Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c41: Chapter XXXIV: The Capital Cities of Ceylon
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c41
- Language
- English
Contents
- c41.71 — 3 parts
Chapter XXXIV: The Capital Cities of Ceylon
c41.2
THE general impression first conveyed on viewing the remains of the deserted and partially buried cities of Ceylon is that of an area of desolation containing groups of square granite pillar shafts, each group marking the site of some building long since destroyed. These monolithic pillars, owing to the ravages of time and to the want of support often inclined at diverse angles, are attached by sockets to substantial and elegantly moulded stylobates of dressed stone, approached by a massive stairway in the middle of one side. Such are the remains of the ground stories which these ruins represent, but what kind of upper structure these pillars supported is a matter very largely of conjecture. It is clear however that what survives is a record of two contrasting constructional systems almost invariably employed in the same building. On the one hand the foundations and ground stories prove the use of permanent materials effectively jointed and solidly united and therefore capable of supporting an equally strong and stable superstructure. On the other hand, the builders, after this notable exposition of an enduring fundamental storey seem to have given up any further ideas of stone construction and rather inconsistently carried out the remainder of their conceptions in the lighter but less durable materials of wood, brick and terracotta. The results of this combination of two dissimilar methods of structural procedure are plainly visible in the existing remains, for while the granite pillars and basements are still standing, every vestige of the upper portions has disappeared. The foregoing relates mainly to the larger architectural productions of the cities, but there was another important development of a somewhat different order. Prominent among the ruins of the earlier period are the remains of numerous stupas or dagobas, some of immense size, in certain instances of colossal proportions, all constructed of solid brickwork, but with approaches and appurtenances of granite in which pillars predominate. It will be seen therefore that the historical architecture of the country resolves itself a style of building composed partly of indestructible granite which, although damaged, still remains in situ, and partly of a variety of materials of a perishable nature which under the influences of the climate and from other causes has entirely disappeared.
c41.3
But before the historical productions of the Sinhalese are studied, some mention may be made of the aboriginal people of the island, and the effect, if any, of their cultural activities on the origins and subsequent evolution of the building arts. This especially applies to one aspect of architecture, that of the rock carved method, which it may be noted was the beginning of the development in the adjacent country of India. The indigenous inhabitants, a primitive race, the Veddahs, with notable enthnological characteristics, worshipped among their deities the "god of the rock" (*Gale Debiya*), and considerable ceremonial was performed in his honour, but it does not appear to have found expression in architectural form. At Anuradhapura there is a Galge, or rock-chamber, prepared with some care for the accommodation of hermit priests, parts of which are however of brick construction. It is entered by a moulded doorway of simple but elegant design and leading to three cells, the date probably being of the first century A.D. Later in the fifth century the parricide king Kyaspa planned his eyrie at Sigiriya on a rocky mountain forming a natural fortress and palace combined with a remarkable walled gallery as a means of access, the whole of a romantic and fantastic order, but of no particular architectural significance. That the early Sinhalese were however adepts at rock sculpture is proved by the high quality of a colossal statue of king Parakrama Babu at Weligama, carved out of the living rock and equal to any work of a like nature in India itself. From these productions two facts emerge, firstly that the aboriginal inhabitants of the island exercised little influence on the architecture of the historical period, and secondly, although capable of manipulating hard rock for constructional and also plastic purposes, rock architecture which flourished with such vigour in India at this correspondingly early period made little appeal as a form of expression to the creative instincts of the Sinhalese.
c41.4
Yet although the people of Ceylon appear to have received no stimulation from the great rock-cut temples that were being actively produced with the propagation of the Buddhist religion throughout India, it was by means of the transmission of that faith into the island, even before the Christian era, that its architectural procedure was initiated and developed. For as early as the middle of the third century B.C. the son and emissary of the Indian Emperor Asoka brought the word of the Buddha to Ceylon, an episode commemorated at the time by the erection of a colossal stupa at Mihintale where the gospel was first preached. During the succeeding years other stupas, also of immense size, arose on different sites, but with certain accessories and elaborations which give them a distinctive appearance and character. Founded in such a substantial and realistic manner it is only natural that the architecture of the country continued, with certain exceptions due to inroads by Hindu conquests from India, to be entirely Buddhist in its ideals, a condition which has been steadfastly maintained throughout the whole course of its history.
