Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c30: Chapter XXIII: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style (continued): Rajputana and Central India (8th to 11th Centuries)
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c30
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Chapter XXIII: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style (continued): Rajputana and Central India (8th to 11th Centuries)
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A DEVELOPMENT of great beauty in the art of temple building expressed itself in parts of Rajputana, Central India, and the adjacent country in the last centuries of the first millennium. Such a virile movement as that inspired by the Gupta dynasty in the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries was naturally succeeded, even after the decay of that intellectual regime, by a later flowering of a singularly rich and lovely nature Unfortunately much of this fine form of architecture lay in that part of the country which suffered most from the earlier invasions of the Muhammadans, so that examples are comparatively rare and fragmentary. This succeeding phase of the Gupta style flourished from about the eighth to the eleventh centuries, shortly after which the demolition of many of the temples in northern India by the followers of the conquerors not only removed the existing examples, but brought to an end any further building of this kind.
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Some idea of the amount and quality of the temple architecture produced in these parts may be obtained from an examination of the remains built into those two famous Islamic monuments, the Qutb Mosque at Delhi, and the Arhai din ki Jhompra at Ajmer, the earliest architectural efforts of the Afghan invaders From inscriptional evidence it is known that twenty-six temples were dismantled to provide materials for the Delhi mosque, the number of pillars in which amounts to 240. Each single mosque pillar however is made up of two pillars of the temple type, one being placed above the other, thus giving a total of 480 in all, or an average of rather more than eighteen pillars from each temple. But the Ajmer mosque is a much larger structural compilation containing some 235 pillars, and in this instance instead of two, three of the temple examples are superimposed, so that nearly a thousand pillars were used, representing the spoils of at least 50 temples. These calculations may be served to explain the scarcity of indigenous architectural remains within the vicinity of the cities of Delhi or Ajmer. Most of the temples thus demolished appear to have been of moderate proportions, and notably peristylar, their numerous pillars and capitals, with the carved ceiling they supported, being their principal architectural feature. In the mosque at Delhi these temples appear to have been mainly those of the eighth and ninth centuries, the beauty of some of the capitals being remarkable, indicating that they were excellent examples of the post-Gupta style. On the other hand the components of the Ajmer mosque seem to have been derived from structures of a rather later date, probably of the tenth and eleventh centuries, as the vase and foliage capital signifying the Gupta order is rare, and the shafts of the pillars are not fluted but octagonal in section. Although torn from the buildings they were designed to embellish, these beautiful examples of Hindu workmanship are probably seen to better advantage in their present position than in the obscurity of the temple mandapa. (Plate XCVI).
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To what extent the post-Gupta art and architecture derived its exquisite quality from the cultural conditions that prevailed in this region during the latter half of the first millennium, can only be conjectured Such a galaxy of intellectuals as that which comprised the "Nine Gems" at the Court of Ujjain, including the celebrated dramatic poet Kalidasa, and, later, Bhavabhuti, the Indian equivalents respectively of Shakespeare and Goethe, implies an epoch having real unity, corresponding in a measure to some of the great creative developments of the West. That this scholarly movement influenced all forms of expression is shown by the architecture of this period, and it is clear that it was a time when men's minds were working in accordance with high aesthetic ideals. In its cultural aspect therefore it suggests the age of Pericles, rather than that of the Elizabethans, with the addition of a profoundly religious trend. One of the chief characteristics of the great literary masterpieces of this period, and one which is insistent throughout, is an abundant sympathy with and love of Nature in her most florescent mood , and in this warm, colourful environment live and luxuriate chaste and graceful female forms Such an emotional atmosphere could not fail to react on the visual arts, and specially on the plastic embellishment of the temples. Can we not see therefore in these buildings, in the elegant scrolls of foliage clustering round column and capital, mouldings and cornice, some of that fondness for blossoming trees, trailing verdure, lotus lilies, and "pale red trumpet flowers", which so frequently comprise the setting of these poetical dramas ? And have not some of the love-idylls inspired those voluptuous feminine figures adorning pediment, bracket, and strut, embodiments of Sakuntala, daughter of the celestial nymph of whom Kalidasa sings?
