Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c31: Chapter XXIV: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style (continued): Gujarat and the West (A.D. 941 to 1311)
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c31
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Chapter XXIV: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style (continued): Gujarat and the West (A.D. 941 to 1311)
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ONE of the richest and most prolific developments of the Indo-Aryan style of architecture was that which prevailed in Western India during the early centuries of the second millennium. The majority of the buildings were erected in the interim of over two and a half centuries between Mahmud of Ghazni's expedition to Somnath in Kathiawar in A.D. 1025-26, and the conquest of this part of the country by the Sultans of Delhi in 1298. It is true that the Afghan ruler's raid, with iconoclasm as its prime object, for the time being threw the whole of this territory into disorder, but after his return to Ghazni, the inhabitants appear to have quickly recovered from the effects of the blow, and to have repaired the temples that he had desecrated and despoiled Then ensued a period of comparative peace in the western region together with a condition of marked material prosperity, one indication of which was the number and character of the buildings produced at this time. The settled state of the country was largely due to the stable rule of the Solanki dynasty, a Saivite line whose power extended over a large area centering around Gujarat, and including Kathiawar, Kach, (Cutch) and much of what is now Rajputana, with the capital at Anahilavada-Pattana, corresponding to the comparatively modern town of Patan, north-west of Ahmedabad. The wealth that came to this part of India was acquired mainly through its geographical position, as Gujarat was to India what Venice was to Europe, the focus of commerce of both the east and the west. And the reaction to this state of general affluence was the creation in substance and sensibility of a form of religious architecture in accordance with the favourable circumstances that then prevailed
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moulded into religious forms mingled with luxuriant fancies. Even these magnificent tokens of the material resources and passionate devotion were insufficient to express adequately the spiritual consciousness of the time, so that it became the custom to encrust with gems and precious stones, not only the images, but also their canopies and shrines None the less under this apparent excess of superficial richness there is revealed a feeling for architectural form and fitness, which indicates that in the main these Solanki temples were notable for their aesthetic excellence and structural efficiency.
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Although many of these building undertakings were directly inspired by the Solanki rulers themselves, some of the finer efforts appear to have been due to the patronage of their ministers and governors, who, more often than not, were prominent members of the Jain faith, and who used their great wealth unstintingly, and with marked broadmindedness in erecting temples, both Jain and Hindu. Two of these exalted personages, the brothers Vastupala and Tejapala, who attained to power in the first half of thirteenth century, may, in certain respect, be referred to as the “Indian Medicis”, for as politicians, bankers, and merchant princes, they used their influence and accumulated resources in much the same manner as those celebrated Florentines, the Medicis, patronising and encouraging the arts of Gujarat, as Cosimo the Elder and Lorenzo the Magnificent did for Italian art in the fifteenth century. Yet there seems little doubt that like many mediaeval masterpieces, the Solanki temples were not the produce of one mind, or even a group of minds, but were the spontaneous expression of the entire community, every individual, from the highest to the lowest being moved to take a personal interest in their construction, so that even those monuments which are dismembered and broken still continue to breathe the spirit of that brilliant age
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Unfortunately many of the finest buildings are in ruins, while in some instances they have been almost entirely obliterated Apart from the disintegrating influences of time and climate, spoliation by the Muslim conquerors when the country definitely came under their rule at the end of the thirteenth century, accounted for the complete dismemberment of several of the largest and richest temples to provide materials for their mosques Much later, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, a devastating earthquake, with its epicentre in Kathiawar, wrought indescribable havoc over Western India, reducing to their present damaged state those buildings which age and the invaders had spared. Its one time splendours of sculptured stone have therefore in too many instances been reduced to crumbling piles of broken and shapeless masonry, but from these remains, and other buildings still preserved, it is clear that the Gujarati craftsmen had inherited an artistic capacity, rich and deep, and their productions are ripe examples of this innate architectural genius. In the preparation of these monuments they received the support and patronage of the people to the fullest extent, for not satisfied with mere stone, the growing opulence of the inhabitants was poured out into the erection of temples built entirely of white marble, having every surface
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Moreover, each member of the community had also a material share in the production, as is proved by inscriptional records, for these state that there prevailed a system corresponding to the offering of “first fruits” to the deity of the ancients, or the “tithes” of Christendom, in which each person subscribed according to his capacity. As a beginning substantial grants of money or revenue from land were provided by the ruler or his ministers, after which we learn that the head men ordered “a great assembly on market day and came to an agreement to set apart for the god certain taxes”, payment to be made in the form of commodities. Thus “in the market-place the shopkeepers were to give a spoonful of every kind of grain that was sold, while of cotton each shop was to give as much as a man could hold in his hand and the reapers of betel-plants were required to make a contribution when they reap, and so forth, the ministers of the king being ordered to recognize these imposts”.¹ Every member of the populace therefore being thus identified with these artistic productions, such a measure could not fail to implant in one and all the seeds of æsthetic feeling a condition which is reflected in all the handiwork of this time, from the wooden house-fronts of the bazaars to works of the merest utility.
