's strength as in case of Balarāma. There is a repeated reference to the mighty strength of Vishṇu (Nārāyaṇa-sthāma) even in Buddhist literature. The ancient Suparṇa cult became merged in the affiliation of Garuḍa with Vishṇu. We find legendary reference to one Suparṇa, two Suparṇas, three Supaṇas and many Suparṇas in the Vedas all of which became absorbed in the new legend of Garuḍa, king of all the bird kingdom, and the loyal servant of Vishṇu. The new Garuḍa is credited with the bringing of immortal Soma from heaven and identified with the Chhanda or Cosmic Rhythm described as Chhandomaya Garuḍa. This accorded well with the three steps of Vishṇu and the three metres making up the rhythm. The old rivalry of Garuḍa with the Nāgas as stated in the Brahmanical legend of Kadrū and Suparṇī, or Kādrveyas and Sauparṇeyas, became absorbed in the iconography of Garuḍa. We find several sculptures showing the Mighty Bird grappling with his adversary the Nāga king as shown in Mathura and Gandhara sculptures (Vogel, Serpent Lore, pl. XV).

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The iconography of Viṣṇu also depended on several other ancient symbols like those of the fish, tortoise, boar, lion and Vāmana, all of which were woven in the garland of his serial manifestations.

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The form of Viṣṇu sleeping on the cosmic serpent Śeṣa in the ocean was a new conception mingling serveral old and new forms. On the one hand the Vedic idea of the primeval Ocean (Āpaḥ-Samudram-Salilam) and the popular folk-cult of Samudra worship (Sāgaramaha) were there; secondly the idea of a cosmic serpent with its beginning in the Ahi-Vṛitra or Ahir-budhnya, Dragon of the Deep, was now conceived as Ananta which was a stripe of Nāga mythology. Thirdly, goddess Lakṣmī, daughter of the ocean became consort of Viṣṇu present with Nārāyaṇa in his oceanic abode. Fourthly, the milky ocean, which was the source of the auspicious jewels, was conceived of as the watery abode of Nārāyaṇa in his Śeṣaśāyī form; fifthly, the cult of lotus springing from his navel, and of Brahmā as the ancient Prajāpati Creator seated on the cosmic lotus (Bhūpadma). These were the several important elements that intered into the making of this aspect of Viṣṇu’s iconography. The Vanamālā and the Kirīṭa which was the prototype of the Buddhist Chūḍā, also formed distinctive symbols of Viṣṇu’s form in contrast to the matted locks of Brahmā and Śiva.

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ŚIVA—The iconography of Śiva comprising various symbolical and mythical elements is seen in the following features:

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The Kailāsa mountain representing the conception of Sumeru, the Mountain of Gold from which the world rivers take their flow and which was the abode of Devas, became the residence of Śiva as the god of the mountain (Giriśanta Deva); +snakes, taking the various aspects of Nāga iconography, which are now twisted in his matted locks and limbs of the body; +moon, an ancient cult (Candramaha) now worshipped as the dizit on Śiva’s head and also representing of tradition of Vedic Soma, the power of immortality and refregeration; + Gaṅgā, river of the immortal heaven flowing as the symbol of the eternal life impulse (Prāṇa) and movement (Gati) which inhabits the forest of Śiva’s matted locks; + the Nandī Bull, a prominent member of the cult of the four animals, making Śiva’s vehicle standing as the symbol of Kāma vanquished by him; +Triśūla, another version of Indra’s Vajra and standing for the three cities and three Guṇas.

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Ambikā, taken from the cult of the Mother Goddess. Vaiśravaṇa, the king of the Yakshas conceived as a friend of Śiva. Gaṇas, who were forms of so many Yakshas and Grahas, Asuras and Raksharas; all of whom were reckoned among Śivas's hosts. Skanda and Gaṇeśa as the leaders of the Gaṇas.

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Śiva also represented the tradition of the ancient naked ascetics (vātaraśanā yatis) and the Mahānagna Purusha of Vedic folklore. And the Yogī in whom all the elements of a stern spiritual discipline found their fulfilment. He has two aspects, firstly as Sthāṇu, fixed and changeless, and secondly as Naṭarāja the Great Dancer who exemplifies the world rhythm in the movements of his dance. In the Vedas Indra is called Nṛitu and Girvaṇa and both these epithets apply to Śiva as Naṭarāja and the arch-teacher of music and sciences.

