Ancient Indian Costume c7: Kushan Period (130 B.C.–A.D. 185)

Ancient Indian Costume c7

Language: English

c7.s1 Headgear and Hairstyles : Women — 3 parts
c7.s2 Headgear and Hairstyles: Men — 6 parts
c7.s3 Military Costume — 127 parts

Kushan Period (130 B.C.–A.D. 185)

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*Main archaeological sites of interest for costumes* Mathura Besnagar Begram Taxila Gandhara (in a limited way, as the emphasis was on Graeco-Roman costume)

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The Kushans established their empire in the first century A.D. and were contemporaneous with the Satavahana (Andhra) and Western Satraps (Sakas) kingdoms during part of the second century A.D.

Unlike the political stability of the Mauryan empire, this period was marked by continuous changes in the boundaries of power and immense cultural and linguistic differences. The only cohesive factor was trade, which had been initiated in the Mauryan period, as a stable government ensured communication between various parts of the empire and encouraged active internal trade. Contact was established with many parts of western Asia and the Mediterranean by means of envoys. This naturally helped foreign trade, and the influx of foreigners, Kushans, Sakas, and Indo-Greeks, gave even more impetus to trade relations with these areas.

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There are two completely distinct styles in Kushan art. Gandhara, in the northern part of the empire, was built by craftsmen from eastern Rome who were employed by patrons of Buddhism. These craftsmen brought with them the Graeco-Roman style, particularly in the drapery of the sculpture, so that the Buddhists represented there were dressed in the classical Greek and Roman garments, the *chiton, rimation, stola, tunica, chlamys,* etc.

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The second style in Kushan art was that which arose in Mathura, the southern capital of the empire. This style was a direct continuation of the native Indian schools of Bharut and Sanchi. But a clearer picture of the actual Kushan costume is seen in the sculpture at Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan, the influence on style there being Parthian (eastern Iranian). The Parthians themselves were of Scythic stock like the Kushans, and their costume is much the same and resembles closely the portrait of Kanishka, the great Kushan king, found at Mathura. The latter wears, in addition to his tunic and trousers, a fur-lined coat or *pustin* which is also seen at Surkh Kotal.

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As mentioned earlier, there was no uniformity in this period and the dress of the people too varied with each region. The ordinary dress consisted as usual of an *antariya, uttariya* and *kayabandh,* with a turban for men. With the advent of the Kushans this was extended, and the fashion of wearing sewn garments of central Asiatic pattern seems to have made headway with all classes of Indians in north India. The cut-and-sewn garments which are rarely visible in the sculptures of the previous periods are more commonly found in this period.

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Kushan costumes may be divided into five types: the costume worn by (i) indigenous people—the *antariya, uttariya,* and *kayabandh,* (ii) guardians and attendants of the harem—usually the indigenous and sewn *kancuka,* red-brown in colour, (iii) foreign Kushan rulers and their entourage, and (iv) other foreigners such as grooms, traders, etc.

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There was a fifth category—a mixture of foreign and indigenous garments. This last category is of great interest as it shows how clothes changed and evolved, how some of the purely draped garments of the Indians were replaced by cut-and-sewn garments, especially in the north and northwest where influences were felt more keenly, and where climatically sewn garments were more suitable.

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The Kushan (Indo-Scythian) dress had evolved from a nomad culture based on the use of the horse. It is seen at Mathura, Taxila, Begram, and Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan. This dress was worn by most of the Scythian and Iranian races and resembled particularly that of the Parthians. It consisted of a ruched long-sleeved tunic with a slit for the neck opening, simple or elaborately decorated. The close-fitting knee-length tunic was sometimes made of leather, and with it could be worn a short cloak or a calf-length woollen coat or *caftan*, worn loose or crossed over from right to left and secured by a belt of leather or metal. Besides these two upper garments, occasionally a third garment the *chugha* was used. The *chugha* was coat-like and decorated with a border down the chest and hemline, and had slits to facilitate movement. The trousers could be of linen, silk, or muslin in summer but were woollen or quilted in winter. These loose or close-fitting trousers, *chalana*, were tucked into soft padded boots with leather trappings, *khapusa*. Along with this was worn the Scythian pointed cap of felt, *bashylk*, or peaked helmet or head band with two long ends tied at the back.

