Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c36: Chapter XXIX: The Later Chalukyan or Hoysala Style (A.D. 1050 to 1300)
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c36
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Chapter XXIX: The Later Chalukyan or Hoysala Style (A.D. 1050 to 1300)
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THE LATER CHALUKYAN OR HOYSALA STYLE
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THE mediaeval temples which have been dealt with so far have been resolved into two main styles of architecture, the southern or Dravidian, and the northern or Indo-Aryan Early in the second millennium, however, in a large area of the Deccan, a type of temple architecture was developed sufficiently distinctive in character to be regarded as a separate style. This third, or as it is sometimes termed, intermediate style, has been designated by the dynastic name of Chalukyan, which, although not entirely a satisfactory nomenclature, is open to less objection than others. It was a mode of building evolved and practised very largely under the Chalukyan kings or through their influence, as theirs was the paramount power in these parts for the long period from the sixth to the twelfth centuries. The Chalukyans were then overthrown by the Hoysalas, an enterprising and virile race, and it was under the rule of this later dynasty, and mainly within their dominions that the maturity of the style took place For two hundred and fifty years therefore, from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, a very large number of temples were erected, which in view of the relatively limited period and the restricted size of this region imply a condition of almost unprecedented architectural activity ; so much so that the art of building in this mode developed into a definitely significant movement.
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In its broad aspect the course of this movement may be said to have been founded on the instinctive artistic sense of the Chalukyans, and to have culminated through the intellectual patronage of the Hoysalas Undoubtedly the cradle of the style may be located in that triad of historical towns in Dharwar, at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal, where, as already shown (Chapters XI and XIV), throughout the middle centuries of the first millennium some purposeful buildings, but of an unformed character were produced. In the course of time out of this very living beginning the large and important movement of the later Chalukyans was developed. This development was helped very considerably by the fact that the ground where this manifestation took place was well prepared. The artisans of Mysore, the country where the majority of the temples in this style are to be found, possessed an eminent aesthetic sensibility evidently the outcome of a long artistic tradition, which the strong and stable Chalukya-Hoysala rule stimulated and organized with remarkable results. Yet between the type of building that began in Dharwar and the more fully matured temples of the later Chalukyans there are certain fundamental differences One of the most noticeable of these was brought about by a radical change in the nature of the building material used by the Mysore craftsmen. Whereas the masons of the "three towns" of Dharwar employed large and unwieldly blocks of sandstone, thus producing an appearance of massive stability emphasized by bold plastic treatment, the Chalukya-Hoysala builders resorted to a stone of much finer grain—a greenish or bluish-black chloritic schist. The latter is a close-textured stone, very tractable under the chisel, and specially suited to the preparation of the minute carving which became a pronounced characteristic of the later style. With this change of material, and partly no doubt as the result of it, the masonry of the Mysore temples is more highly finished, the blocks are smaller and better dressed while the construction generally shows considerable technical enlightenment, improvements which are distinctly observable as the style progressed.
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There has been a tendency to refer to the Chalukyan style as intermediate between the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian. Such a position is not exactly in accordance with the facts. For any real evidences of the influence of the northern development are almost negligible, and confined to the occasional introduction of a few motifs, such as a copy of the Indo-Aryan sikhara in some of its architectural ornamentation On the other hand the effect of the southern style is distinctly marked, mainly because the territory in which the Chalukyan movement flourished was surrounded by that of the Dravidians. Naturally the result of this was that the nearer the Chalukyan buildings were to the southern manifestation, the closer they resemble the Dravidian type, and, conversely, where they are in more remote parts, the more independent is their treatment. In spite of this almost imperceptible gradation of one style into the other it is possible to divide the Chalukyan temples into two regional developments, firstly, those in the more typical style as this evolved within the state of Mysore, and, secondly, those located outside this country, and showing the influence of the Dravidian overlapping and interpenetration
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Of the buildings in the typical style produced by the later Chalukyans, some idea of the importance of the movement may be estimated from the fact that out of over a hundred temples enumerated in Mysore territory more than eighty are in the Chalukya-Hoysala mode To understand the distinctive character of these temples, their architectural composition may be described under four headings : (1) the configuration of the building, and the shape of the plan ; (2) the treatment of the wall surfaces, (3) the formation of the tower, or sikhara, and (4) the design of the pillars, or the "order."