c41.5
The principal remains of Ceylon's architectural development are distributed over two extensive sites, the ruined and deserted capital cities which represent the two great periods of the country's history. The earlier of these, at Anuradhapura, illustrates all that survives of an important civilization which flourished for several hundred years from the third century B.C. to the eighth century A.D. The later is that at Polonnaruwa to which place the seat of government was removed in the eighth century, and where it remained until the thirteenth century, both are situated in the North-Central Province. Other ruins of some consequence have been revealed in various widely-spread localities, but those of most significance and which depict the building art in all its aspects are contained within the area of these two ruined and abandoned capitals. From the mounds and scattered fragments which mark these sites, not only the architecture of the past may be studied and, in some instances, partially reconstructed, but it is possible to visualize even in their ruin the greatness of Ceylon's culture and civilization during these two notable historical periods. Finally there ensued a third phase, when, after the end of the thirteenth century the seat of Sinhalese authority was transferred to the heights of Kandy and where in its later aspect it was maintained until as late as 1815. Consistently Buddhistic throughout its course of two millenniums, yet as already mentioned there were short interludes when the continuity was interrupted by incursions from the Indian mainland, and during which certain buildings in the Tamilian styles of the Pallavas (600-900) and the Cholas (900-1150) intrude themselves on the indigenous mode, influencing it however only to a modified degree.
c41.6
The earliest Buddhist structures in Ceylon are stupas, and these are found mainly within the region of Anuradhapura Composed almost entirely of brick these tumuli display features which differentiate them from monuments of a similar order in other Buddhist countries. For instance the Sinhalese divide their stupas as a class, into six varieties according to their appearance, such as the "bell," the "bubble," the "lotus" etc, each signifying the general shape of the domical portion known in India as the *anda* or egg, but in Ceylon by the name of *gaeba* Here it should be mentioned that the common name for the stupa is *dagaba* from *dhatu-garbha* or relic-chamber, the nomenclature of its component parts being shown in Plate CLXXVII The stupa itself is ordinarily semi-globular in form and stands on a range of concentric circular platforms almost invariably three in number, the whole based on a square terrace approached by a flight of steps in the middle of each side Over the summit of the dome arose the finial consisting of a box-like member in which valuable offerings were placed, previous to the *chhatravali* or conventional parasol being erected, as a spire, crowning the whole. The tumulus structure is composed entirely of solid brickwork, the bricks of the earliest examples, such as those erected before the first millennium, being similar to those used in India which were of a large size being as much as seventeen inches in length, but decreasing in the course of time until in those of the twelfth century they were only about twelve inches long.
c41.7
The actual construction of some of these immense mounds of brickwork, several of which date from before the Christian era, implies considerable skill and experience. After over twenty-two centuries of the effects of the climate and the destructive action of vegetable growth, not to mention spoliation by the hand of man as instanced by driving tunnels into the structure in a vain search for hidden treasure, the fact that these monuments are still in existence, and also identifiable, speaks highly both of the quality of the materials employed and the manner of their application To support a solid mass of brick and rubble some 270 feet in height and nearly a thousand feet in circumference, as in the case of the Ruwanwaeli Dagaba at Anuradhapura, of which the foundations were laid by king Duthagamini in the 2nd century B C. would need special preparations and these are fully described in an ancient chronicle known as the *Mahawansa*. This royal founder ordered "round stones to be brought by means of his soldiers, had them well beaten down with pounders, and to ensure greater durability he caused that layer of stones to be trampled by enormous elephants whose feet were protected by leathern shoes. He had clay spread upon the layer of stones : over them a network of iron . over that a layer of *phalika* stone, and over that he laid a course of common stones." On the top of this prepared basis, which in its technique is singularly suggestive of reinforced concrete, the monarch, making the occasion into a picturesque and formal ceremony, "guarded by his officers of state decked in all the insignia of their gala dress, himself captivating all by the splendour of his royal equipment, surrounded by a throng of dancing and singing women—rivalling in beauty the celestial virgins—decorated in their various embellishments, attended by forty thousand men, accompanied by a full band of musicians, repaired to the site for the royal hand itself to lay the first and festival brick of the edifice" The foundational rites having been performed with all the requisite regal and priestly observances, the actual construction was then put in hand Firstly the groundwork of the raised terrace was prepared, with the stone revetment next fitted with great care backed by rubble (no mortar being used), and the interior packed to the level of the coping with earth and brick debris Upon this, when it had settled, was laid the pavement, and on the centre of the platform the extreme circumference of the tholobate was marked out, and its lower course or courses built At this stage it was usual to sink in the platform the brick foundations and walls of the chambers to enshrine the relics ¹ When these had been deposited within the receptacle it would be closed by stone slabs, and the dagaba finished by the completion of the tholobate, the dome, finial and spire. The surface of the whole would be thickly coated with white plaster, adornments of various kinds added, parts painted and gilt, so that the monument would present a chaste and at the same time brilliant appearance.