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Although, the clothes were simple, they were often adorned with stamped gold or metal plates, square, rectangular, circular, or triangular sewn in lines or at the central seams of the tunic. Their purpose was not only decorative but functional as well, as they helped to lift the tunic in the middle for riding, by gathering the cloth along the seams. This helped to give the distinctive draped effect with four sharp pointed ends at the hemline. The drape of trousers too was held in place by means of these gold or metal plates stitched down the centre front. It is interesting to note that elaborate embroidered panels later replaced these gold or metal plates. An earlier version was used by the Saka warriors, where the tunic was simply picked up and tucked into the belt on two sides at centre front, to free the spread of the knees when riding a horse.

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Clothes for women were varied. At Gandhara there are figures wearing a sari-like garment which seems to have evolved from Palmyrene (Graeco-Roman) or pure Roman dress. This is the *palla* (draped-over garment worn over a long gown with ruched sleeves which was typical of the Roman matron) pinned at the left shoulder. The difference in some of the Gandhara female figures is that they wear, in addition, an *antariya* which is extended in length. This long *antariya* is worn in the *kachcha* style but one end continues over the left shoulder and is broached there like the *palla*. The total ensemble looks very much like the Deccani sari of today. The long ruched sleeves are visible underneath and could be a shortened version of the Roman long gown (*stola*) worn as a covering for the breasts. In addition, the typical Indian *uttariya* is worn across the back and over both arms, and Indian jewellery completes the ensemble. The wearing of an *uttariya* with the sari is still seen in the fisherfolk of Maharashtra.

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These Gandhara figures are some of the most intriguing sculptures of the Kushan period, and may well show the beginning of the sari and one of the earlier attempts to create a garment to cover the breasts. This would fall under the category of a mixture of foreign and indigenous garments. In yet another female figure we find a Persian-influenced knee or mid-thigh length tunic, *stanamsuka*, worn with the *antariya*. The latter is not passed between the legs as in the *kachcha* style, but is worn crossed-over in the *lehnga* style. Simple stitched skirts, *ghagri*, with a side seam and *nada* or string to hold them up at the waist are also seen. They are gathered in folds from lengths of about 6–8 feet, and have a decorative border at the hem and at the centre front seam. The tunic, *stanamsuka*, is form-fitting with long sleeves, a simple round neckline, and flaring at the hemline. Besides the above mentioned, the *lehnga* style *antariya* and the *uttariya* is sometimes worn. But very little in the way of elaborate jewellery is used.

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There are also some figures of women wearing close-fitting ruched trousers with a long-sleeved jacket and an *uttariya*. In the earlier period, trousers were worn by Greek and Persian women. It is said that Amazons wearing trousers formed the royal guard of the king. These female guards adapted their own Phrygian costume to a tight midthigh length jacket with crossover at the neck and a gathered or pleated skirt worn with the *antariya*, along with a crossed *vaikaksha* with metal buckle shield and sword. Servants and dancers from many parts of the world were brought into the country from a very early period in Indian history. The *pravara* or *chaddar*, a large shawl, continued to be worn by both sexes as protection against the cold and it was known to have been perfumed with *bakul*, jasmine, and other scents. The purely indigenous *antariya*, *uttariya* and *kayabandh* continued to be the main costumes of Indians with slight modifications. The *kayabandh* became a more loosely worn informal piece of attire, and was a wide twisted sash used mainly by women in many delightful ways to enhance the suppleness of the waist.

Headgear and Hairstyles : Women

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The wearing of the *uttariya* on the head seems to have almost disappeared in this period and most of the women in indigenous costume are seen bare-headed. They wear their hair in a tuft at the forehead which covers the line of parting. This tuft is in the form of a ball or disc; the rest of the hair is drawn back, folded in and held with a brooch at the nape or worn in chignon which protrudes at right angle to the neck or almost vertically upwards. Sometimes a bow of cloth is placed saucily on top of the head, and sometimes a 'relic' or box containing scented sandal or some other perfume paste is secured to the bun by a ribbon. At other times, a band or diadem, or a twisted cord or scarf is tied around the head and over the bun.