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With regard to the first of these characteristics, that relating to the disposition and general arrangements of the temple, the scheme as a rule is similar to that found in most parts of the country, as it comprises a central structure within an enclosure, the surrounding walls of which contain ranges of cells fronted by a pillared verandah or cloister. The central structure, or main building, in its simplest form resolves itself into the customary three compartments, namely, the cella, or *garbha-griha* attached to a vestibule known as the *sukhanasi*, which connects with a pillared hall or *navaranga*; in front of the last is very often an open pillared pavilion or *mukha-mandapa* It is however in its actual conformation that the Hoysala temple is distinct from all others. In the first place many of these structures, instead of consisting of a single cella with its pillared hall, are multiples of this system, in numerous instances they are double temples having most of their essential parts in duplicate, and quite frequently they are triple, quadruple, and, in some instances, quintuple in their plan and general arrangements. Further, it was a common practice for main portions of the scheme such as the sanctuary, to have the plan of the outer walls, not laid out by means of right lines and angles but in a series of points, resulting in the conventional figure of a star. There are many temples, especially on the western side of India, which have their plans elaborated into the shape of a star by means of a series of recesses and off-sets, but the indentations and projections thus formed are produced by right angles, or curves on right lines. In contrast to this, in the Chalukyan style, the stellate or *astha-bhadra* plan, is worked out on an entirely different principle, being obtained by means of an intricate geometrical device. This consists of a combination of equal squares, each with a common centre, but whose diagonals vary by several degrees, the amount of difference in degrees being in accordance with the number of points required to form the star. (Plate CIX, Fig. 1). Although a special characteristic of the Hoysala temple, the stellate plan is by no means confined to this style alone, as instances of a similar kind are to be found in other parts of the Deccan, such as in the temples of Patna, Kokamthan, and Lonar, in Kandesh, in a temple at Karusa in Andhra Pradesh and in several others in Rajputana and elsewhere.
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The typical Hoysala temple-structure stands on a high platform, not rectangular in shape, as its sides project or recede being carried parallel to the lines and angles of the building it supports This platform is much wider and more spacious than appears necessary, thus leaving a broad flat surface or terrace all round the temple, but it was so ordained for a definite purpose. For in none of these temples is there an interior *pradakshina patha*, and this space provides a suitable substitute for processions or circumambulation.
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Turning to the second characteristic of these temples, that relating to the architectural treatment of the wall surfaces, it will be seen that the general effect of these is one of horizontality. Such an appearance is fortuitously emphasized in some of the larger examples, as these for various reasons lack their towers and superstructure so that what remains is a long low building in which mouldings, lines, members, and spaces horizontally applied, predominate. As with most styles there is some difference in the surface design of the walls of the vimana compared with that of the pillared hall, the former resolving itself into three horizontal divisions, the latter into two, but both compartments are connected above by a wide continuous cornice In both also there is a high and almost vertical basement, in some instances nine or ten feet in height, not formed of mouldings, but made up into a number of bands containing animated continuous designs, and running right round the building. These carved borders are usually ranked in the same conventional sequence, the lowest, on the ground, consisting of a procession of elephants, signifying strength and stability, then a border of horsemen denoting speed, with a band of spiral foliage and *kirthimukh*, or sun-face (a grotesque mask) above; next in order and most interesting of all as it is on a level with the eye, therefore best observed, is a frieze less than a foot wide depicting a succession of scenes from the great epic poems, a picture-gallery in stone executed with marked dramatic effect and wealth of detail. Then above this is a border of *yalis*, scaly hippopotamic monsters, presumed to symbolize the sacred river Ganges, spouting spirals of foliage, while crowning all is a running pattern of *hangsahs* (*hamsa*) a kind of goose or legendary bird, which, so the poets say, "swims in the waters of the mind of the great" (Plate CXXVII, Fig. 1). In the elevational aspect of the pillared hall the basement is terminated above by an *asana*, or sloping seat-back, and this feature, including also the whole of the structure below, is referred to as the *jagati*. Rising from the *jagati* are the exterior pillars of the hypostyle hall, their moulded shafts spaced at regular intervals around the building with the intercolumnation filled by perforated stone screens. It is not improbable that the first intention in many of these temples was to leave this pillared hall as an open pavilion, but in order to secure privacy, the spaces between the outer pillars were at an early date closed by stone grilles. (Plate CXXVIII, Fig. 1).