c41.8
¹ Here the account is obviously referring to subsidiary relics immured in the relic chambers of the four *wahalkadas*, or offsets, projecting from the base of the dagaba. See Plate CLXXVII.
c41.9
Such was the system by which these great sacred piles were inaugurated and created, some of which were of phenomenal size, while there were many others not by any means of insignificant dimensions Of those erected in the vicinity of Anuradhapura shortly before and after the Christian era the following are the largest and most notable , Ruwanwaeli, second century B C, diameter 254 feet , Thuparama, third century B C, diameter 165 feet ; Abhayagiriya, 300 A D , diameter 327 feet, and the Jetawanarama, 4th century, diameter 325 feet As only one of the Indian stupas is more than 150 feet in diameter, namely the Amaravati, which is 162 feet, it will be realized that immense solid content was one of the aims of the Sinhalese dagaba builders Various efforts have been made in an attempt to calculate the cubic volume of the largest of these Ceylon monuments, as for instance the Abhyagiriya, which, when perfect, must have been 270 feet in height. One authority has² stated that the quantity of bricks used in this structure would be sufficient to build a moderately large-sized town, while another³ has estimated that the mass is equal in general dimensions to the Menkaura or Third Pyramid at Gizeh. Computations of this order do not lay claim to any degree of exactitude but they may give some idea of the stupendous size of the Ceylon dagabas, which in their later and dismantled condition, overgrown with vegetation, have more the appearance of a natural feature in the forest landscape than the handiwork of man. And it is not improbable that some such instinctive ideal party inspired the creation of these immense tumuli, The image provided is upside down (inverted 180 degrees). Let's orient the text correctly:
c41.10
² Sir Emerson Tennent, *History and Topography of Ceylon*. Longmans 1860
c41.11
³ H. Parker, *Ancient Ceylon*, Luzac & Co , London, 1909.
c41.12
Top edge of the current image shows: `Fig 2. Temple of...` partially visible at the very top right, cropped. Below that (or adjacent): `[Figure: ...]` Middle caption (now read upside down): `Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D` Below that (at the bottom, but really the top if oriented correctly): A large image of Martand Sun Temple ruins. To the bottom left (in current orientation, which would be top right or bottom left): `CXX...` (Plate number, like `CXXVI` or similar, cropped).
c41.13
Let's transcribe according to standard orientation (rotated 180 degrees): Page number/plate mark:
c41.14
Wait, looking at the orientation: If we rotate 180 degrees: Bottom-left `CXX>` is at the top-right. Actually it says `CXX...` (looks like `CXXX` or `CXXV` or `CXXI` cropped). Wait, the caption: `Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D` In correct orientation: The image of the Martand Sun temple is above this caption! Wait, no: Look at `Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D`. The letters are upside-down in the uploaded file. Let's rotate 180 degrees: The large image at the bottom of the uploaded file is right side up when rotated 180 degrees: it shows the temple in a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade (Martand Sun temple). Caption below it: `Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D`
c41.15
Wait, look at the other two images (which are at the top half of the current image): When rotated 180 degrees: They are at the bottom half. Left image (currently top right): a temple tower / sikhara (looks like Osian or similar). Right image (currently top left): a stone temple with tiered roof / mandapa. Above them (at the very bottom in current view): Wait, look at the text at the very top: `Fig 2. Temple of...` When rotated 180°, it is at the bottom right.
c41.16
Let's trace all elements carefully in reading order (rotated 180°):
c41.17
1. Plate number: `@HCXXX` or `@HCXX...` Wait, at the bottom left of the original file, it reads `CXX>` upside down. Rotated 180°, it is in the top-right corner: `CXX[I/V/X...]` but it looks like `CXXX`. Wait, let's look at `CXX>`: Letters: C, X, X, and part of another character (looks like X or I or V). Actually, reading it rotated 180°: C X X followed by another X or part of something. It is inverted: Wait! In the current file: Bottom left corner has: `<XXƆ` upside down. Wait, let's read the characters in current orientation: `C X X >` Wait, is it `CXX`? Let's flip it 180°: Top right corner has `C X X ...` Wait, C rotated 180 degrees is `Ɔ`. In the current image at bottom-left: The first letter on the left is `C`, then `X`, then `X`, then `>`? Wait, if you rotate 180 degrees: `>` rotated 180 degrees is `<`. `X` is `X`. `C` rotated 180 degrees is `Ɔ`. Wait! Is it upside down? Look at `Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D`: F is upside down! `i` has dot at bottom. `g` has loop at top. `1` is upside down. Yes, the text is completely upside down! So let's rotate the whole page 180 degrees.