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¹ *Archaeological Survey of Western India, Kathiawar and Kachh*, : London, 1874, pp. 236-38.
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The master-builders with their staff of masons formed an essential part of the pattern comprising this social economy, as they are in a lesser degree and in the more remote localities, to the present day. Relics of the builders’ guilds (*sena*) still survive, and descendants of the craftsmen are not infrequently found carrying on their trade in much the same manner as did their forebears in mediaeval times As an instance, one such, engaged on an intricate architectural undertaking when questioned as to how he could do it without models, plans, or working drawings, significantly touched his forehead, implying that all these material aids were stored in his mind He then proceeded to chant the ancient rules of the craft, a miscellany of religious formulas and astronomical propositions, unintelligible to most, but thoroughly understood by his workmen, as they followed the directions given in this manner, without a fault. Moreover the care and correctness with which the iconography on the temples was executed is proof that the master-masons had a sound working knowledge of the folk-lore and mythology of the country, most of this information being conveyed to them by means of the *shilpas*, or rules of the craft None of these workmen appears to have been an artist-priest, although instances are known of one being either by heredity or application empowered to perform the ritual of his creed on holy days, with all its complicated ceremonial. In the ranks of a certain group of artisans within recent years, was a cleric, one of the temple staff whose duty it was to paint the images at the festivals and perform art-work of a like nature, and who was accepted by his fellow craftsmen in the dual capacity of both painter and priest. As shown in the case of mediaeval Europe,¹ the building of temples in India was not done by priests trained in the art, as sometimes supposed, but entirely by the hand of lay artisans, professional masons by heredity, known as *silavats* or *salats*. When the Muhammedan governors after the fourteenth century changed the orientation of the building art from temples to mosques, these masons had no very deep religious or other irreconcilable convictions to overcome, but carried out the orders of their Moslem over-loads without any real break in the continuity of the architectural tradition.
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¹ *The Monastic Craftsman* by Swartwout, Cambridge, 1932.
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The general structural scheme of the temples of this western group consists of the same system of compartments as in most Indian temples, namely in the first instance, of a shrine with its cella, and a pillared hall or *mandapa*. In the treatment of these two combined formations, while in every example retaining the same specific architectural character, the master-masons showed by the manner in which they handled these conventional parts, considerable versatility and power of invention The *salat* plotted out his work in confirmity with the established rules, varying this where necessary according to his instinctive artistic ability, employing his own architectural idiom, which however was always correct in grammar, and consequently in good taste. The plans of these temples resolve themselves broadly into two kinds, those in which the two compartments are joined so as to unite the entire building within a parallelogram, and those in which each compartment forms a rectangle, in the latter case the two are attached diagonally. The former system is found usually, although by no means invariably, in the earlier temples of this period, and of which that of Modhera (eleventh century) if its detached hypostyle hall, or *sabha-mandapa*, is excluded, is a typical example, while the temple of Somnath (twelfth century) illustrates the diagonal arrangement. In all instances both the parallel and the diagonal plans have their sides interrupted at intervals by projected or recessed chases forming angles, which, carried up into the elevation are productive of strong vertical effects of light and shade Furthermore these angles are also of two kinds, as in one class of building they are straight-sided, and in the other rounded or foliated. Finally, some of the larger examples of these Solanki temples appear to have been in two, and perhaps three stories, but most of this type are too ruined for the arrangements to be quite understood, although the principle on which these storied mandapas were produced may be seen in a temple of another class, namely the Sas Bahu (eleventh century) in Gwalior Fort (Chapter XXVI).
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As regards the elevational aspect of the Solanki type of temple, it will be seen that the architectural scheme is divided horizontally into three main sections, consisting of the basement or *pitha*, the *mandovara* or wall-face up to the entablature or cornice, and the superstructure comprising the roof, in the case of the shrine portion (*vimana*) the spire or *sikhara*. Something of this kind of three-fold arrangement conditions the elevation of the majority of temples in the Indo-Aryan style, but it assumes a fairly fixed convention in those on the western side of the country. Furthermore, the same divisional system may be traced in most of the other architectural productions, such as in the archways, towers, columns or any upright composition. For instance, each of these has a moulded base or basement corresponding to the *pitha*, above which is a vertical portion containing niches and figures, resembling in this respect the *mandovara* or wall-face of the temple The third or uppermost division of the structure, which may be referred to as the attic portion whether tower or pillar, is designed according to need, for instance in the temple it is a series of ascending stories, and in the pillar, the capital and its entablature or other accompaniments. (Plate CIII).