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The three horizontal divisions of the vimana wall are even more ornate than the two comprising the pillared hall. As already described the basement of the vimana is a continuation of that around the rest of the building, but above this, and corresponding to the pillar-and-screen treatment of the hypostyle hall, is a wide upright space defined above by a prominent string-course, and which contains one of the most typical features of the style In the neighbouring temples of the Dravidian mode this middle area, or "filling" of the exterior was enriched by means of pilasters and niches, an abstract conception of notable architectural fitness. The Hoysala craftsman did not exclude this entirely from his scheme but he relegated it, or something like it, to the uppermost of his three divisions, where, compressed between an upper and a lower cornice, it has little architectural significance, and is a mere concession to the traditional conventions of the temple elevation. His object in bringing about this change is quite clear, as by so doing he left a broad space in the most prominent part of his building for an exposition of his skill as a figure sculptor. Here, in this wide wall surface he placed within ornate niches and under foliated canopies the images of his gods, so elaborately chiselled that they can scarcely be regarded as part of the architecture, because each appears displayed as a distinct and independent example of plastic art. (Plate CXXVI) The richness of the effect of this statuary is much enhanced by the stellate plan of the structure as a whole, which producing vertical planes like facets in the body of the building, not only presents more play of surface but also provides a greater variety of light and shade.
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The third characteristic of the Hoysala temple is the design and treatment of the tower or *sikhara*, which, on account of its prominence, may be regarded as the key-note of the style Although it is separated from its substructure, consisting of the walls of the vimana, by a wide projecting cornice or eave, the stellate system is carried through this to produce a fluted effect on the tower above. As in other regional developments the upward tendency is however modified and balanced by a scheme of horizontal lines and mouldings, which resolve the whole tower into an orderly succession of tiers, diminishing as they rise to terminate at the apex in a low parasol-shaped finial. The motifs that make up the horizontal and vertical pattern of the sikhara consist of a complex grouping of miniature shrines and niches, each tier being separated either by a sunk moulding or a fretted string-course. In mass this type of tower has no effective height, and its contours, being a section of a parabola. are not strong in outline. There is a certain plastic beauty in its rich sculptured texture, but architecturally it is formless, and lacks structural strength
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The fourth, and last, of the characteristics which distinguishes this style, relates to the particular shape of the pillar and its capital, in a word the "order". This order was in many respects a development of that of the Dravidian style, with its capital of expanding mouldings, and "four-square" brackets above. But the pillars themselves took on a special form, owing to a mechanical process by which they began to be produced in this particular region, which very largely conditioned their appearance. As in most Indian temples the pillar shaft is monolithic, and it became the almost invariable practice of the stone masons to fashion and decorate these elongated blocks by turning them on a large lathe. The stone was first roughly shaped to the required proportions, and then mounted in an upright position on a wheel, by means of which the block was rotated against a chisel, set as a turning tool A baluster-like appearance was the result, the shaft and capital being converted by this process into a series of rounded horizontal mouldings, resembling rings, with the base or pedestal left square In the preparation of these mouldings and their contours, whether sharp convex rims or deep sunk grooves, the workman showed considerable ingenuity and seems to have been allowed a fair amount of freedom in his designs ; there is however one particular form almost always present, a conventional motif to accord with some ancient tradition, and that is a prominent bell-shaped member towards the lower half of the shaft The manufacture of these lathe-turned pillars was in operation over a wide area in the Deccan, but they are a special feature of the Hoysala temples in Mysore, and must have provided employment for a large number of people, as they are found in great profusion. Incidentally, they provide early evidence of a system of mechanical handling and mass production in the field of building construction. As an enrichment to this type of pillar in the Hoysala temple there was attached a sloping bracket-stone imposed on the turned capital to which it was fixed by sockets. These strut-like brackets were carved out of one slab into images enshrined within leafy aureoles, and are known as *madanakai figures*: so elaborately are they sculptured as to rival in execution and high finish those in the niches on the *vimana* walls.