c41.18
When rotated 180 degrees: Top of the page: Plate number at top-left: `CXX...` - wait, where was `CXX>`? It was at bottom-left. When rotated 180°, it moves to top-right! Wait, looking at `CXX>` at bottom-left: Rotated 180°, bottom-left becomes top-right. The text reads from left to right: Wait, `CXX>`: In 180° rotation: The `>` was at the right end of `CXX>`. Rotated 180°, it is at the left! Wait, what is that glyph? It's a broken Roman numeral or bracket: `[CXXX]` or `(CXXX)` or `CXXXI` or `CXXX`? Actually, it looks like `CXXX` with the top of letters cut off, or `CXXXI`. Wait, looking closely at `<` at bottom left: It's `C X X X` where the last X is cut in half, or `C X X I`? Wait, the first letter is C, then X, then X, then an angled stroke. Wait, no: reading it right-side-up (after 180° rotation): The letters are at top right: Wait, look at the C at bottom left in current view: It's an opening parenthesis or C? It's `C X X X`! Wait, in current view: Left to right: `C X X X` (the last one has right half cut off, looking like `>` or `X`). Wait, if it's upside down, the C at the left is upside-down. An upside-down C curves like `)`. But here it curves like `(` (which is C)! Wait! Look closely at `CXX>`: Is it upside down or right side up? If it curves like `(`, that's a normal C. Wait, why would C be right side up if the caption is upside down? Wait! Look at the caption: `Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D` Reading from left to right in current view? No! In current view, the word "Fig" is on the right! Ah! In current view: On the right: `Fig 1` (upside down). In the middle: `Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D` (upside down). On the left: it ends with `8th century A D`. Yes! So when rotated 180 degrees: `Fig 1` is on the left! And the bottom-left of current view (`CXX>`) becomes the top-right! And let's read `CXX>` rotated 180 degrees: In current view, at the bottom-left: From left to right: `C X X >` When rotated 180 degrees, it is at the top right, and read left to right: The `>` rotated 180° becomes `<`. Wait, no! If you rotate the whole image 180°: What was on the far left at the bottom is now on the far right at the top. What was on the inner side (towards right) is now on the inner side (towards left). So `C X X >` read left-to-right rotated 180°: The leftmost character `>` is read first! `>` rotated 180° is `<`. Then `X`, then `X`, then `C` rotated 180° is `Ɔ`. Wait, `< X X Ɔ` is `C X X >` upside down! Yes! Because `C` upside down looks like `Ɔ`, and `<` upside down is `>`. So right side up, it is `C X X X`! Wait, `C X X` and then the fourth letter is `X` (cut off at the margin). So it's `CXXX`!
c41.19
Let's check the layout when rotated 180 degrees:
c41.20
Top right:
c41.21
Then the first figure: A large landscape photograph showing the ruins of Martand Sun Temple in Kashmir. Below it: Caption: Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D
c41.22
Below that, two figures side by side: Left figure: a stone temple (currently top-left). Right figure: a sikhara temple (currently top-right). Wait, look at the caption at the bottom (currently top edge): Above the right figure (currently top right): `Fig 2. Temple of...` Wait, it is cut off at the edge: `Fig 2. Temple of...` Wait, let's transcribe what is visible of that line: Rotated 180 degrees, it is at the bottom right or bottom left? Currently it is at the top right: `Fig 2. Temple of...` When rotated 180 degrees, it is at the bottom left: Wait, top right rotated 180 degrees is bottom left! Wait, in current view: `Fig 2. Temple...` is at the top right (above the sikhara? No, above the sikhara which is top-right). Wait, in current view: Top right has the sikhara temple. Above it is `Fig 2. Temple...` Wait, let's read the text upside down at top right: `Fig 2. Temple...` Wait, it's upside down too! Letters: `Fig 2. Temple of...` Let's see what follows `Temple`: `Fig 2. Temple of...` then maybe a name, partially cropped by the top border.
c41.23
Wait, let's format properly according to instructions:
- Page furniture: `@H CXXX`
- Figures: `[Figure: caption as printed]`
c41.24
Let's examine: Top half of the upright page:
c41.25
Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D
c41.26
Wait, what about Fig 2 and Fig 3? Is there a Fig 3? Under the other temple (which is on the right when upright, currently top-left): Is there a caption? It might be completely trimmed/cut off. Under the left temple (currently top-right): There is: `Fig 2. Temple...` Wait, let's look closely at `Fig 2. Temple...`: It says: `Fig 2. Temple of...` or `Fig. 2. Temple...` Let's zoom in on that line (top right corner of the uploaded image): `Fig 2. Temple of...` Wait, reading it rotated 180 degrees: `Fig 2. Temple of Siva...`? It is cut off horizontally right through the middle/bottom of the letters: `Fig 2. Temple...` Actually, it reads: `Fig 2. Temple of...`
c41.27
Wait, should we write the figure as:
c41.29
Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D
c41.30
Wait! Instruction: "Figures, plates, maps and drawings: a line "[Figure: caption as printed]" where the figure stands (only the printed caption or label; empty brackets "[Figure:]" if it has none). Do not describe images."