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*Ratnavali*, a jewelled net, and brooches and decorative hairpins continued to be worn. Turbans wound around the foreign pointed Scythic cap made of striped fabrics and decorated with rows of pearls or a diadem were frequently used. A sprig of the *mimosa* tree tucked into the turban was said to give protection against the evil eye. If one from the *asoka* tree was worn, it was said to symbolize love. There is little evidence of long hair being worn loose, but when arranged it was usually in one or two plaits, sometimes joined at the tips at the back, or hanging to one side. The commoner would probably wear hers in a simple knot at the nape as is worn today.

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Flowers were used to decorate the hair and chaplets of leaves are frequently seen around the high top knot of hair, especially in north-western India. The chaplet of leaves, made of *nard* leaves on fabric, or else of silk of many colours and steeped in ungents, was even exported to Rome. But *srajas* or flower garlands were the most popular and could be of many kinds, worn at the waist, neck, or in the hair. They were sometimes supported by *munja* grass, reeds, or cotton-plant stalks. Apart from flowers, peacock feathers, horn and bone ornaments, shells, leaves, and fruit and berries were woven together to form decorative ornaments.

Headgear and Hairstyles: Men

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Men continued to wear the turban, now called *mauli*, as in the Mauryan-Sunga period. However, a simpler line of twisted rolls of the fabric itself is more in evidence with hardly any of the complications of intertwining the hair with the turban cloth. The knob at the centre or side of the head around which the turban was wound to form a large protuberance, slowly disappeared. When bare-headed, the hair was worn in a top knot or in the shape of a bow, often softened by curls on the forehead or at the nape especially in the north-west. Fillets or bands tied on the forehead were common. Young men had begun to cut their hair short and adopted a short-skirted tunic with their *antariya*. The Scythian pointed cap was frequently used as was the crown or *mukuta*. The common man moved around bare-headed or used his *kayabandh* or *uttariya* to form a casual turban on the head against the sun in almost the same way as is seen today in India.

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In relation to the Mauryan–Sunga period, we notice a tendency towards greater refinement and simplicity in this period. Gold was much in use and was called *hiranya* and *suvarna*, silver was known as *rupya*, and copper as *tamra*, and these continued to be used for making jewellery. Gold and silver were often encrusted with *ratna* or jewels. These included cornelians, agates, lapis-lazuli, amethysts, garnets, coral, and pearls. Sapphires, topaz, diamonds and cat's-eyes were embedded or sometimes strung in various ways and worn as ornaments.

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Besides this, the art of enamelling was known, as well as inlay work in shell and mother-of-pearl. Gold beads were beautifully filigreed or filled with lac, while others had cores of jasper and turquoise paste and were strung on thread or wire to be worn as short necklaces called *kantha*, or long ones worn between the breasts known as *hara*. Stringing coins to be worn as necklaces, called *nishka*, was in vogue. The torque, a simple necklace of gold wire, was worn by foreigners. It was a characteristic ornament of the Scythian and Celtic people and was worn as a mark of distinction by the Persian and Parthians, all of whom were of the same stock, as were the Sakas and Kushans. Shell and terracotta beads continued to be strung and worn by the poorer classes.

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The earrings, *kundala*, were of three types and most often of gold though there is evidence of ivory ones as well. The pendant type often had decorative rosettes and granulation. The ring type, Scythian in origin, could be simple with a gold wire wound around or a mixture of both types, that is, a ring elaborately decorated with beads as well as bud-like pendants. Of these, the simpler kind was used by men, except for foreigners who are depicted as wearing none. Armlets were known as *keyura* and bracelets as *valaya*. These were worn by both men and women. Those for women were often made of thick or thin sheets of gold with hinged clasps, and elaborately ornamented and inlaid. Simple bangles of glass, shell, or ivory were also used.