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The general impression conveyed by these temples is, that, while the basis of their style is Dravidian, in the hands of the Hoysala craftsman it became a very different thing. Unconsciously the workmen altered and adapted the southern mode to suit their own ideals, which were not those of a builder, but those of an art craftsman, such as the sandalwood carver, the ivory worker, the metal caster, and also the goldsmith. What they produced was in reality not architecture, but applied art. For instance in the fine chiselling of the figures on the exterior walls of the *vimana*, each a separate image in its special setting, one seems to see an enlarged lithic reproduction of the sandal-wood shrines which, even now, are the favourite handiwork of the Mysore artisan. Then, in the *madanakai* brackets, projecting from the upper part of the pillar, there is the touch of the ivory worker, his figures being carved in stone to a large scale to suit the size of the building, but still bearing the fine technique of his ivory original. Further, in some of the strap patterns fixed with "drops" in imitation of studs and rivets, which, like bronze bands support the under side of the eaves, these recall the cast and hammered effects of the metal worker, a noted craftsman in these parts to the present day. Finally, in the wealth of simulated jewellery with which many of the figures are loaded, with their beaded headdresses, their pendents and tasselled girdles, each part exactly imitated in the stone by means of a riffler and a fine drill, is there not some of the delicate handling of the goldsmith, when he encrusts his silver filigree with precious stones? Such fine relief on account of its resemblance to the chasings of silversmiths corresponds to the *plateresco* of the mediaeval Spanish school. Whoever these craftsmen originally were, each type of artificer prepared his plastic contribution as if it were a *chef d'oeuvre*, and this was attached to the temple structure in the manner of an icon placed on a wall. So much so that some of these applied statuettes are inscribed with the sculptor's name, together with a title extolling his genius, recording that he was "an artist of the gods, a delighter of the hearts of the good, and as a bee at the lotus feet of Sarasvatī" (divine patroness of the Arts and Sciences).
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The effect of this profuse but coherent aggregation of plastic and applied art may be imagined And just as the Italian buildings of the Renaissance¹ have been styled, perhaps not too happily, as "architects' architecture,"² so, with much more reason, the temples of the Chalukyans may be criticised as "artists' architecture" or, even more specifically "sculptors' architecture" For these Mysore temples owe their character more to the chisel of the sculptor than to the stonework of the mason. Gone is the structural basis, the functional framework evolved through the experiences of previous workers in the field, with its bold organic mouldings and supporting pilasters providing stability and strength, and in its place is an arrangement of manifold planes, projections, and courses of masonry, each intricately carved and beautiful in itself, even beautiful in its aggregation, but not, as a whole, amounting to a work of significant architecture in the full sense of the word. No doubt the builders of these temples revelled in their display of plastic exuberance, but, on the other hand, there may have been some object in this unrestrained application of sculptured forms. The master craftsman, possibly reasoned that only the intellectual few would appreciate his efforts to achieve graceful linear contours and balanced formation combined with a logical structural foundation. On the other hand, the masses, although by no means deficient in the aesthetic sense, would more readily understand, and probably more eagerly expect, in their religious buildings, lively representations of their gods, goddesses and divine tutelars, to whom they instinctively appeal for all things concerning their daily life, as well as the hereafter. Then running throughout the entire composition of the temple, were the long bands of the narrative art, illustrating with the utmost detail and in a singularly dramatic fashion, extracts from the nation's mythology and folk-lore, with which even the humblest would be familiar. Under these conditions it is not surprising that the temple-builder became a story-teller in stone, so that his productions appertain more to an illuminated missal transmuted into sculpture, than to a full-scale architectural composition.
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¹ W. R. Lethaby, *Architecture* 1912, pp. 232-33.
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² *The Architecture of Humanism*, by Geoffrey Scott, 1924, pp. 58-9.
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The larger and more important buildings in this style are incomplete, as they lack their superstructure of roof [Figure: PLANS OF TEMPLES I ① PURI, 1000 A.D. ② DEVI JAGADAMBI AT KHAJURAHO, (C.I.). 1000 A.D. ③ SURYA AT OSIA, (MEWAR). 850 A.D. ④ MODHERA, (BARODA). 1050 A.D. ⑤ NAVALAKHA AT SEJAKPUR. 1050 A.D.]