c41.31
So:
c41.32
Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D
c41.33
And for the lower figures: If Fig 2 is below:
c41.35
Fig 2. Temple...
c41.36
Wait, does Fig 2 caption belong to the sikhara temple or the other? In upright orientation: The sikhara is on the left (bottom-left). Wait! In the uploaded image: Top-left: stepped-roof temple. Top-right: sikhara temple. Rotated 180 degrees: Bottom-left: stepped-roof temple? No! Top-left rotated 180° goes to bottom-right! Top-right rotated 180° goes to bottom-left! So the sikhara temple is on the bottom-left! And the text `Fig 2. Temple...` is at the bottom-left, directly under the sikhara temple! Wait, let's re-verify: Top-right of current image: has the sikhara temple. Directly above it (at the top margin) is the text `Fig 2. Temple...`. When rotated 180°, that text is at the bottom-left, directly below the sikhara temple! Yes!
c41.37
What about the other temple (on the right when rotated)? Its caption is completely cut off off-page. So it is just `[Figure:]`.
c41.38
Let's read `Fig 2. Temple...` as closely as possible: `Fig 2. Temple of...` Wait, does it say: `Fig 2. Temple of P...`? Letters visible: `Fig 2. Temple of P...` or `Fig 2. Temple of...` `Fig 2 . Temple of ...` Wait, looking at the letters: `F` `i` `g` `2` `.` ` ` `T` `e` `m` `p` `l` `e` ` ` `o` `f` ` ` ... Wait, after "of": `P`? `B`? It looks like `P...` then cut off. Let's see: `Fig 2. Temple of...`
c41.39
Wait, look at `@H CXXX`: Is it `@H CXXX`? Yes, `CXXX`.
c41.40
Let's verify the caption of Fig 1: `Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D` Spacing: `Fig 1` `Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D` There is a dot after Kashmir with spaces around it: `Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D` Wait, between "Fig 1" and "Kashmir", there is a wider gap or space. Let's transcribe: `[Figure: Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D]`
c41.41
And for the bottom figures:
c41.42
Fig 2. Temple of...
c41.44
Wait, are they side-by-side or stacked? In standard Markdown reading order: Top figure:
c41.45
Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D
c41.46
Bottom figures: Left:
c41.47
Fig 2. Temple of...
c41.48
Right:
c41.50
Wait, can we see more of Fig 2 caption? `Fig 2. Temple of Parasuramesvara, Bhuvanesvara...`? Yes, the sikhara temple is clearly Parasuramesvara temple at Bhubaneswar! And the one next to it is Muktesvara or Vaital Deul or Meghesvara or similar (actually, it looks like a temple in Aihole/Badami/Pattadakal or Kashmir/Himalayas, or Meguti/Lad Khan). In the image, the caption just says: `Fig 2. Temple of P...` Since the rule says: "Keep diacritics, Devanagari and other scripts, italics (*word*), Greek, and numbers exactly as printed. Do not translate, correct, complete or summarise anything. Output only the transcription." We should only transcribe the visible characters: `Fig 2. Temple of P...` or whatever is printed, without completing it. Looking closely at the cut-off text: `Fig 2. Temple of P...` Wait, is there a dot after 2? `Fig 2 . Temple of P...` or `Fig 2. Temple of P...` It looks like `Fig 2 . Temple of P...`
c41.51
Let's double check `@H CXXX`: In the corner, it's just `CXXX`.@H CXXX for mountains and peaks appealed to the Buddhist mind as sacred elements reaching upwards and charged with mystic power. To imitate these and to deposit at their summit some emblem of the Buddha may explain the urge to produce such mountainous masses of masonry. For unlike the Indian stupas, as for instance Amaravati or Sanchi, the Sinhalese dagabas were not highly decorated works of architecture, nor did they contain sculpture galleries narrating incidents of the Buddha cult, a certain amount of painting may have been added and some statuary was included in the scheme, but the general impression conveyed was the vastness and solidity of the conception, within the womb of which, unseen and inviolate, reposed some physical attribute of the Great Teacher.
c41.52
Fig 1 Kashmir . Temple of the Sun, Martand , 8th century A D
c41.53
Fig 2. Temple of P...
