Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c32: Chapter XXV: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style: The Temples of the Deccan (11th to 13th centuries)

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c32

Language: English

Chapter XXV: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style: The Temples of the Deccan (11th to 13th centuries)

A VARIATION of the Indo-Aryan style was produced during the early mediaeval period in a tract of country forming a portion of the Deccan This tract comprises an extensive area of the middle-west of the peninsula, being contained between the river Tapti on the north, and the upper branch of the Kistna on the south It is a part of India having notable architectural traditions as it includes within its limits the finest examples of the rock-cut mode, such as Ajanta and Ellora, which in themselves are sufficient to provide a grand source for architectural inspiration. This rock method of expression, to all intents and purposes, was drawing to a close towards the end of the tenth century, so that with the beginning of the structural movement, now to be described a new era of architectural development dawns.

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Situated as this region is between two other architectural movements of great power, its productions could not fail to be affected by the characteristics of their style For on the one hand it extended towards the north in the direction of Gujarat, where a very distinctive type of structure had been evolved under the patronage of the Solanki dynasty, while on the other, towards the south, it was within reach of the influence of the later Chalukyan mode, a manifestation of temple architecture of even greater significance. But although the Deccani temples show evidences of the proximity of these two divergent developments, none the less they also display certain notable features of an independent and original order entitling them to separate treatment¹

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¹ Mediaeval Temples of the Dakkan by H Cousens, Arch Sur. of Ind., Vol XLVIII, Calcutta, 1931.

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One of the most prominent of the self-originated characteristics in the Deccani type of temple is observable in the design of the sikhara, which is decidedly different from that of any other region Instead of the turrets or *urusringas* being grouped around the lower part of this structure, as in most examples, the Deccan sikhara has a pronounced vertical band carried up each of its angles, taking the form of a "spine" or quoin. This feature extends from the lower cornice right up to the finial, and displays functional qualities of a high order, as it follows the main contours of the spire thus holding the entire shape within its firm outline. (Plates LXXXVII and CXI) Then the spaces between these quoins are filled in with rows of small reproductions of the sikhara itself, each supported on a pedestal like an altar, the contrast of this strongly marked repeating pattern with the more delicate diaper on the quoins producing an effect of some emphasis. The same principle was employed in the formation of the other portion of the temple scheme, as the pyramidal roof of the mandapa is composed of diminishing rows of miniature multiples of itself, so that this singularly artistic system is the keynote of the composition as a whole.

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A certain originality is also noticeable in the plans of these temples, as in the larger examples they are laid out on a diagonal arrangement, and there is also a marked elaboration in the shape of the walls A feature of the temple plans in several regions are the projections and recesses of the wall surfaces, which as they mount upwards, catch the light or retain the shade, adding an unusual vitality to the character of the elevational effect This method was carried to its extreme limit in the Deccani temples so that few structures are more varied or have greater vivacity of appearance than the fluted examples of this large group. In more than one instance this treatment has been carried almost to excess, as in the case of the temple of Jagadambadevi at Kokamthan, where the exterior is so ruggedly patterned as to resemble a form of eroded rock. Fully aware of the effect of this vertical tendency in his scheme and to counteract any undue upward trend the designer threw across the entire composition a close series of horizontal passages, chiefly in the form of mouldings, the two systems combined comprising the architectural make-up of his conception Many of these mouldings are of a special variety, having a kind of knife-edged section, and named *kani*. The *kani* moulding runs throughout many of the examples like a theme, observable not only on the wall surfaces, but it is particularly noticeable in the design of the pillars, sometimes giving the building a sharp linear effect distinctive of the productions of this region.

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The pillars, also of the Deccani style, are of an original order, as apart from the frequent use of the *kani* moulding, they have other decisive features No struts or detached brackets are used in the capitals, but above the uppermost moulding is a support in the shape of a scroll or volute, almost Ionic in its graceful curves The vase and foliage motif is conspicuous by its absence, an inadequate attempt to reproduce it however being occasionally discernible. Although the greater part of the pillar shaft is richly moulded, the lower third is usually a severely plain square prism, a contrast almost too pronounced to be pleasing. Yet this was not always the practice, as in some of the larger temples the lower part of the pillar was so profusely sculptured with figures as to form a kind of shrine. To produce the fine mouldings on the pillars, these were turned on a large and somewhat crude type of lathe, a technical process freely employed by the Chalukyan craftsmen, from whom it was no doubt derived, and which enabled the sharp knife-edged section (*kani*) to be readily obtained. A pillared treatment was introduced into the jambs of the shrine doorways in the form of an attached pillar, or nook-shaft, evidently suggested by the pilasters on some of the rock-cut shrines of the previous period. That the rock-cut tradition of this region still lingered is shown in a striking manner by the design of one of these structural temples of the eleventh century. As an example of the living influence of the powerful rock-cut phase, at Balsane there is a temple (No. 5) the plan of which, with its portico, pillared hall, series of cells on either side the cella with its vestibule, is in the arrangement of these compartments, almost an exact counterpart of a Mahayana Buddhist monastery excavated out of the rock in the seventh century A.D