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[Figure: PLANS OF TEMPLES II
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10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 SCALE OF FEET 10 5 0 10 20 SCALE OF FEET 30 20 10 0 30 1 DIAGRAM SHOWING LAY-OUT OF PLAN 2 MAHESVARA AT PATAN (GUJARAT), 12TH CENT. 3 JAGADAMBA DEVI AT KOKAMTHAN, 12TH CENT. 4 DAITYA-SUDANA AT LONAR, 13TH CENT SANKARACHARYA TEMPLE (TAKHT-I-SULAIMAN) SRINAGAR, KASHMIR. 8TH CENT. A.D. SCALE OF FEET 25 20 15 10 5 0 25 50]
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Fig 1 Ceiling in Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu
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Fig 2 Mount Abu, Rajputana . Temple of Vimala Saha, A D 1013
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[Figure: Fig 1 Ambarnath, Thana Dist. near Bombay . Mahadeva Temple from S W ; 11th century]
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[Figure: Fig 2 Jhogda, Nasik Dist : Temple of Mankesvar , 12th century]
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and tower which were never finished, or, if so, they have decayed and fallen, only the lower and more fundamental portions remaining. In such circumstances, although wonderful works of art, they do not represent the temple in its full expressiveness, for this, one must look to some of the smaller buildings of which there are numerous examples. Among these are the Lakshmīdevī (quadruple, A.D. 1113) at Dodda Gaddavallı,¹ the Kesava (triple, c. 1170) at Nagamangala, the Buchesvara (triple, 1173) at Koramangala, the Isvara (double, c. 1220) at Arsıkere, the Harīhara temple at Harīhar (double, 1224), the Kesava (trıple, c. 1234) at Harnhallı, the Lakshmī-Narasımha (trıple, 1249) at Nuggihallı, and the Kesava (triple, 1268) at Somnathpur.
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¹ *Mysore Archaeological Series*, No. III, Bangalore, 1919.
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Most typical and complete is the Kesava temple at Somnathpur² situated about twenty miles from Seringapatam, a triple shrine, or *trīkutachala*, and illustratıng the style in its late maturity. (Plate CXXV). The temple itself occupies the middle of a rectangular courtyard surrounded by sixty-four cells each with pillars in front, the whole enclosure measuring 215 feet by 177 feet, and forming an appropriate cloistered setting. Owing to its combination of three shrines, the temple plan is in the shape of a cross, its greatest length being 87 feet and its width 83 feet, with its sole entrance on the east. These very moderate dımensions enable one, on entering the courtyard through its eastern gateway, to see this building in its entirety at a single glance, and it is indeed a very perfect and finished production, a small, but typical example of the style. So wellbalanced and finely proportioned are its parts that no element obtrudes or is out of place, and although the three stellate towers are only thirty feet high, they are fully in accord with the rest of the building. The temple structure stands on a high platform, the outlines of which run parallel to the plan of the building, following the points of its stellate shape, but leaving a space some seven feet wide all round, as an ambulatory. Its plan is fairly simple as it consists of a main pillared hall in the centre, at the western end of which are the three shrines, one in axial alignment with the hall, the others projecting laterally, like transepts, thus producing its cruciform effect. The exterior walls, parapet, and towers are disposed and embellished according to the conventional system already described. A single pillared hall measuring 41 feet long by 30 feet wide comprises the interior, but this is actually a composite of the two compartments of the *mukha-mandapa*, or front hall, and the *navaranga*, or middle hall, the former containing twelve pillars and the latter four, all elaborately lathe-turned in the manner of the style. From each of the three interior walls of the middle hall a doorway leads to a square vestibule or *sukhanasi*, beyond which, in each instance, is the cella. (Plates CXXVI and CXXV).
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² *Mysore Archaeological Series*, No I, Bangalore, 1917.