c41.55
Of these monumental dagabas raised during the early period, that known as the Ruwanwaeli at Anuradhapura is a characteristic example. It was built in the second century B.C, by king Duthagamini, a devout Buddhist who was also responsible for the Mirisavetiya, another but smaller dagaba about a mile distant and equally typical of the style With a diameter of over 250 feet, this immense tumulus stands in the centre of two spacious square platforms, one above the other, their sides facing the cardinal points, with a pillared portico in the middle of the eastern side marking the entrance. Mounting the outer terrace through this columned approach, the pilgrim was confronted by a stepway leading to the inner terrace, the sides of which were supported by a frieze of innumerable elephants facing outwards. Occupying the middle of this terrace were the three orthodox concentric basal platforms, above which rose the great dome, or *garba* semi-spherical in shape. Interrupting these three platforms, facing the points of the compass, were four structures imposed on its circular outline which give some of the character to the Ceylon dabaga. These are "offsets" or projecting shrines known as *wahalkadas*, a special feature attached to the Sinhalese type. Somewhat similar offsets supporting *aryaka* or "worshipful columns" project from the Amaravati stupa of Southern India, but the wahalkadas displayed no such row of free-standing pillars, they were small chapel-like additions enshrining cells or diminutive relic chambers reached by a short flight of steps from the lowest circular platform. That both however had the same ascription is clear, yet the Sinhalese example being the earlier it is not improbable that the Indian development was derived from that source. (Plate CXXVII). But while the latter was merely one of the many elaborate embellishments of the Amaravati type of stupa, the wahalkada was the only ornate feature, except the finial at the summit, which adorned the otherwise relatively severe scheme of the Sinhalese dagaba. On the wahalkada therefore the Sinhalese sculptors lavished their skill, decorating its surface with mouldings and carved borders of elephants' heads at close intervals. In front of the offset was a pedestal for a statue, and at the side an elegant *et hondaval*, or "elephant's trunk" stairway for mounting the platform There is something almost "precious" in the shape and rich treatment of this notable accessory to the dagaba design.
c41.56
The remaining feature of note ornamenting the dagaba was the finial, a crowning emblem consisting of several superimposed elements, the whole comprising many mythical properties. Here was the heart and nerve centre of this immaculate monument. Briefly, this *kota* or *kotuwa* was composed of two main parts, the cubical casket or *hataraes kotuwa* at the base, supporting the ceremonial umbrella, or *chatta*, but in the course of years the ritual connected with these went through forms of change. In the first place the *chatta*, although associated with the honorific parasol, bears little resemblance to this essential symbol of the Buddha, and, furled in the shape of a staff, is more reminiscent of the totem post of the Veddahs, and may therefore be of aboriginal extraction. This *chatta* post (*yasti* or staff of the *chhatravali*) was originally embedded in the cubical *hataraes*, a receptacle intended for the principal relics of the dagaba, but it was eventually found that this system of socketing left little space in its interior for the accommodation of the sacred deposit. Therefore a small compartment was made below, and actually within the brickwork summit of the *garba* itself, and into this was lowered the *yantragala* or Mystic Stone, a granite block the surface hollowed into nine small recesses to contain the relics and votive offerings, the finial or *kota* sealing up and surmounting the whole
c41.57
As with the stupa in India, so with its counterpart the dagaba in Ceylon, this Buddhist tumulous was by no means an isolated monument, but formed the central feature of a complete monastic settlement. Besides this great sacred pile a typical monastery or *sangharama* would consist of a temple, or image-house (*pilima-ge*), a preaching hall (*bana salawa*), the temple close (*simana*), a processional path (*vidiya*), with an enclosure (*prakaraya*) bordering this path, a priory (*prasada*), a tank (*pokuna*) for ablutions, all of which were enclosed within a perimeter wall (*sima*) entered by a guard-house or lodge (*mura-ge*). To the main building of the monastery there was also a portico (*doraṭuva*) as well as various other supplementary structures for different purposes disposed within the enclosure walls Remains of most of these buildings are to be found in conjunction with the Ruwanwaeli dagaba which in its prime must have been a very large and well-established institution But in addition to these monastic premises, around the immediate precincts of the lowest platform of the dagaba were three or four concentric colonnades of free-standing monolithic pillars, presumed to have been so placed in order to carry lighted lamps on ceremonial occasions The building art of this period was distinctly of the peristyle order, and it is the frequency of these pillars that form the most striking feature of the remains.