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In the temple design the *pitha* or basement, the upper surface of which forms the floor of the building, is composed of a series of mouldings and string-courses, the more important carved with repeating motifs arranged in an order fixed by convention, the lowest being the *garaspatti* or horned heads (*rakshas*), over this is the *gajapitha*, or elephant fronts, then comes the *asvathara* or horses, and finally at the top is the *narathara*, or human beings Supported by this basement is the second or middle division, the *mandovara*, the most significant portion of the entire elevational scheme, as it comprises a vertical wall-face reserved exclusively for figure sculpture, so that except for its medial position it corresponds to, and has all the attributes of a wide frieze. On this wall are enshrined in niches and tabernacles bas-relief images of the deities and saints associated with the dedicature of the temple, a sculptured pantheon carried usually right round the building. Then, completing the composition of the temple as a whole, there is the third of these formations, comprising the superstructure, in which the roof of the assembly hall or mandapa is built up in the manner of a low pyramid, composed of horizontal courses, diminishing as they rise, and terminating in the usual vase-shaped finial. It is however in the treatment of the *sikhara* which surmounts the shrine that these western temples are most distinctive, as this spire is no longer one simple member, but a group of members, its lower portion being surrounded by a system of turrets or *uruśringas*, these features being symmetrically arranged, each a replica in miniature of the large central structure, and each in such high relief as to be semi-detached or almost "in the round". (Plate CIV, Fig. 1).
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The interiors of these temples display several notable characteristics. In this western development the architectural style is definitely peristylar, as groups of elegantly carved pillars form an essential part of its content. These columns are arranged geometrically leaving an octagonal area, or nave, in the centre of the main hall, while outside this they are so spaced so as to constitute the aisles. The shafts of the pillars rarely taper, but are divided horizontally into decorative zones or drums, the upper being less in diameter than the lower, so that they diminish by stages, to finish in a bracket-capital or *sira*. Surrounding the nave the pillars are provided with an extension or attic of dwarf-pillars also bearing bracket capitals, the interval between the upper and lower *siras* being filled by inclined struts or braces each carrying an image, usually a female figure, carved in high relief. These attic pillars, with the architrave above, while raising the height of the nave, also support the central dome, which consists of a shallow bowl-shaped ceiling formed by a succession of overlapping courses, the joints being so concealed by intricate carving that the whole appears as if moulded in one piece. That significant feature of the temple interior, the shrine doorway, is designed so that its decorative scheme composes with that of the pillars, as it consists of horizontal bands of figures and foliage, the textural effect of this portal being that of a richly sculptured stratification.
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There appears to be some esoteric reason for the scheme of relief decoration in the interiors of Hindu temples in the Indo-Aryan style, differing in extent from that of the exterior. While there are no limits to the exuberance of the sculpture on the outer walls, some restraint is observable in the amount and its distribution in the interiors. These indications of some form of what may be termed plastic prohibition, vary in different groups of buildings, for instance in the Orissan temples, as already shown, many have almost entirely plain interiors, the bare walls of their assembly halls being in striking contrast to the excessively rich decoration outside. On the other hand at Khajuraho in Central India, more freedom is discernible, a considerable amount of carving being found in the interiors of the temples of this group Still further to the west, in Gujarat and its proximity, the style shows that only the innermost passages and chambers are devoid of ornament, the remainder of the interior being profusely sculptured. From these circumstances it may be inferred that the original intention was to keep all the temple interiors relatively featureless, either in order not to divert the mind from the divine image, or by reason of some cause of a profoundly spiritual nature. But the irresistible chisel of the Indian carver could not always be repressed by precept, and his art was therefore inclined to intrude into all but the most sacred chambers and their immediate surroundings. The gradual reduction of his sculptured handiwork, combined with a decreasing effect of light as one penetrates further into the recesses of the sanctuary, are particularly noticeable in the fully developed temples of the western school. Beginning with the open sunlit portico or *subha-mandapa*, with its richly wrought pillars, one enters the enclosed and covered aisles of the assembly hall or *gudha-mandapa*, more sombre and less ornate than the preceding. This leads to the vestibule, the panelled and figured framework of the shrine doorway being often the only relief from its plane surfaces; openings on each side of this indicate the entrances to the dimly illuminated featureless corridor of the ambulatory, progression finally ending before the mysterious deeply-shadowed sanctum of four bare walls. Yet heedless of the total darkness of some of the subsidiary chambers, the sculptor's hand could not be stayed, the ceilings of these being sometimes delicately filigreed and scalloped as they would be if illuminated by the bright light of day. Such intricate patterns are only revealed by the aid of a torch, the explanation of this paradox being that they are not intended to be seen by ordinary mortals, but are for the eye of God alone In the words of Longfellow
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In the elder days of Art
Builders wrought with greatest care
Each minute and unseen part,
For the Gods see everywhere.
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Of the type of temple that developed during the domination of the Solanki dynasty, there are examples illustrating the mode that prevailed in each century from the late tenth, to the middle of the thirteenth. A list of the principal buildings is as follows :
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10th century . Temples at Sunak, Kanoda, Delmal, and Kasara, in Gujarat.
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11th century .. The Navalakha temples at Ghumli and Sejakpur in Kathiawar : Surya temples at Modhera in Gujarat : Vimala Temple at Mount Abu, Rajputana, and the group at Karadu in Mewar.
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12th century .. The Rudra Mala (fragments only) at Siddhapur, Gujarat : Somnath (several times restored) Kathiawar.
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13th century .. Tejpala at Mount Abu, Rajputana.