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Her lip is ruddy as an opening bud,
Her graceful arms resemble tender shoots ;
Attractive as the bloom upon the tree,
The glow of youth is spread on all her limbs
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There is much of this sentiment and passion in the art of the post-Gupta period, particularly in its sculpture, while some of the lilt and melodic cadence of the poetry is observable in the rhythm of its architectural forms.
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There are several groups of buildings which exemplify this movement, most of them unfortunately fragmentary owing to subsequent vicissitudes One of these displaying structural records of great beauty is in the Saugor district of Central India. Here at Eran are architectural remains extending over a period of some six centuries, from the fifth to the eleventh, beginning with the monolithic pillar of Buddhagupta of the fifth century and including a series of shrines dedicated to Varaha, Narasimha, and Vishnu, all of the later Gupta era. Ten miles away is Pathari where the seventh century is represented by a monolithic column, and here also is the temple of Kotheswara which may be of the ninth century. At Gyraspur, further south, in the ruins known as the *Ath-Kambha* (eight pillars), and the *Char-Kambha* (four pillars) are portions of the columned halls of two temples of the ninth and tenth centuries, while the building called the Bajramath, and the temple of Mala De are of the early tenth century. (Plate CII). Finally, at Udayaspur, there is the temple of Udayaswara dating from the middle of the eleventh century, and showing by its style an affinity to the Chandela group at Khajuraho. (Chapter XXII). In the design of each of these structures, whether ruined or entire, there is some feature, or group of features, entirely expressive of the period each represents, such as the typical Gupta order of the capital at Eran, the carved pillars in the Mala De temple with their foliated motifs characteristic of the post-Gupta style in its richest and ripest mood, the faceted shafts of the *Ath-Kambha* with patterns as fine as old Chinese ivory carving, and the logical planning of the red sandstone temple of Udayaswara. All the records of this series however are distributed over a relatively wide area, for a more compact group of structures illustrating the movement, the temples at Osia in Rajputana may be selected.
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The village of Osia,¹ thirty-two miles north-west of Jodhpur, is an example, not uncommon in India, of a considerable city whose substance has departed, and only the spirit remains. This spirit, battered and broken, still exists in the form of some sixteen Brahmanical and Jain temples, the majority now in a neglected condition, but a proof that for four hundred years religion was a very real thing in the life of its people. These relics of its past greatness occupy two sites, one consisting of a group of eleven temples of an early phase on the outskirts of the modern village, while the remainder, rather later, are on a hill to the east of it. The temples forming the earlier group appear to have been built in the eighth and ninth centuries, and although comparatively small structures, their size is compensated for by the elegance of their architecture and its applied art. What is also striking in these temples is the variety in their design, no two are alike, one and all show an individuality of conception and an originality of composition, which is unusual in a country where there is a tendency to repeat a standard pattern and where unalterable convention is strictly observed.
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¹ *Archaeological Survey of India Report*, 1908-09.
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Three early temples of the series at Osia, probably built in the eighth century, and dedicated to Harihara, are small but particularly pleasing in their design and rich in their embellishment Two are of the *panchayatana* class, so that with their four additional shrines they form very attractive compositions. They are raised up on plinths, as in the Khajuraho group, but on the other hand their sikharas resemble the early Orissan type, except that they are more refined in their contours In Nos. 2 and 3 of this Harihara trio, the mandapa is an open pillared hall, with the lower part of the pillars supporting the characteristic sloping seat-back or *asana* and every part is tastefully carved. (Plate XCVIII, Fig 2) This plastic decoration is well shown in the entrance to the sanctum of temple No. 2 and also in the pillars of one of the shrines attached to No 1 There is a naivete and freshness in this carving, although it is profusely applied, and there are the same ingenuous qualities in the architecture, which is also skilful in its execution.
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A temple of equal elegance, although more restrained in its treatment, and probably a little later in date, is that dedicated to the sun-god Surya, and in some respects the most graceful of the entire group (Plate XCVII) Much of its effect has been obtained by the original design of its frontage, to which two tall fluted pillars have been added, giving this aspect almost a classical appearance. This temple is also of the *panchayatana* type, its four subsidiary shrines being connected by a cloister (*sal*), which not only provide shelter for visiting devotees, but also served the purposes of an enclosure wall. In its proportions and style this building displays no little dignity, while both in the shape of its sikhara, and in the manner of its pillar ornamentation, it is admirable. As an example of the "order" of this period the pillars of the portico may be referred to, the "vase and foliage" motif forming the capital and the base, together with the band breaking the slender lines of the shaft, are the work of an experienced hand. In its architecture and in its art this temple is an illustration of the supreme, almost loving care bestowed by the craftsmen on their handiwork, each example in the course of its production being evidently regarded as a *chef-d'œuvre*.