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TĪRTHAṄKARA—Siṃhāsana + Yogī with Padmāsana and Dhyānamudrā + Kāyotsargamudrā + Nāsāgradṛishṭi + Naked body + Śrīvatsa + Nāga hoods (of the Twentythird Pārśvanātha and the Seventh Tīrthaṅkara Supārśvanātha) + Chakra on Pillar (on pedestal of the image) + Triratna + Pārśvachara + Chāmragrāhī + Stūpa worship + Mahāpurusha Lakshaṇa + Ashṭamāṅgalika chihnas.

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Lañchchhanas of the different Tīrthaṅkaras were conspicuous by absence in the Kushāṇa period but later on were gradually taken from the ancient stock of auspicious animal, floral and abstract symbols. The Yaksha cult also was adopted as an essential element and a particular Yaksha-Yakshī pair was assigned to each Tīrthaṅkara.

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These discreet elements formed the complete iconographic image which was not so much a human form as a negation of it by introducing so many super-human and divine elements in the conception of the Tīrthaṅkara and this was equally applicable to the form of the Buddha who was made a Lokottara Purusha.

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BUDDHA—The Buddha image was the outcome of integrating discreet elements, of Yaksha-Nāga, Chakravartī and Yogī iconography, many of which were taken from the prevailing stock of symbols and myths.

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Chhāyā or Prabhāmaṇḍala (taken from Iranian Hvarr) Dharmachakra

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Chhatra.

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Monarch's Wheel.

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Bodhivṛiksha Lion—Śākya-Siṃha Chakra, Triratna or other symbols on throne or pillar or pedestal. Mudrās—Sambodhi or Dhyāna, Varada, Abhaya, Bhūmisparśa, Dharmachakra-pravartana or Vyakhyāna-mudrā

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BRAHMĀ—The first images of Brahmā were formed in the Kushāṇa period with the grouping together of several elements:

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Four faces + Ṛishi with the knowledge of the Vedas + Prajāpati + Pot-belly from Kumbhodara Yakshas + Yajña (Sruk and Sruvā) + Lotus + Haṃsa + Mānasarovara + Nectar flask (Amṛita-kamaṇḍalu) + Sarasvatī, Sāvitrī or Śatarūpā (all being forms of Vedic Aditi).

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The ancient cult of the four quarters (Diśāvrata) was made concrete in the four faces of Brahmā. He became the type of Agni-Prajāpati for whom the fire-altar was built exemplified as Yajña with its laddles (sruk-sruvā) over which Brahmā presided as the superintending priest assimilating himself in his office the functions of all other priests and the Vedas. He was given the form of a Brāhmanic ascetic from which were derived his matted locks, sacred-thread of black antelope-skin, and cross-legged seat. The pot-bellied feature was taken from the iconography of Yakshas named Brahman, which term also signified Brahmā. The lake Mānasarovara symbolised the primeval waters of creation known as Āpaḥ or Salilam, and the Golden Haṃsa floating in that lake the original form of Indra, friend of the pregnant cosmic waters.¹ The water-pot of Brahmā which is filled with the waters of creativity was taken from the cult of chamasa, the bowl, worshipped as the Full Jar and Auspicious Pot, and represented severally in Kushāṇa art in the form of big stone bowls, nectar flask and Pūrṇaghaṭa.

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¹ Bibhatsūnāṃ sayujaṃ haṃsamahurapāṃ divyānāṃ sakhye charantam / RV. 10. 124. 9.

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SŪRYA—It is seen in a twofold form, the earlier of Śunga period on the Bodhgaya railing with the Indian deity driving in a chariot of four-horses representing the four regions of space. In the Kushāṇa period appears a new form of Sūrya wearing northern dress, attended by Daṇḍa and Piṅgala, Rājñī and Nikshubhā, Ushā and Pratyūshā, holding a dagger or lotuses and riding in a chariot driven by Aruṇa and drawn by two or four horses whose number finally became seven. His worship as Mitra was spread from India up to Sasanian Iran. The full-blown lotuses became a prominent symbol of Sūrya together with a coat of mail. We know from the list of ancient obscure religions cults that there was a special cult of Sūrya under the name of Sūrya Maha together with that of Chandra Maha; the latter playing only a secondry role in iconography, being once depicted in a Mathura terracotta and carved in a bas-relief from Garhwa.