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Among the earliest buildings of this period were the four temples at Sunak, Kanoda, Delmal and Kasara all situated within a radius of some fifteen miles from Patan, the old Solanki capital in Gujarat. Presumably dating from about the end of the tenth century, they are all small edifices of comparatively simple parts, consisting of a vimana or shrine with an open pillared portico in front, but although modest in plan and proportions they display in their sculptured detail all the characteristic copiousness of the style. The open mandapa is contained within a dwarf wall, above which, leaning outwardly, is the sloping *asana*, or traditional "seat-back", while the pillars of the interior are square in section with reminiscences of the vase and foliage motif among the decorations of the shaft. Although very complete in themselves there are indications in this small group that the style was in course of development. The best preserved examples is the Nilakantha temple at Sunak, as its *sikhara* is entire, even to the *amalasila* finial, and the building itself is a gem of its kind.
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Passing on to the productions of the following century, the eleventh, many large and beautiful temples were erected, some in Kathiawar, others in Rajputana, and several in Gujarat, from the character of which it seems that now was the time when the art of temple building in these regions had found its supreme expression. In none of these temples was this more perfectly achieved than in the temple of Surya at Modhera in Gujarat. (Plates CV, CVI and CVII). Modhera itself at the present time is little more than a collection of huts some eighteen miles south of Patan, but this temple and other remains testify that, when its founders set up a tabernacle to the Sun God, it was a site of no little sanctity. Misfortune, or perhaps neglect, has attended most of the great temples dedicated to this deity, as the ruins of Konarak in Orissa, and Martand in Kashmir, among others, are eloquent proofs, and Modhera is no exception This Sun Temple has lost its tower so that there is no soaring grandeur, while the roofs of its pillared halls are damaged, and its surroundings generally are decayed, yet even with these disabilities, derelict, and away from the sounding world, it is still a monument of incomparable beauty. According to an inscription, found within its broken walls, its exact date has been revealed as 1026-27, probably signifying the year it was consecrated, when Bhima I of the Solanki dynasty ruled in Gujarat.¹
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¹ See an illustrated article in the Magazine "Marg", Vol. V, Number 1 (Bombay) on the "Sun Temple at Modhera" by Silloo Bharucha.
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In spite of its ruined condition little imagination is required to picture this building as it was when consecrated in the eleventh century. What gave it such a finished appearance was not so much the design of the temple building itself, fine though this structure was, but the appearance of the whole scheme with its architectural setting, including its accessories, which show that as in all good building, the needs and the conveniences of the undertaking were counted as essential as its aesthetic treatment Accordingly those entrusted with its production confronted the temple with a large sacred pool or *kunda*, for ablutions, comprising a sheet of water contained within a rectangular arrangement of platforms and terraces interspaced with shrines of various sizes and shapes, all so admirably laid out that this part of the composition itself is a notable work of art. On the western side of this ornamental tank, a wide flight of steps ascends through an exquisitely carved and fluted archway, or torana, to the main entrance of the temple This building was elevated on a broad terrace (*kharasila*) constructed of solid brick faced with stone which formed an imposing courtyard around it. The temple itself is resolved into two separate structures connected by a narrow passage, consisting on the one hand of an open pillared hall or *sabha-mandapa*, and on the other of an enclosed rectangular building containing two compartments, the assembly hall or *gudha-mandapa*, and the shrine or *garbha-griha*, the axial length of the whole being 145 feet.
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Although the two structures comprising the temple building differ from each other in character, as the one is in the form of an open hypostyle hall and the other is enclosed within walls, by the skilful adjustment of their mouldings, string-courses and horizontal elements generally, the composition is so well harmonised as to produce the necessary effect of wholeness. On plan the frontal structure, or *sabha-mandapa*, is based on a square of nearly fifty feet wide, placed diagonally with the axial line, its sides being interrupted at regular intervals by recessed chases. There are pillared entrances with cusped archways at each of the four corners, and a smaller pillar set within each recessed angle, the whole system forming an adequate support to the wide projecting Cave or *chajja*, and the triple cornice above A dwarf wall, richly empanelled with figure subjects, and surmounted by the leaning "seat-back." encloses the lower part of this arcade, while the upper portion being open presents vistas of its fine interior columnation. What remains of the roof shows that this was in the form of a low stepped pyramid, its horizontal lines being broken by innumerable miniature finials, while above each of the entrances was a group of sculpture. Restoration of this becomes possible owing to the fortunate circumstance that a few pieces of the cornice and lower parts of the roof and tower have survived in situ, so that the type or "order" of building to which the temple belonged is obvious from this clue The interior of the hall is composed of two aisles of pillars arranged along the diagonals of its square plan, thus producing a cruciform effect. By omitting the central pillars at the junction of these cross aisles, the octagonal space of the nave opens out in the middle of the hall, and above this rises the domed ceiling, elevated higher than the aisles by means of an attic story. As to dimensions the pillars are 13 feet high, the rim of the dome is 17 feet, with its centre 23 feet from the floor level.