c41.58
There are the shattered portions of many such monastic establishments in and around Anuradhapura and elsewhere, mainly represented by the massive stones of their foundations And from one of the largest and most sumptuous of these priory halls, now incorrectly known as the Brazen Mansion or Peacock Palace, some idea of the architectural style of this period may be gained Since identified as the famous Lohaprasada monastery built by king Duthagamini early in the first century B C, partly from descriptive records and partly from intensive study of the remains the original shape of this historical structure can be conjectured. When first built it rose up as a great pyramidal pile in nine stories crowned by a domical roof of bronze, evidently an imposing conception, spacious in plan and striking in its appearance For from what survives of its ground story, consisting of portions of its moulded stylobate with voluted balustraded stairways the quality of the workmanship may be determined, while from the forest of granite pillars which are still grouped upon its site the extent of its ground plan can be readily estimated. When it is realized that these monoliths have been calculated to be as many as sixteen hundred in number, each twelve feet high, and covering an area of 250 feet side, the dimensions of this priory hall and its great size generally may be imagined.
c41.59
[Figure: Fig 1 Kashmīr Temple of Wangath ; c 8th century]
c41.60
[Figure: Fig 2 Avantīpur, Kashmīr · Temple of Avantīsvamī, 9th century A D.]
c41.61
CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF AVANTISVAMI TEMPLE KASHMIR, 9TH CENT. A.D.
c41.62
[Figure: Fig 1 Sankaracharya Temple (Takht-i-Sulaiman) ; 8th century]
c41.63
[Figure: Fig 2 Temple at Malot, Salt Range (Singhapura), Punjab, c 9th century]
c41.64
As to the elevational aspect of the Lohaprasada it may be assumed with a fair amount of certainty that it followed the pattern of a type of monastery building which was evolved in southern India, including Ceylon, during this early period of Buddhist monachism. This pattern may be studied, translated into a monolithic stone monument in the Dharmaraja ratha at Mamallapuram (Seven Pagodas) near Madras. Although this rock-cut model is several centuries later than the Lohaprasada, it preserves a tradition, of which the Anuradhapura building is an early example. The pillars of the ground story are the remains of the spacious hypostyle hall where the priests would assemble for congregational worship. Above this were the eight remaining floors each containing a row of cells for the accommodation of the resident brotherhood, these floors diminishing as they ascended, each with a courtyard or narrow passage to give access to the cells, the backs of which formed the exterior elevation A reference to the Mamallapuram ratha (Plate LXI, Fig 2) will explain the principle of this system, while a study of the sectional elevation of the Vaikuntha-Perumal temple (Plate LXIV) at Conjeeveram, in Madras State, will give some idea of the interior arrangements, although in this instance they have been modified in order to adopt them to the Hindu ritual. It has been already remarked that from the combination of cells in the Buddhist monastery the sikhara of the Indian Dravidian temple was developed, and in some of these sikharas the domical shape surmounting the entire structure of the Hindu example was of the same type as that which, bronzed and gilt, crowned the Lohaprasada, thus accounting for its name the Brazen Mansion. But, alas, the value of its bronze cupola no doubt attracted the cupidity of a later generation of invaders, while the considerable amount of wood in its construction would account for its ready destruction by fire Some of the lintels of the lower stories were of stone but timber beams were mainly used, and these supported roofs of terracotta tiles shaped like wooden shingles. It is true the data for an attempted reconstruction of this building is scanty, but there are records that enable its great size, towering height, probably in the vicinity of 120 feet, and the crowning glory of its gilt metal cupola, to be dimly visualised.
c41.65
If, however, the general architectural appearance of these early monastic buildings is denied us, on the other hand there are vast quantities of dressed stone elements in their composition which have survived and serve to give an excellent idea of the manner in which some of the essential features of these structures were treated. Chief among these, owing to their substance and position, were the stylobates of which there are innumerable examples among the ruins of Anuradhapura, together with their stepped approaches, which were made singularly ornamental. Nor should the ablution tanks (*pokana*) or bathing places be omitted in a survey of the style, as these were usually of distinctive design. But of the utmost significance in a development of the building art which is emphatically peristylar in character, are the capitals of the pillars, in other words, the "order" of the Sinhalese style of architecture. As these capitals are so original and expressive they may be described first. The shafts of the columns were invariably monolithic, without bases, generally square or octagonal in section and carved out of gneiss. Socketed into the upper surface was the *puhul*, or capital, of a design which has no counterpart outside Ceylon. The central portion of this feature is a double flexured vase-shaped element hexagonal in section and usually left plain. Contrasting with the simplicity of this unadorned member is the richly carved and substantial abacus which it supports, and the deep necking below with ornamental mouldings between. (Plate CXXVII). There is no mistaking this "order", as it is expressive of the style, and although in some instances it varies in detail, the principle of its design in this early period is as indicated above In a later phase of the art occasionally a more exuberant type was devised in the form of lotus pillars, as in the Nissanka Malla Mandapaya, but this was a development of the twelfth century, when the style was becoming more florid. (Plate CXXVIII).