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Even the largest of these Deccani temples is of very moderate size, that at Sinnar one of the most spacious, being barely eighty feet in its entire length; but these limited dimensions were occasioned, to some extent, by the manner of their construction. The proportions of the building were determined by a unit, this unit being the height of the monolithic shaft of the pillar in the interior, which, in its turn, depended on the greatest length of stone it was economically possibe to extract from the quarry. As all parts of the temple were proportioned strictly according to rule, each member being in fixed ratio to all the others, the pillar shaft served as a standard for the purpose of measurement, and the entire composition was therefore executed to that scale. In view also of the relatively large extent of the territory concerned, the temples of this type are not numerous. Of all kinds there are less than fifty, only ten of which are of real significance. From this selection it is however possible to illustrate each phase of its development, extending over a period of three centuries.

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11th century .. Temple of Ambarnatha, Thana District. Triple-shrined temple at Balsane, and temple of Maheswara, both in Khandesh. 12th century .. Gondeswara Temple at Sinnar, and the Mahadeva Temple at Jhogda, both Nasik District Temple of Lakshmi-Narayan at Pedgaon, Ahmednagar District. 13th century . Temple of Naganatha at Aundh, Andhra Pradesh 13th century .. "Hemadpanti" type. Temple of Daitya-Sundana at Lonar, Vishnu Temple at Satgaon; Temple at Mahkar, all in the Deccan.

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Probably the finest of the whole group, and also one of the earliest of its kind is the temple of Ambarnatha in the Thana District of the Bombay State. (Plate CXI, Fig 1) Although not situated strictly within the confines of the Deccan, it is quite clearly of the same style as the temples which developed there Moreover, it provides a fixed date from which this group as a whole may be considered, as it bears an inscription equivalent to A.D. 1060 In a delightful situation by the side of a long deep pool, this temple, when complete, was a model of rich perfection, typical of the style when the architect had been given a free hand and unlimited time. For there are few buildings of the Indo-Aryan order, which display more refined architectural perception combined at the same time with intricate decoration lavishly but tastefully applied To the western eye, disciplined to the principle of ornamental passages being balanced by plain spaces, such a tumult of sculptured forms distributed over every surface of the structure, the piling of ornament upon ornament, apparently defying all the accepted conventions of the building art, is bewildering. But a study of this temple reveals the fact that, although the plastic embellishment may lack restraint, and implies occasional formlessness, the architectural and functional treatment of the structure as a whole, is reasoned and logical.

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In the first place, the designer's principal aim was clearly variety of effect, and he therefore began by aligning the two essential parts of the temple diagonally astride the axial line, joining them at their inner angles This produced an attractive plan measuring 90 feet long by 75 feet in width Then he broke up the sides of this conception by a close series of vertical projections and recesses, in some respects corresponding to buttresses, but without their structural purpose. For the intention of these upright passages was mainly decorative, the object being by this system to elaborate the chiaroscuro, to multiply the shadows and lights and thus attain animation and movement. The remaining architectural treatment of the building, comprising the horizontal mouldings of the *kani* or knife-edged type, the quoins of the sikhara, and the multiplication to a smaller scale of the architectural features to make up the pattern of the structure, were all applied according to the system already described

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This temple is entered by three doorways, one on each of the free angles of the assembly hall, and the interior consists of a single compartment, with attached pillars at each of its eight angles and a group of four forming the square nave in the centre There is a considerable amount of excellent carving in the ceiling panels and shallow domes of this interior, but it was on the pillars of the main hall that the sculptor was most prodigal with his art, as, from base to capital, these are intricately carved with both conventional designs and figure subjects. The most highly finished are the four detached columns in the nave, each of which on account of its wealth of imagery, of gods in niches and figures in friezes, ceases to be a structural element and becomes a complete tabernacle or altar in itself. (Plate CXIV). Corresponding to these central pillars are those attached to the angles of the hall, each being treated in much the same decorative manner, but in a slightly simpler scheme, the whole effect, although superlatively ornate, being very carefully thought out. Throughout the design and execution of those pillars there is much that recalls the style of those in Gujarat, such as the marble columns in the Vimala temple at Abu, yet there is a certain individuality of treatment that indicates that Deccani productions were a separate effort, but obviously influenced by the power of the widely spread Solanki movement