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For a larger and earlier example, as well as one of more historical importance, we must turn to a group of temples at Belur in the Hassan District of Mysore, the construction of which dates from about 1117 A.D. (Plate CXXIV, Fig. 1). These temples are all withın one enclosure, and few sights could be more richly picturesque than this assemblage of early twelfth century buildings distributed rather unsymmetrically over its flagged pavements, with the temple of Kesava, evidently the main intention of the scheme, placed towards the centre. Unfortunately this, the principal building of the group, has lost its superstructure, so that it is architecturally unimpressive, but a close inspection reveals a conception of unusual artistic merit. The arrangements of its various compartments produce the customary cruciform plan, the temple with its platform, measuring 178 feet long by 156 feet wide, and its formation consists of a pillared hall having deeply recessed angles, a stellate *vīmana*, with a small square vestibule connecting the two. There are three entrances, one on each of the free sides of the hypostyle hall, each approached by a flight of steps flanked by a pagoda-like shrine, the last a useful note of architectural emphasis. A large and very elegant exterior shrine is also attached to each of the three projecting sides of the vīmana, an appropriate addition to this part of the structure. Although the temple at Belur was built a century and a half before the example previously described, as it was one of the first of its kind, while that at Somnathpur was one of the last, it is significant of the conservatism of the Indian artisan that the differences in the treatment of the two temples are slight. There is a little more freedom in the arrangement of the ornamental courses forming the basement, and a less disciplined disposal of the plastic forms on the exterior surfaces, indicating, to a slight degree, that at Belur the style had not completely crystallized. Yet there is one elaboration in this temple not found elsewhere and that is the sculptured figure-subjects on the perforated screens between the exterior pillars of the hypostyle hall. In number there are twenty of these screens, ten of which are treated geometrically, as is common in most of these temples, but the rest are carved to illustrate stories from the Puranas, presenting friezes crowded with beings engaged in the most animated pursuits.
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From this temple the best idea of an interior in the style may be gained, although, as in most examples, even here the pillars are so closely set, that no spatial view is possible, and every feature is so overlaid with carving, that the effect is one of congestion, there is no attempt at restraint, breadth, or repose. (Plate CXXIV, Fig 2). The main colonnades form two cross aisles intersecting in the middle of the hall, where they produce a central bay or nave. These cruciform aisles leave spaces in the angles of the hall in which smaller pillars are placed, and each group of four supports beams enclosing a sunk coffered ceiling It is on the main pillars and the recessed ceilings that the sculptor has specially directed his artistic ingenuity, and these are most imaginatively and copiously patterned. As the greatest interior dimensions of this *navaranga* are 92 feet by 78 feet, and the total number of pillars amounts to forty-six, all of which, save the four in the central bay, are each of different design, the variety of form and complex character of the whole is astonishing. It seems as if the system employed in the design and construction of these pillars was that of entrusting each example to one head artist and his assistants, who combined as a team to produce their finest work. Set to compete against one another in such a manner, each pillar became, therefore, an individual masterpiece, the fertility of invention and the minuteness of the execution in every instance being phenomenal. One column in the middle hall is so unique in character that it has been distinguished by the name of the Narasinha pillar, for to show his cleverness the sculptor has not only carved its capital, shaft, and base, into a repeating pattern of niches in each of which is enshrined an image, but has ingeniously contrived that the whole pillar could be rotated at will. Yet underneath all these interlaced mouldings and intricately finished forms it is possible to see, in spite of this plastic overlay, that the basis of the design is in conformity with the Chalukyan order, that there is throughout a certain conventional combination of elements which is unmistakable. That each detail of the building was the work of specialists in their craft, a not uncommon procedure in other forms of Indian art, is indicated by the fact that on a number of the images, particularly those on the brackets, there is inscribed the name of the sculptor, like a signature, thus showing that each individual artist had contributed to the scheme a selected specimen of his handiwork.
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There yet remains the highest achievement of the Chalukyan-Hoysala school of architecture, the temple of Hoysalesvara at Halabid. (Plate CXXIV, Fig. 1). Owing to the truncated condition of this building, for it lacks the whole of its superstructure, its architectural appearance is disappointing, but were its roof and tower in position, rising up to group themselves in balanced mass against the sky, the effect would be distinctly imposing. In spite however of such a fundamental disability, this temple, chiefly on account of the emphatic prodigality of its sculptural embellishment, is, without exaggeration, one of the most remarkable monuments ever produced by the hand of man. The Hoysalesvara was the principal temple within the walls of the ancient city of Darasamudra, which for three centuries flourished as the royal capital of the Hoysala empire Now, even the name of this city is forgotten, and it has declined into a small hamlet in the Hassan District, called Halabid, some fifty miles north-west of Mysore. Of the temporal power of this one-time great capital-city, of its places and citadels, fortifications and civic buildings, there remain now only grass-grown mounds. Yet of the spiritual life of its people this fine temple is still a standing monument, when all that was material has faded into oblivion. That Darasamudra was the centre of marked religious activity is plainly shown by the remains of numerous Brahmanical and Jain temples grouped within its walls. One of these, the Kedesvara, a building of moderate dimensions, yet beautifully proportioned and exquisitely carved, may have been the "Chapel Royal," as it was in close proximity to the palace and connected with it by a road. But this superb though minor example is entirely eclipsed by the remains of the grand temple of the imperial capital, the Hoysalesvara, designed and erected, as an inscription states, by one Kedaroja, the master builder of NarasimhaI (1141-82), the Hoysala king, under the supervision of Ketamalla, chief officer of the public works, and it is as well, in view of the remarkable nature of this building, that their names should be remembered. Its date was therefore after the middle of the twelfth century, a time when the empire was in its first vigour, and from it one may gain the most complete impression of the style.