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Head ornaments were varied. As the turbans and head veils of women went out of fashion they were replaced by a bejewelled diadem or crown called *mukuta*, or a simple fillet or head band called *opasa*. These were used in addition to the garlands of flowers, *sraja*, which remained popular. Hair was held up by gold or silver hairpins with attractively ornamented heads. Men continued to wear the *mauli* (turban). The *mekhala* or girdle was mainly of beads and, along with the *nupura* or anklet, was worn only by women. This was simpler and lighter than that in the previous period. There is an absence of forehead ornaments like the *sitara* and *bindi* of the Mauryan-Sunga period.

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Finger rings were of solid gold, some plain, others incised with tiny figures. Ivory was used extensively to make combs, brooches, hairpins, boxes, and other objects.

Military Costume

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It is in the military dress of the Mauryan–Sunga period that we find the earliest traces of foreign influence on indigenous garments. At the Gandhara site of the Kushans is a soldier of Mara's (Apollo's) army wearing the Indian *antariya* and turban with a Graeco-Roman style of breast-plate or coat of mail. Coats of mail are said to have been made indigenously of metallic wires, probably iron, woven into a gauze known as *jalaka*. But the soldier's coat of mail appears to be made of metal scales, attached to a backing, rather than woven wire. This could be a foreign-influenced improvement on the indigenous equipment for soldiers. Another soldier is seen wearing full foreign garments in the same army. His coat of mail is worn over a short tunic which is visible at the hem and sleeves, and his bare legs are encased in greaves. On his head is a three-cornered helmet which suggests the well-known whitish grey felt caps of the Tibetans and Khorezmians.

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Khorez, Bactria, and Sogdiania in Central Asia, had at one time been some of the most important cultural centres of the ancient world. They were later taken over by the Persians, Greeks, and then the Kushans. The third soldier in this army of Mara wears the purely Indian *antariya* and has his *uttariya* wound around his waist. All three soldiers carry shields and equipment of various kinds. Foot soldiers are said to have used six-foot bows with very long arrows, tall shields made of undressed ox hide, and broad swords three cubits long. Some carried javelins instead of bows. Horsemen carried smaller shields and were equipped with two lances each, but rode without saddles.

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Brahmin hermits or ascetics continued to wear garments made of bark leaves, or animal skins, and live austere lives in forests or other isolated places. The clothes of the *bhikshu* continued to be yellow or red in colour and consisted of the same *antaravasaka*, *uttarasanga*, *samghati*, and *kushalaka* as before, along with a buckled belt or *samkaksika*. Only now the cloth of their garments was most probably donated to the monastery by wealthy merchants, and was not made of rags. The sign of physical and spiritual perfection in the Buddha figures is the protuberance or *ushnisa* on the head which evolved from the top knot worn by Brahmins. Another symbol is the *urna* or tuft of hair between the eye-brows, representing the third eye. The elongated ear lobes are yet another sign of perfection.

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For the first time trade with China was directly established through the ancient silk route. Indian traders settled down in Chinese Turkestan, which was annexed by Kanishka, the Kushan king. This included Kashgar, Khotan, and Yarkhand. Buddhist missions too were sent to China. In Rome, Augustus encouraged trade with India and exports increased resulting in a flourishing merchant class. In the north-western area coarse cotton and wool were used for making tunics and trousers for horsemen, hunters, foreigners, and doorkeepers. In central India textiles were of light-weight cotton, *tulapansi*. Both indigenous and foreign silks were plentiful but still very expensive.

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*Antariyas* were very rarely decorated and when they were, they appear to have been either embroidered, woven, or printed in diagonal check designs enclosing small circles. Turban cloth for rich women was often diagonally striped with every third line made of pearls. This bejewelled material was also used to cover beds and seats. Many other geometric patterns of checks, stripes and triangles were also printed and woven. It is only from literary sources that we know of the textiles and dyes available in the earlier period. There is no evidence of actual fabrics being made in India before the twelveth or thirteenth century. But a large variety of fabrics were recovered from the burial grounds along the silk route, which can be dated to between the first century B.C. and the second century A.D. (Han Period in China). Based on this evidence we may presume that the dyes and textiles of Chinese origin available along this route would surely have found their way into India. Hence, it is possible to maintain that many of the patterns and colours would be similar, or had influenced indigenous fabrics. We know for a fact that the beautiful ultra-marine and lapis-lazuli blue were sent along the trade routes from the famous mines at Badakshan in Central Asia. There is, in addition, much literary evidence of the sophistication of Indian textiles from the earliest times.