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The most complete example of the Osia group is a Jain temple dedicated to Mahavira, as it consists of a sanctum, a closed hall, and an open porch, immediately in front of which is an ornate torana or gateway. It appears to have been first built at the end of the eighth century, and then repaired and added to in the tenth century, so that it is a record of development over two periods. This is shown by the changes in style of the building throughout, but particularly in the character of the pillars, in which it is possible to compare those of the mandapa belonging to the original structure with the later examples in the second porch; this latter apartment or *nal mandapa* is so called because it was erected subsequently over the *nal*, or staircase, leading into the interior of the building. To add to the history of this temple, the torana or entrance archway appears to be even a still later addition, probably made in the eleventh century. In this one building alone, therefore, it is possible to follow the course of the style over a period of several centuries. One of its outstanding features are the pillars of the porch, as they represent the post-Gupta order in its ripest state. That this form of pillar found favour for some considerable time is shown by almost exactly the same design figuring in the temple of Mala De at Gyraspur, which can hardly be earlier than the tenth century. It also appears in the triple-shrined Vaishnava temple near Amvan in Kota State, and in the temple of Kalika Mata at Chitorgadh, all evidently of equal date. (Plate CII).
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From each temple at Osia the progress of the style may be studied, for instance in that known as the Pipla Devi, a stage in the development of the pillar is illustrated. This temple is provided with a large *sabhamandapa*, or assembly hall, in which there are as many as thirty pillars, apparently dating from the end of the tenth century. Although there is much to admire in their treatment, these pillars seem to indicate that a point had been reached when the art had passed its fine freshness, and was becoming stylized and stiff. The flutings of the shaft in the earlier model have been replaced by recessed angles, which are carried through the entire length of the pillar and even into the capital. Instead of each member of the order being distinct, they merge into one another, the effect becoming confused A similar treatment of the pillar is noticeable in another temple in this area, the Jageswara at Saladi in Godvad, Jodhpur State, which is known to have been built towards the end of the tenth century, and therefore confirms the date of the approaching decline.
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To carry the movement to its final phase there is a temple to the east of the village called Sachiya Mata, the foundations of which may date from the eighth century, but most of it, as now standing, was executed towards the middle of the twelfth century. In plan it has an octagonal space, or nave, in the centre of the assembly hall, with a pillar at each angle supporting a shallow dome, an arrangement of the interior which began from the eleventh century. The spire of this temple is complex in design with supplementary turrets or *ūruśringas* attached to its sides, which, with other similar features proclaim its later date
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The significance of the pillar and its capital in the temples at Osia has been already emphasised, but in some of the examples, that distinctive motif, the "vase and foliage", attained its supreme form Although not universal, this type of capital may be regarded as the "order" of the Indo-Aryan style, and in the hands of some of the sculptors it has been made into a singularly graceful feature One of the most elaborate examples of the vase-and-foliage convention may be seen in the porch pillars of the Mahavira temple of the eighth century. Not only is this element introduced into the capital of the pillar, but, with a slight modification, it also serves as the base. This enrichment however did not satisfy the Indian artist, it was merely one incident in his design, for over and above this he piled on other ornamental devices almost smothering the pillar with the wealth of his inventiveness. There is a feeling that he was endeavouring to express the outpourings of nature in her most bounteous mood, that tumultuous fertility of tropical growth, but on occasion his exuberance becomes strained so that the palate cloys and the eye tires from such a display of sheer sensuousness.