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The essential parts of the Modhera temple are, however, contained in the enclosed structure at the rear of the preceding, as this includes the shrine. Externally this building is on plan an oblong formation with an extreme length of 80 feet, and a width of 50 feet, having its long sides, not diagonal as in the case of the hypostyle hall, but parallel to the axis of the scheme as a whole. In its design recessed angles are also a distinctive feature of the exterior, while the sole entrance is through a pillared portico on the east, where it connects with the western or rear doorway of the *sabha-mandapa*. At intervals in the sides are window openings, five in number, each a well-proportioned aperture, and, with its side pillars, relieving the wall surface in an interesting manner. The elevation is composed of the three main divisions already referred to with the basement or *pitha* consisting of the conventional range of carved mouldings, above which is the spacious *mandovara*, or panelled wall-face, richly embellished with figure sculpture, each image enshrined in a niche, the principal divinities in the larger and central ones, female figures such as dancers and musicians at the sides, with saints and ascetics in the smaller and less prominent. The superstructure of this building has completely disappeared, but it comprised the traditional arrangement of a low pyramidal roof over the front portion, and a tall turreted sil hara over the shrine. In both these formations the recessed chases, still visible in the body of the structure, were continued upward, those carried up into the spire providing that element of verticality to its outward appearance which, in its present truncated condition, is lacking. (Plate CVII).
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The interior of this enclosed portion is divided equally into two compartments, each consisting of a square of twenty-five feet side, the front or eastern being the *gudhamandapa*, or assembly hall, containing eight columns around a central octagonal nave, above which is a highly ornamental ceiling Except however for a niche in every bay enthroning an image of the sun-god the walls of this hall are plain. Leading out of this compartment, through a shallow four-pillared vestibule, is the shrine-chamber--a square cell with a processional passage around it. Carved decoration is here sparsely distributed, most of it being concentrated on the entrance to the cella. This doorway has its jambs and lintel divided up by mouldings into sections each crowded with figures, a somewhat stiff and formal treatment and a forerunner of that rigid and over-strained method of dealing with the door-frame which marks the later style.
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In viewing the Modhera temple the aesthetic sense at once responds to the elegance of its treatment and its proportions as a whole, the entire composition being lit with the living flame of inspiration. But apart from its material beauty, its designer has succeeded in communicating to it an atmosphere of spiritual grace. The temple faces the east so that the rising sun at the equinoxes filters in a golden cadence through its opening, from doorway to corridor, past columned vestibules finally to fall on the image in its innermost chamber. In its passage the rays of the heavenly body to which the shrine is consecrated, quiver and shimmer on pillar and archway, giving life and movement to their graven forms, the whole structure appearing radiant and clothed in glory. To see this noble monument with its clustered columns not only rising like an exhalation, but mirrored in the still waters below, is to feel that its creator was more than a great artist, but a weaver of dreams.
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About the same time that the Modhera temple was being built in Gujarat, at Mount Abu in Rajputana another temple was being erected, which, although in much the same style, differs from it in several material particulars. This is the temple of Vimala, constructed entirely of white marble and designed to conform to the usage of the Jain religion, being one of the oldest and most complete examples belonging to that creed. It forms one of a group of shrines on this romantic site, as it was the custom of the Jains to build their fanes on the summits of the mountains, high places being regarded as sacred and worshipped as deities, so that in their temples it is true their "foundations are upon the holy hills." (Plate CXXI). As the majority of the temples of this period are deserted ruins, it is refreshing to turn to the Vimala which is well-preserved and still maintains its living character. There is not infrequently an air of reserve and aloofness in the external appearance of Jain temples, as it was the practice to surround them with a high enclosure wall of cells, but within the courtyard thus formed, the architectural mode is broadly in accordance with the general style then current. These ranges of cells around the courtyard are related to the pansalas of the Buddhist monasteries, but here they have become transmuted into small chambers lit only from the doorway and enshrining a seated figure of the Jina or saint to whom the temple is dedicated, in this instance that of Rishabhanath or Adinath, the first Tirthankar. Within this range of enclosing cells the courtyard measures 145 feet by 95 feet, where, screened by a double arcade of pillars, stands the temple building, a structure cruciform in plan, its length being 98 feet and its widest part 42 feet.
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As is not uncommon in Jain temples the exterior of the Vimala has no special architectural character, all the effect being reserved for the interior. Entrance is obtained through a domed porch on the east, facing which is a six-pillared pavilion with a *samosan*, or conventional representation of the holy mountain of the Jains in the centre, surrounded by ten statues of the founder Vimala and his family each seated on an elephant, this earthly portrait gallery being set apart from the sacred halls of the gods. Passing into the cloistered courtyard it will be seen that the temple resolves itself into an orderly grouping of pillars forming an open portico and vestibule, beyond which is an enclosed portion containing the shrine. The central feature of this columned hall is the usual octagonal space, or nave, produced by an arcade of eight pillars supporting the dome. At the far end of this on a slightly higher level is the vestibule, extending across the width of the building like a transept having two rows of pillars, and out of this opens the doorway to the shrine. Some idea of the proportions of the columned hall may be gained from its measurements, the octagonal nave being 25 feet in diameter, the architrave alone being 12 feet from the floor, while the apex of the dome is less than 30 feet high. As with most of the temples of this class, the rim of the dome is supported on an attic system of dwarf pillars with convoluted braces between, and all the capitals are of the four-branched bracket order.