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VAIŚRAVAṆA KUBERA—The AV. (8.10) clearly refers to a cult of Four Lokapāla gods represented frequently on the Toraṇa-gateways of the Stūpas. Amongst them one is Vaiśravaṇa Kubera popular among the common folk (Itarajana). The cult of the Four Mahārāja gods was universally accepted in all religions. But from the point of view of iconography Kubera received the greatest attention. The formula comprised deformed-pot-bellied-corpulent body, mongoose or purse in hand, rich ornaments, smiling face and an open admittance to Yaksha, Gaṇa and Pramatha figures of whatever nature and description into his hosts of attendants. They are generally depicted as kiṅkara or atlantes bearing his aerial car and depeted in this position in western Indian cave sculptures and in the Stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi.

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Sometimes later his images were transformed into those of an ideal god of wealth shown more or less as a rich merchant prince of beautiful countenance concieved progressively with greater dignity in the Buddhists temples and paintings. The religious cult of Bacchus with drinking cup and of the goddesses Bhadrā, Lakshmī and Hārītī became a part of Kubera cult.

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The conception of Alakā was an inalianable part of the Kubera cult derived from the more ancient tradition of Uttarakuru. Alakā had the ideal Vaibhrāj Garden of Kubera and the other elements of Kailāsa and Manasarovara, and above all the Kalpavṛikshas from which the Yakshas and Yakshīs obtained all their desires. This was a link with the older Mithuna cult. Some of these are represented in the illustration of the Sudarśana city visited by king Māndhātā on a bas-relief in the Bhaja cave. This is how we meet with the different elements of the Uttarakuru and Alakā fused together in the mythology of Vaiśravaṇa Kubera. We may also point to the cult of Hārītī, Jātahāriṇī and Revatī with that of Kubera.

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The cult of Yakshas and Yakshīs had deep roots in ancient folk-cults and its full influence reigns supreme in the art and literature of the classical renaissance. New lists of Yakshas were drawn up for each important place from Pushkalāvatī to Śūrpāraka and from Dvārāvatī to Tosalī as in the Mahāmāyurī. Many forms of Yakshīs were depicted on the railings conceived as 32 śālabhañjikā figures which owing to different dramatic poses were also known as Nāṭatthī (Nāṭakastrī). They were standardised as Ashṭakanyās and included in public processions, later on transferred to the temples in the form of Alasa Kanyās at Orissa, Prekshaṇikās of Rajasthan and Sura-Sundarīs of Saurashtra.

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In classical period we constantly witness the phenomenon of ancient religious forms being adapted to the needs of a changing world of iconography and religious cults in the most flexible manner.

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NĀGAS—The Nāga iconography stands parallel to that of the Yaksha in its popularity, wide background and antiquity. The Nāga images were mostly of human form with the serpent coils and canopy of hoods added to them. But thereomorphic images were also made. The drinking cup in the left hand and the abhayamudrā of the right hand marked them out as full-fledged divinities. In earlier art their bodies half-emerging from the water indicate their origin in water cosmology; and later on they were installed near pools of water showing them as guardians of watery stores of the under world. Their king Dhṛitarāshṭra was one amongst the four lokapāla gods. Although the Nāga cult was the most-ancient, even preceding that of the Yaksha, their iconography was simple.

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SAPTA-MAṬRIKĀS—The religious worship of the Seven Mothers (Saptamātaraḥ) was known to the Ṛigveda, sometimes spoken of as seven sisters (Saptasvāsāraḥ) who were only an elaboration of the single great mother goddess (Mahīmātā), Mother of the Seven Āditya gods, named Aditi, incarnated in the forms of many classical goddesses as Ambikā, Lakshmī, and Śatarūpā or Sarasvatī-Sāvitrī consort of Brahmā and also as a daughter of Daksha. The classical cult of the seven mothers was a continuation of the same but cast in a new mould of the energies of the seven Purāṇic gods, Brahmā, Vishṇu, Śiva, Kumāra, Varāha, Nṛisiṃha and Yama. The dreadful aspect of the last one being shown in the terrifying aspect of Chāmuṇḍā, a new version of the Vedic Kṛityā. In images they are given new weapons and vehicles mostly taken from the scattered groups of auspicious symbols.

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*Other Tulelary Divinities*—

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Some of the older tutelary deities like Kinnara, Suparṇa, Gandharva, Vidyādhara assuming new simple iconic forms became subservient to several major gods and goddesses contributing to their higher majesty.