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The Hoysalesvara is a double temple in every sense of the word, as it is two complete temples of exactly the same dimensions built side by side, connected only by their adjacent transepts. The length of each is 112 feet and about 100 feet in width, so that they are not large structures, each approximating in area the chancel of a moderately sized English Cathedral, but, taken together, the two buildings, with their *nandi* pavilions in front cover a fairly large space, as they occupy the greater part of a square measuring over 200 feet side. The entire conception stands on a large platform having angles corresponding to those of the buildings it supports. Each temple is cruciform in plan so that the whole composition on the ground assumes the shape of a double cross joined at its inner arms The arrangements of each temple resolve themselves into the two usual compartments consisting of a pillared hall and its attached sanctuary; in addition there is in front, in both instances, a *nandi mandapa*, or open pillared pavilion, the one facing the eastern doorway of the southern temple being a building of considerable size, a temple in itself, but the northern pavilion is much smaller, the inequality of these two supplementary structures being the only unsymmetrical portions of its configuration
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But although in extent it is moderately large, the design of the building is such that it presents little spatial effect as its exterior is broken up by repeated projections and angular surfaces, while the narrow halls of the interior are filled with many pillars closely spaced. The average height of the exterior elevation is 25 feet, but even if the towers and roofs above this were in position, it is doubtful whether it would ever have assumed the appearance of a reasonably co-ordinated composition, as its total conception in two distinct portions could only have produced a balanced grouping of parts, but no effect of a corporate unity. Externally, a certain amount of contrast is obtained by the change of form between the treatment of the sanctuary on the one hand, and the assembly hall on the other, the junction being harmonised in a very skilful manner by the interposition of a massive and profusely decorated buttress. The sanctuary, being stellate on plan, its walls are formed of acute angular projections, while the surfaces of the pillared hall are mainly at right angles. The entire elevation however is blended into a semblance of completeness by the scheme of continuous mouldings, borders, friezes, cornices, and bands of statuary which are carried around the whole building In general appearance therefore, the elevation resolves itself into a multiplicity of planes, of alternations of shapes, of intervals separated by sharp lights and vivid shadows, of occasional passages of half-tones, but there is little attempt at formal volume or developed mass.
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Such is the first impression conveyed by the general appearance of this building, followed by the feeling that, although it is clearly executed in terms of architecture, it is also equally clear that it is architecture of a very special kind. A closer inspection confirms this view. As one proceeds along the broad platform which encircles the conjoint structure, so planned in order to provide space for ceremonial processions, the walls of the temple begin to suggest the analogy of a voluminous illuminated scroll, which is unrolled as one progresses. On it is portrayed, one after another, the whole company of Indra's heaven, each of these immortals enshrined within a structural niche, and canopied by aureola of heavily hanging foliage. Then, as the scroll unfolds, its wide margins become visible, framing the pictures of the divine beings in the centre with rich ornamental borders, comprising repeating patterns of natural forms and conventional animals, scenes of figures illustrating popular myth and legend, one continual complicacy of symbol and imagery, elaborately carved and with infinite detail (Plate CXXVII, Fig. 1).