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When it is realized that practically every surface of the interior, including the pillars, is elaborated with sculptured forms, the rich effect may be imagined, but it was in his treatment of the vaulted ceiling of the nave that the marble carver found his supreme expression. This dome is built up of eleven concentric rings, five of which, interposed at regular intervals, depict patterns of figures and animals, a plastic record of some ancient half-obliterated memory. The lowest contains the fore-fronts of elephants, their trunks intertwined, as many as one hundred and fifty of these in close rank. A few mouldings above is another border representing images in niches, also repeated many times, and again over that a similar course of dancing figures. This is followed higher up in the concavity by a series of horsemen, finishing in the topmost story with more figures engaged in an endless dance. Between these various figured courses are ornamental repeats, gradually becoming more pronounced until towards the apex they culminate in a grouping of pendents not unlike festoons of foliage suspended from the high trees of a forest. But this is not all. Boldly superimposed athwart the lower of these circular rings is a series of sixteen brackets consisting of female figures representing Vidyadevis or goddesses of knowledge, each contained within an aureole, their high semi-detached projection giving them the appearance of supplementary braces supporting the vault. (Plate CX).
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In its strictly architectural aspect however the whole of this interior is open to criticism, and specifically this remarkable dome, as it is clearly too heavy in appearance for its relatively slender supporting columns, while the convoluted struts serve only an ornamental purpose, being introduced merely to enrich the effect. Any analysis from this point of view could only emphasize the fact that several of the ordinarily accepted principles of the building art have been disregarded in its composition, the structural properties being obscured by the exuberance of the decoration. Moreover, throughout the entire scheme of plastic treatment, the main theme has been the multiplicity of detail, the reiteration of a motif innumerable times, a ceaseless repetition of deities in human form, the underlying idea being that the more frequently these are reproduced, the more emphatic becomes the message they convey. As their pantheon proves the Indian mind is prone to think in vast exaggerated numbers. The consequence is that when this is presented plastically the eye tires, the faculties become satiated and some of the warmth of life is lacking; there is not only monotony but a frigidity in its atmosphere, a condition increased by the very perfection of the material of which it is built. For marble of this refined quality should not be fussed and fretted into ornamentation, its natural texture is its chief charm, and to carve it thus is to put it to waste and so misunderstand its intrinsic delicacy and significance. Nonetheless the Vimala temple is a notable achievement, its fame resting not so much on its architecture which has few conspicuous virtues, but on the infinite caprice and inventiveness of its sculptured decoration which seems to be a reflection of the intense religious fervour then existing among the Jain community.
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Of the temples in Kathiawar contemporary with the above, and therefore also dating from the eleventh century, that of Navalakha at Ghumli, and a group of the same name at Sejakpur are prominent examples, both grievously dilapidated, but clearly fine conceptions when in their prime. In the case of the former, the plan is on the diagonal principle with the two compartments of the pillared hall and shrine chamber conjoined to form one building, the whole being remarkable for the depth of its projections and recesses, thus producing vivid passages of light and shade. In addition the mandapa is in two stories, and, as it stands on a high and wide platform contained within an enclosing wall or screen, the effect when complete must have been impressive. Of the buildings at Sejakpur one of these still displays enough of its sikhara to show that the feature was composed of a close grouping of semi-detached turrets or *urusringas* at its base, and therefore in this respectfully typical of the style. (Plate CIV). Its pillared hall is a graceful arrangement of large columns forming a nave in the centre, with the succession of smaller pillars around comprising an aisle. The plan of the vimana illustrated the foliated system of projections, and these, carried up into the body of the structure add much to the richness and vitality. Both these Kathiawar examples are of moderate size, that at Ghumli being eighty feet long and that at Sejakpur seventy feet
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As an instance of the wide distribution of this style in the eleventh century, there is an exceptionally rich but severely damaged group of temples at Kiradu in the district of Mallani in Marwar, each temple having many of the characteristics of the Solanki mode. Yet with these may be detected certain Gupta influences, particularly in the pattern of the small turrets of the sikhara, and in the more liberal use of the vase and foliage motif, due no doubt to the proximity of the Gupta territory and the still living records of that style. There are five temples at Kiradu, of which one dedicated to Vishnu is probably the earliest, but the largest and least injured is that of Someswara still retaining much of its tower, and the shell of a magnificent pillared hall, the square shafts of its columns ending in the vase and foliage element, above which is a circular section and a four branched bracket capital. In this temple the basement or *pitha* includes a complete series of the traditional mouldings of the style, consisting of the rows of horned heads, elephants, horses, and men, in that order. Several of the mandapas in the other examples are mere skeletons of their original shape, but from these anatomical remains, the construction and arrangements may be more readily studied. There appear no other temples in these parts so richly wrought, or showing more distinctly a compounding of exuberant art and intensity of devotion than this deserted group at Kiradu (Plates XCV, XCVIII and XCIX).