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In a list compiled of the fabrics recovered from the ancient silk route, fabrics in the following colours were found: bright blue, rich blue, light blue, dark blue-copper, dull gold-buff, bronze-brown, dark brown, pale brown, snuff brown, myrtle green, green, dark bronze-green, crimson, pink, crimson-brown, rich red, yellow, yellow-brown, yellow-green, rich dark yellow-brown. These are all variants and mixtures of the colours in dyes that were available in India in this period.

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The Kushan influence was felt in what developed into the Gandhara art and the art of Mathura which, while retaining the massive scale of Bharut and Sanchi, had carvings more sophisticated and images more flamboyant and sensuous than had been seen before. It is as if in the provocative display of courtesans with their sinuous bodies in the *tribhanga* pose and the delicate flower-like gesture of the hands, the foreigners had found aspects of the Indian experience that fired their imagination.

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In the same period, however, there are the wall paintings at Kizil in Afghanistan, where the wiry line of the drawing with its flat brilliant colours dominated by lapis-lazuli gives a heraldic appearance, static and frozen, like the group of portrait statues found at Mathura. The latter have the still, formal depiction of the Kushan kings, showing in complete detail the kind of heavy garments they wore. The Kushans were not originally an artistic people. Of Scythian origin, their only expression had been the metal work displayed in their horse trappings, hunting gear, and in the ornamental plaques which they stitched on their garments.

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But they had lived for many years in Bactria before entering India and this prepared them for the role they were to play as great patrons of the arts, as seen in the development of the Gandhara art and the evolution of the indigenous art of Mathura. Later, both these styles fused to create the Renaissance of Gupta Art.

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*(Begram)*

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**Antariya** worn extremely short in the *kachcha* style; the end that is passed between the legs has been tucked in at the back; the other piece is looped to mid-thigh in front and the end tucked in a small looped frill at the centre

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**Kayabandh** there are two: one is a wide sash tied in a loop on both sides to the knees with steamers at each side of the hips hanging to floor length; the other is the *kakshyabandha*, a thick jewelled roll worn aslant which has a large clasp at the left hip

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**Mekhala** five-stringed pearl or jewelled hip belt, it holds the *antariya* and cloth *kayabandh* in place

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**Hara** necklace of pearls, probably strung on thread or wire and worn between the breasts

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**Kantha** short necklace of beads with central pendant and looped chains

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**Keyura** simple armlets, of looped design, in gold or silver

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**Valaya** bracelets of two kinds: the central one consists of a series of rings like a wrist band; on both sides are larger rigid bracelets

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**Kundala** square earrings decorated with a flower motif and with pearls suspended

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**Nupura** anklets—wide rings with an elaborate design

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**Anguliya** finger rings of solid gold

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**Mukuta** bejewelled crown on the head and a head band

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**Hairstyle** small symmetrical curls at the forehead, hair tied in a looped knot projecting vertically at the back

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36. MILK MAID

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*(Mathura)*

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**Ghagri** simple narrow calf-length skirt stitched at the centre-front border, it has either a drawstring through it or is rolled over a string; this is an example of the earliest form of a stitched lower garment for women

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**Kantha** short flat necklace with decorative design

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**Keyura** armlets of same decorative design as for *kantha*

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**Valaya** simple ring-type bangles

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**Kundala** simple ring-type earrings

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*She rests her pitcher on a head-rest probably of cane, like an inverted basket.*

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37. YAKSHI: FEMALE DOOR-KEEPER

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*(Gandhara)*

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**Antariya** worn in *lehnga* style, simply wrapped around and tucked in at the left

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**Uttariya** thrown casually over the shoulders

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**Tunic** with front opening, held at the neck by button; long ruched sleeves have ruching held by jewelled bands or buttons; tunic is fork-length and form-fitting

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**Mekhala** four-stringed girdle with clasp and decorative leaf at the centre