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No account of the temples of the Osia group would be complete without a reference to the doorways, particularly those which form the entrances to the shrine chamber. In most of the temple architecture, these are the features on which the decorator concentrated all his knowledge and skill, thus corresponding in their wealth of story to the doorways of a Gothic cathedral in the West. The fact that the shrine entrance led immediately into the divine presence seems to have given wings to the artist's imagination, so that here we find portrayed, by symbol and image, whole volumes of folk lore and mythology for those who can see but cannot read On the lintel are represented the nine planets or *navagraha*, while below are ornamental niches each enshrining some well-known incident. Simulating a key-stone is the dedicatory block, often depicting a figure or emblem associated with the divinity within the cella, while in panels down the jambs are figure-subjects of lively interest. Decorative mouldings outline the doorway, among which is a motif of double spirals continuing right round the opening delineating the intertwined coils of the snake Sesha, the king of the Nagas or serpent race, a device signifying an endless destiny or eternity. The river goddesses of the Ganges and the Jumna figure at the base of the jamb, to which position they were relegated after the Gupta era; one of the conventions of that period was to include these deities at the upper angle of the doorway, the sixth century marking the date of this change.
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With this post-Gupta development in Rajputana may also be classed one example of the Indo-Aryan style in this region, which on account of its technique is rare, as it is rock-cut This is a Brahmanical temple at Damnar, a site fifty miles south-west of Jhalra Patan and evidently contemporary with an extensive series of Buddhist excavations in its proximity, which may date from the eighth or ninth centuries. Standing a little apart from the Buddhist group, this temple has several noteworthy features. It is approached by a passage cut in the rock some 282 feet in length, at the end of which a rectangular pit has been excavated leaving a mass of rock in the centre out of which the temple has been formed. Its plan is not however a simple one, as in addition to the central shrine it is surrounded by as many as seven entirely separate but smaller shrines all symmetrically grouped so as to form the whole into one unified but somewhat complex composition. Differing from the *panchayatana* or five shrined temples, which in one form or another are not uncommon, there are several examples of this combination of eight shrines, such as the temple of Kotheswara (cır. ninth century) at Pathari, and the Udayaswara (eleventh century) at Udayapur, but the rock-cut temple at Damnar is apparently the archetype of all these Apart from its plan, this temple is of the usual design consisting of a sanctum, a pillared hall and a small two-pillared portico, the extreme external length of the whole being 50 feet, and its widest part is 35 feet. It is quite finished, even to its interior, the mandapa consisting of a hall 21 feet square, with four central pillars and eight side pilasters supporting a flat recessed roof. Except for its rock technique, and the fact that it is eight-shrined, there is however nothing of special architectural merit in this rather unusual adaptation of the northern style.
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As an example of a rock-cut temple in the Indo-Aryan style, that at Damnar is not alone, for there is one other group of excavated shrines in this mode, not however in Rajputana, but in a more remote locality. At Masrur in the Kangra district of the Punjab Himalayas, quarried out of a rectangular mass of sandstone is a complex of monoliths, in style similar to the temple at Damnar, and also of the same date, the eighth century A.D.¹ Although so far apart, these two solitary examples of the Northern mode by this method are sufficiently alike to be classed together The Masrur conception was obtained by excavating two parallel cuttings leaving an intervening mound of rock measuring 160 feet by 105 feet Out of this mass one principal temple was carved surrounded by eight smaller ones, the sikhara of the former being of the simple type as in Plate XCVIII, Fig 2, while the capitals of the pillars are of the vase and foliage order, elaborate in design and finish, fully characteristic of their period.
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¹ Archaeological Survey of India Report, 1912-13.
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The post-Gupta development, as expressed in the west and central region, was undeniably a rich aftermath of the intellectual regime of the imperial Guptas, the earlier manifestation signifying that first creative impulse which heralds the birth of a new era, the later, under the steadying influence of time, producing the exquisite second flowering, as exemplified by the remains at Osia, Eran and elsewhere. But in reality these groups of buildings only represent one aspect of a much wider cultural movement which extended into most parts of the country. For there is ample evidence that during the latter half of the first millennium the arts generally were approaching a very high level, and in several instances had actually attained their golden prime. The great school of rock architecture which was nearing its glorious end, and the building art in its structural form which was beginning its grand achievements, indicate that the spirit of progressiveness was a very living force at this time
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REFERENCE
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Bhandarkar, D. R., *The Temples of Osia*, Arch. Sur of India, An. Rep. 1908-9, Cal. 1912.