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That the twelfth century saw a continuation of this architectural activity, as the country remained comparatively peaceful, and its commercial prosperity was maintained, is shown by several important buildings. Among these, two great projects were consummated, consisting of the completion and consecration of the temple of Rudra Mala at Siddhapur, and the further restoration of the temple of Somanatha after its spoliation by Mahmud of Ghazni in A.D. 1025. On account of their ruinous condition, however, both these famous monuments are of little help in tracing the progress of the style, as of the former only a few pillars and an architrave remain in situ after being dismantled at the end of the thirteenth century, in order to provide materials for an adjacent mosque, while the temple of Somanatha, having been restored more than once, and then converted into a mosque, has not much of its original fabric preserved. Undoubtedly the Rudra Mala was, towards the middle of the twelfth century, after it was consecrated by Jayasimha Siddharaja the hero-king of Gujarat (1094-1142), one of the largest and most sumptuously decorated religious monuments in India. Of its wondrous beauty the Gujarati ballad-singer still fulsomely declaims, as the following extract shows:
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To the Great Rudra eleven shrines were erected,
Covered with gold like the mountains of Meru,
Columns sixteen hundred were raised to adorn them,
Carved screens and pierced lattices veiled them from without,
Inlaid with gems were the doors of the shrine-chambers,
With rubies and diamonds they glistened like lamp-flames,
And the "Shining Ones" also were festooned with pearls.
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It is still possible to trace the plan of this fine structure on the banks of the Saraswati river, its foundations indicating an imposing conception, as with its adjacent shrines all forming part of the composition as a whole, it covered a space 300 feet by 230 feet, the central building itself being 150 feet long and over 100 feet wide. From the portions that remain it seems that the mandapa was three stories in height, and by the same fragments the rich character of the design may be appraised.¹ Not much smaller than the Rudra Mala was the temple of Somanatha, after its reconstruction by Kumarapala in the latter half of the twelfth century, as the main building measures 130 feet long by 75 feet wide. It is now a crumbling and disfigured shell, deserted and desolate, a weather-beaten pile from which most of the glory has departed.² Yet these two relics contain sufficient evidence of the great scale, bold planning, and elaborate nature of the Solanki style at this stage of its course
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¹ Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. XXXII, *Antiquities of Northern Gujarat*, London, 1903
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² Archaeological Survey of India, Vol XLV, *Somanatha*
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During the last years of the thirteenth century the Muhammedan rulers at Delhi invaded Gujarat and put an end to the Solanki dynasty. But before the collapse of this indigenous line, one outstanding monument was added to the list of those which arose during their ascendency, and with it the style draws to a close. This building is the Jain temple of Tejpala at Mount Abu, dating from about 1230 A.D., and in proportions, quality of idea, and material, resembling the Vimala temple, already described, and erected on the adjacent site exactly two hundred years previously. So much alike are these two Jain temples, the Vimala and the Tejpala, that it is commonly supposed the one was copied from the other, but it is more probable that the Tejpala illustrates the natural evolution of the style, the few differences proving the really small extent the architectural mode changed during the course of the two centuries that separates the raising of the two buildings. Such differences are mainly matters of detail, among which is the treatment of the eight different types of pillars to be found in the later example. The shafts are in most instances circular in section and are evenly diapered with mouldings and conventional or geometrical patterns resembling reticulations. In many of these pillar designs the carver appears to have lost some of his first fine spirit, yet something of the old vigour is discernible in the convoluted struts holding them together, the curves of which are strong and graceful. As a whole however the Tejpala temple has not the freshness of the earlier example, nor does it show such creative energy, for the original ardour of the craftsmen was slowing down. There remains a sense of perfection in its workmanship, but it is mechanical perfection, with an over-refinement and concentration on detail implying the beginning of the decline. The high time of the Solanki style was passing.
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A building art of such a virile character as that which flourished under the Solanki rule, did not however confine itself solely to the production of temples, and there are many other structures of a semi-religious or civic character executed at different places during this period. Among these are such erections as *kīrti-stambhas* or temple archways, monumental towers, city gateways, tanks and sluices, and *wāvs* or public wells. The *kīrti-stambha* is a form of torana, usually an accompaniment to the temple design, standing at its outer entrance, but there were some for the ceremonial of swinging the god (*lindola*), from others the scales were suspended for weighing the ruler against gold for charity, and for various similar observances. Two of the finest examples are at Vadnagar in Gujarat, both one time connected with a temple, but of which building not a vestige now remains. That which must have stood at the main entrance of the edifice at Rewah is the most complete and is a typical specimen of its kind. Of a total height of forty feet it consists of two massive and elaborated columns supporting a wide cornice, above which rises a voluted pediment containing figures. The pillars are designed with an upper story or attic, between which is thrown an ornamental cusped arch, making the effect of an archway more apparent. All the parts forming the *kīrti-stambha* are devised on the same principles as those employed in the temple design, with the spreading base, figured shaft, bracket capitals, and tabernacled superstructure being of much the same order, but, if anything, even more ornate. There is a sense of stability in their expanding pedestals, and grace in their proportions, but as examples of "riches spawned of riches," their heaped-up sculptured effect is overwhelming (Plate CI, Fig. 2).