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**Hara** one long pearl necklace worn between the breasts and one short one with a pendant

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**Kundala** large ring-type earrings

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**Head-dress** chaplet of leaves or turban with a central flower worn around the top knot of hair

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**Sitara** round ornament on the forehead

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38. FEMALE GUARD

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*(Gandhara)*

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**Tunic** Kushan type with long ruched sleeves

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**Antariya** could be *chalana*—Kushan loose trousers

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**Kayabandh** twisted sash

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**Hara** long necklet worn between the breasts

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**Valaya** three bangles are visible on the right hand

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**Nupura** heavy ring-type anklets

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**Hairstyle** hair at the front is divided into three portions, the central one is made into a roll, the two at the side are combed downwards with tassels suspended

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*She carries a long spear and round embossed shield. A mixture of foreign and indigenous costume.*

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39. DONOR FIGURE

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*(Mathura)*

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**Antariya** sari-like, tied in front, while one end is passed between the legs, pleated and tucked in at the back, the other end is partly pleated and tucked in at the front, then wound around and worn over the left shoulder

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**Tunic** Kushan style with ruched long sleeves either tucked into *antariya* or worn short to waist

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**Valaya** one bangle on each wrist

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**Nupura** simple ring-type anklets

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**Kundala** twisted or suspended disc earrings

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**Hairstyle** centre parting with long hair looped on one side

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*Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. This early form of kachcha-style sari is still used in Maharashtra and parts of South India.*

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40. FEMALE

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(*Gandhara*)

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**Antariya** sari-like, worn in the *kachcha* style, the other end being taken across the body and over the left shoulder

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**Kayabandh** simple sash, twisted in parts

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**Uttariya** worn across the back and over both shoulders, the left end is loosely tucked in at the waist

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**Valaya** four bangles on left wrist

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**Hara** pearl necklace worn between the breasts

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**Kundala** simple disc-like earrings

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**Nupura** heavy double rings on the ankles

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**Hairstyle** chaplet of leaves

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41. DONOR FIGURE

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*(Gandhara)*

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**Antariya** *kachcha* style, only the pleated end hanging at the back has been shortened

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**Uttariya** worn over the left shoulder across the back and under the right arm, then across the chest and taken again over the left shoulder

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**Kantha** short necklace

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**Hairstyle** in a double knot at the centre of the head

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*Purely indigenous style.*

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42. KING KANISHKA

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*(Mathura)*

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**Tunic** calf-length and heavily quilted, with braid at the bottom edge

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**Chugha** a coat which is longer than the tunic, worn open at centre front; it has a decorative braid at the centre front and hem with probably long gathered-up sleeves

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**Belt** of metallic decorative plaques

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**Boots** padded, with straps around the ankle and under the boot held together by a decorative clasp; either the boots are calf length or baggy trousers (*chalana*) have been inserted into short boots

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*This is the dress of the Kushan foreigners of Saka-Parthian origin. He holds two swords in decorative scabbards.*

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43. KUSHAN KING *(Mathura)*

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| **Chugha** calf-length with a wide richly embroidered border down the centre-front opening, hem and edge of long sleeves (probably ruched); the material of the coat has small rosettes and a V-neck and there is a round motif on the right sleeve | **Chalana** baggy trousers tucked into calf-length padded boots; there is a wide band of vine pattern at the centre from toe to top (not visible in drawing); straps around the ankle and instep |
| | **Kantha** short necklace with pendant |
| **Tunic** kurta-like undergarment visible at the neck | *Purely foreign costume of Scythic origin.* |

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44. SOLDIER

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*(Gandhara)*

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**Antariya** worn in *kachcha* style

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**Armour** chain armour made of scale or rhombus-patterned plaques, fastened together with strings (like a Japanese or Tibetan armour); the end of the sleeves, waist and hem are strengthened with cording; the skirt portion is made of parallel rows of rectangular plaques

Ancient Indian Costume c7: Kushan Period (130 B.C.–A.D. 185)

Contents

Kushan Period (130 B.C.–A.D. 185)

Headgear and Hairstyles : Women

Headgear and Hairstyles: Men

Military Costume