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Another site containing buildings in this style, and in this instance within the Deccan, as it is in Khandesh, is that of Balsane, where there is a group of nine temples, the erection of which may have extended over a period of one hundred and fifty years Of these a triple-shrined structure (No. 1) is of much the same design as that at Ambarnatha and no doubt of approximately the same date, but it is smaller in size as it is only sixty-five feet long by fifty feet wide Although of such moderate proportions it is a building of considerable beauty, while among its many ornate features, the shrine entrance is a most striking production. At the base of this doorway are the usual groups of divinities, and rising above these on each side is the decorative "nookshaft" which characterises the shrines of this class These shafts support a prominent cornice over which is a range of miniature tabernacles and other similar ornamental motifs all carefully distributed and elegantly designed. Interposed within this scheme are patterned mouldings of figures and foliage which, together with illustrations of symbol and myth, depict all that the artist's fancy could recall and ingenuity conceive. Of the other examples at Balsane, temples Nos 2 and 3, by their style, may have been built fifty years later, at the beginning of the twelfth century, while No 4 is notable because in the plan of its shrine exterior, the star-shaped principle appears, allying it with the Chalukyan temples of Mysore. To complete this instructive group is temple No. 5 already referred to as being, in its lay out, almost an exact copy of a type of rock-cut vihara at Ajanta and Ellora, both these monumental developments of rock-architecture being barely fifty miles distant.

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Representing the style at its next stage, during the first half of the twelfth century, is one of the most complete and best preserved buildings of the Deccan series, the Gondeswara temple at Sinnar, in the Nasik district. (Plate CXV, Fig 1). An example of the *panchayatana* class, as the temple is surrounded by four small supplementary shrines, the whole conception stands on a moulded and stepped platform measuring 125 feet by 95 feet. With a Nandi pavilion facing the eastern main entrance, the group of structures forming the entire composition is symmetrically disposed on this elevated space in a very competent manner. The main building occupying the centre of the platform is elegantly proportioned, its two parts, the sabha-mandapa with the vimana behind rising above it, although obviously separate compartments, are blended into an architectural unity by the same cornice being carried round the whole structure, thus binding them together. Yet the difference in the two portions of the conception is emphasized by the treatment of their roofs, both being composed of miniature models of themselves, those in the sabha-mandapa being short flat shapes characteristic of that structure, while on the vimana they are the taller forms of the sikhara. The extreme dimensions of this building measure 78 feet in length and 67 feet in breadth, and the inside of the pillared hall is only 21 feet square, but the three outstanding columned porticos by which it is entered add not a little to its size, grace, and dignified appearance Although the general proportions of this temple are as good as any of its class, on the other hand there is a falling off in the quality of the sculpture adorning its walls which seems to indicate that a decline in the style was beginning at this date.

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In addition to the Gondeswara temple, Sinnar contains the remains of another temple, which, because it is of a different tradition and date, is of unusual interest. This is the temple of Aesvara, a building in the Chalukyan style, the most northerly example of the mode usually associated with the country of Mysore. Yet, probably owing to its isolated situation, it has assimilated certain features of the Indo-Aryan development of the Deccan, such as the atlantean figures, or *kichaka* bracket above the capitals, a motif unknown to the Chalukyan builders. Moreover, it appears to have been built as early as the eleventh century, and is therefore anterior to the Gondeswara temple, indicating that it was in existence while that temple was being constructed, but clearly without in any way influencing its northern architectural character. The inference is that, although buildings in the Chalukyan manner were produced over a wide area, they had no marked effect on the indigenous regional manifestation, both types evolving independently.

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The course of the style is carried a step further by several temples built probably after the middle of the twelfth century, of which one of a group of five near the village of Pedgaon in the Ahmednagar District is a typical example. This is the temple of Lakshmi-Narayan, a small structure measuring only 54 feet by 35 feet but so finely proportioned and profusely sculptured as to present a perfect but miniature model of its class. A noticeable departure in the architectural character of this building is in the treatment of the pillars, which include in their design the "vase and foliage" element, a motif not found in the previous examples of these parts, but evidently imported from Gujarat. Another original expedient is in the walls of the pillared hall, as these are composed of square panels containing perforated patterns thus admitting more light and air into this compartment than in the older temples. This system appears to have been derived from the Chalukyan style as it prevailed towards the south, where highly decorated and intricately perforated screen walls are characteristic.

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During the latter half of the thirteenth century, and also extending into the early fourteenth century a considerable number of temples were built, which are referred to all over the Deccan as in the Hemadpanti style, their production being ascribed to a great patron of temple architecture of the name of Hemadpant ¹ This semi-legendary personage has been identified as most probably a famous prime minister of Ramchandradeva, the last of the Devagiri rajas, who ascended the throne in A.D. 1272 A high and influential official, Hemadpant had a passion for temple building, and appears to have been responsible for the erection of many religious edifices within this region. The temples designated as Hemadpanti are distinguished by their heavy proportions and bald and uninteresting architectural treatment, and, what is particularly noticeable, the scarcity of figure sculpture on their exteriors. Common though the temples of this type are in the Deccan, they are uninspiring conceptions, apparently illustrating the building art of these parts when the real spirit had gone out of it, under the ominous shadow of the impending Islamic domination.

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¹ Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1873.

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REFERENCES Cousens, H, *Mediaeval Temples of the Dakkan*, Arch Sur. of Ind., Vol. XLVIII, Cal. 1931. Taylor, Meadows, *The Architecture of Dharwar amd Mysore*, London, 1866.