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Of the monumental towers there is one exceptionally well-designed example in a style related to that of the Solanki period, and dating from the twelfth century. This *Jaya-Stambha* at Chitor in Rajputana (the earlier of two such structures, as there is another in the same locality of the fifteenth century), was probably a "Pillar of Fame" set up before a Jain temple, which has now disappeared. (Plate XCVI). A temple stands besides the tower but it is a fourteenth century production, evidently built on the site of the original edifice. The tower rises to some eighty feet in height, and is in eight stories, the active principles of this fine conception plainly showing that the craftsmen were by no means slaves to the temple-type, but could, when required, create equally beautiful buildings of another kind and for another purpose Its foundation is a simple platform from which mount the spreading mouldings of the basement to support the most prominent feature, corresponding the *mandovara* or wall-space in the temple design, a projecting story consisting of tabernacles and niches containing figures. Above this the stories recede or expand in measured alternation to finish in an open pillared pavilion with a pyramidal roof which forms the summit. Each story is enriched with mouldings, balconied-windows, turrets and other architectural motifs, the whole presenting an appearance of animated variety yet all in perfect unison, a subtle blending of the qualities of beauty and strength.
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Examples of the civic architecture of this period may be seen in certain city gates, such as the Rampola at Ghumli in Kathiawar, and a complete series of four, each in the ancient towns of Jhinjuwada and Dabhoi in Gujarat. The walls and fortifications which adjoin these gates, although much ruined, indicate that the whole conception of these fortified towns with their bastions, battlements (*kanjuras*), corner towers, covered ways, and terrepleins was carried out in a thoroughly practical but at the same time in an exceedingly artistic manner. It was on the gateways however that the craftsman's art was mainly concentrated, some of which are remarkably elaborate and even romantic productions. These gates were all double structures, consisting of an inner and an outer curtain, the former being at right angles to the line of entrance of the outer, leaving a small open court between In most instances the inner gateway only has been preserved, in appearance an intricate and richly sculptured edifice, but the system on which these portals were constructed was comparatively simple. It is clear, they were derived from a wooden prototype, as timber is still actively employed in these parts to the present day. The archway itself, although all of stone, is composed of hammer-beams, struts, and curved braces, in much the same style and on the same principle as the wooden roofs were built in Gothic churches in the west. To attach this archway to the side-walls, six substantial pilasters were built on each side of the gateway, in groups of threes, with a wider space between each group in order to allow the leaves of the door to open back on to the walls. Each of these pilasters supported one of the bracketed archways, a sextuple arrangement of one archway behind the other, thus affording an attractive surface for sculpture, of which the designer took full advantage It is the nature of the plastic ornamentation which gives these gateways much of their character, as the stone-carver has not only elaborately moulded each constructional member but in the spaces between the beams, struts, and braces he has introduced figures of musicians, dancers, cavaliers and other fanciful creations all treated in a very spirited manner.
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It is instructive to compare these gateways with those produced by the subsequent rulers, the Moslems, as each type is thoroughly representative of the widely different ideals of each community. Contrasting with the fundamentally militant, but, at the same time, architecturally satisfying fortress gates of the Muhammedan period, these rare examples of the previous age have no such aggressive qualities, as they are evidently designed quite as much for their aesthetic as for their protective properties Where the Islamic gateways are definitely practical and architectural, those of the Hindus are just as definitely imaginative and decorative, a relatively peaceful and inviting approach to the city they so characteristically adorn.
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At both the towns of Jhinjuwada and Dabhoi the gateways appear to have been built originally in the twelfth century, but some alterations or renovations may have taken place in the thirteenth century, while under the Moslem governors parts of these were reconstructed, and their shapes changed. Yet in spite of vicissitudes several of them still retain much of their indigenous appearance signifying a time when the lintel was the accepted method of bridging a space, and the arch was unused because it was unknown The finest examples are the four at Dabhoi, one being in the centre of each of the four walls of the city, three of them being, of the type above described, while the Hīra or Diamond gate, the main entrance to the town, is a far more ambitious production and therefore in a class by itself. (Plate CXIII). This gateway is thirty-seven feet through, with a clear roadway twelve feet wide between its walls, and a large structure having several rooms for guards and custodians in the wings. On each side of the actual gateway, and within the thickness of the walls, a temple is inserted, the one towards the north being a fairly spacious compartment in the form of a Greek cross, and known as the Kalika Mata, as it was dedicated to the goddess Kali. On the exterior face of this composition the masonry is severely plain, as this was the outer wall but on the inner face, within the city, there can have been few buildings more ornamentally conceived. No regulated plan seems to have been followed, nor symmetry contemplated, as bays alternate with projections, balconies on voluted struts hang from available places, while windows and canopied niches are introduced wherever fancy dictated. In the plastic decoration which runs riot over every one of the architectural features, all the motifs stored in the imagination of the Indian artist have been released to add their share to the tumult of the effect. As a picture of the spirit of the time, fundamentally religious, yet unrestrained by any particular conventions, the Hīra Gate at Dabhoi stands almost by itself.
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