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This bewildering display of plastic art is principally contained within three parallel spaces carried round the manifold planes forming the outer walls of the temple The central space is the main object of this most comprehensive sculpture gallery, for each facet is occupied by a minutely wrought representation of a deity, splendidly apparelled, each figure in height half the size of life, and all modelled in exceedingly high relief, the entire frieze constituting a graphic record of the Hindu Pantheon, unusually complete, with all the accessories, attributes and symbols of each celestial being. Below this remarkable exposition of statuary is a wide vertical space comprising the basement or plinth, its total breadth divided into numerous borders, each formed into a running band of carving of the most entrancing variety. There are elephants and cavaliers, sequences of dramatic narrative scenes, strange and mystical motifs, such as the *hamsa* (goose), the *yali* (hippogryph) and all those fantastic creatures whose origin goes back to the most remote ages. The third and upper space corresponding to a frieze, is treated in a more formal manner, as it is mainly architectural in its character, consisting of niches and canopies, mouldings and pilasters, and all shaded by a heavy projecting cornice or eave This cornice which overhangs the entire wall surface indicates the beginning of the architectural superstructure, now not in existence, but there is little doubt the roof and spire were sculptured in the same lavish fashion.
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The above is but a bald outline of the system by which this unending wealth of relief work was distributed over the exterior of this temple, but it is the incredible intricacy with which each detail of this extensive conception was treated that is so overwhelming, filling the spectator with astonishment. In the marvellous minuteness of its technique alone, there is no thought of time, space, or limitations of any kind, and, as to the emotional conditions which inspired this great work, no other known movement can approach it in the intensity of its purpose. Not that the quality of the art thus represented is of the high order of some of the schools of Indian sculpture; much of the figure modelling is taut and stylized, lacking in breadth and suggestion, but as a sustained *tour de force*, and also as a grand repository of religious thought expressed in plastic form, the walls of this temple are unequalled.
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Four entrances interrupt the continuity of this sculptured elevation, two to each temple, and each is approached by a flight of steps with small detached shrines on either side Two of these doorways are complete, one on the south, and the other on the south-east, both much alike in their design, and both remarkable productions on account of their imaginative treatment and precise workmanship. No special attention has been paid to the shape of the doorway itself, which is a plain rectangular opening, but it is the surroundings which are of such an exceptional character. Much of its design is indicative of the ingenuousness of the craftsman in seizing on realities and converting them into ideals. With this as his aim, he has sculptured on either side of the entrance a statue, in heroic proportions, of a *dvarpala* or door-keeper, a permanent effigy in place of the mobile human attendant, and these two enlarged figures he has elaborated into extravagantly fanciful creations. Each is posed in what is known as the *tribhanga* or three-flexured attitude, head, body and legs at slightly different angles, and each is costumed in a sumptuous array of jewels and tassels of gold, holding large and immensely rich symbols of office, the whole contained within an arched and foliated aureole. The lintel above the doorway is a broad panel twelve feet long and three feet high, even more ornately carved, and illustrating selected episodes from the peoples’ mythology and story. Its design resolves itself into an arcaded central space formed by a *lata torana*, or archway, and supported by *yali*, those water-unicorns shaped like huge pachydermatous quadrupeds, spouting convoluted foliage on either side The principal figure in the centre is Tandavesvara, wildly dancing, supported by other divinities, and a band of musicians accompanying their lord with drum and cymbal. Although there is something very vital in certain portions of these entrance compositions, they show little attempt at anything structural, as conceptions they are formless, appealing mainly on account of their superlatively rich and sensuous appearance. (Plate CXXIV, Fig. 1).
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Passing into the temple, the scheme of the interior is congested and complex, owing to the size and near proximity of the pillars, and the accumulation of other elements, but it resolves itself into transverse aisles, with a four-square group of pillars in the space formed by the intersection, thus comprising the nave. What is remarkable however is the manner in which every feature of these columned corridors is loaded with ornament, each shaft moulded and fluted, and each capital supporting a heavily figured *madanakaı* bracket, so closely set that they almost touch each other beneath the weighty beams. Such a “systematisation of confusion” rules out any appearance of breadth or space, there are few vistas or open passages as the whole is a labyrinth of fretted columns, sinuous projections, and perforated screens
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The temple at Halabid is the supreme climax of Indian architecture in its most prodigal plastic manifestation. Even if its qualities of composition are not high, at least, as a monument to the phenomenal concentration, superb technical skill, ingenuity, imagination, and profound religious consciousness of those concerned in its creation, it has no peer.
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REFERENCE
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Mysore, *Archaeological Series*, Nos. 1, 2 and 3. The Hoysala Temples of Mysore.