c41.66
Turning to the massive stone blocks forming the plinths on which most of the main buildings were erected, these are appropriately moulded, dressed, and jointed in a highly finished manner. The same good workmanship is observable in all the stone remains of this period, amply proving that in the preparation and handling of stone construction the Sinhalese mason had little to learn. Specially noticeable in this connection are the tanks for drinking purposes and also for ablutions found in the vicinity of most monasteries, which, owing to the fact that they are below ground level have escaped destruction. Some of these are elaborately planned and laid out in cruciform and other geometrical patterns, while all are executed with a precision and technical ability which is admirable. It was however in the stairway approaches to the principal monastic buildings that the stone-mason showed the most originality and ingenuity, as these entrances breaking into the side of the plinths amply testify. Instances of somewhat similar flights of steps may be seen occasionally introduced in designs in India, as for example at Ajanta of a relatively early date, and later, in the fourteenth century in the Alankara Mandapa at Darasuram, Tanjore (Plate LXVI, Fig 2), but the Sinhalese developed this feature into its most striking form. The component parts of these stairways are four in number: (1) the steps (2) the balustrade on each side (3) the guardstone and (4) the moonstone fronting the whole. Except for an occasional pattern carved on the "rise," the steps themselves were kept severely plain, but the balustrades alongside are heavily voluted in such a manner that they are referred to as *ethondaval* or elephant trunk, although there is something more than a suggestion of the known *makara* or river gryphon of the Ganges in their flowing forms. As a finish to the balustrade are the guardstones or stele-shaped panels containing a bas-relief of the conventional door-attendant corresponding to the *dwarpalas* at the Indian temple entrance. But perhaps the most interesting portion of the whole conception is the moonstone or *chand* a large semi-circular stone forming the threshold to the steps. These are carved in a series of concentric borders with a beauty of pattern and mysticism of symbols that present an appropriate introduction to the building they confront
c41.67
Although the influence of India by means of the Buddhist contact is observable in the art of Ceylon during this early period, such influence is not great and only reveals itself in relatively minor evidences. For instance that characteristic feature, the conventional Buddhist "railing", does not seem to have commended itself to the Sinhalese builders as it figures in only one example at Anuradhapura near the Abhayagur Dagoba, but it is most distinctively treated. Carried around a platform square in plan, the uprights, with their cross-bars, copy almost exactly to a smaller scale the more famous stupa railing at Sanchi in India. Where this differs from its prototype is in its more ornamental manipulation as it is elevated on a massive moulded pediment nearly half its own height, with its coping stone also moulded, the whole rising to a height of 7½ feet. Moreover it is entered not by the usual torana gateway, but by means of a stepway having its ends finished with tall guard stones of the stele form, the entire scheme presenting an almost reluctant concession to the traditional Indian origin. Yet that in the style of all this early work there are traces of a definite Indian affinity is obvious, and in some of the patterns there are the same liner and plastic qualities which give character to the arts of Mysore, a circumstance which in view of its geographical proximity, is in no sense remarkable. The remains at Anuradhapura illustrating this first phase of the building art in Ceylon, are sufficient to prove that the inhabitants of the island at that time were naturally of an aesthetic disposition, and only required the stimulus of the Buddhist religion to express this in architectural form. This characteristic shows itself not only in the large monuments of which unfortunately only fragments survive, but it is particularly noticeable in all the accessories of these great compositions, thus conveying the impression that whatever the craftsmen of this period handled, however humble or material, they converted it into a pleasing work of art But at the beginning of the eleventh century the great and ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura was destroyed by an invasion from Southern India, and the northern portion of the island thus became included in the mighty empire of the Cholas, under a ruling dynasty which extended its influence from the tenth to the twelfth centuries over a very wide expanse of southern Asia While this encroachment from the Indian mainland signified the end of an important era in the history of Ceylon, owing to the devastation which accompanied this event, at the same time it brought into the building art of the island the architectural style of the Tamil country, or Dravidadesha, thus affecting to some extent the subsequent character of Sinhalese art as a whole
c41.68
Although geographically Ceylon is so closely allied with its powerful neighbour India, and associated with it by the bonds of religion, the independence of the island has remained practically intact throughout its history. With the advent of Buddhism certain influences in the sphere of the building art may have been derived from the productions of the Andhras, a Buddhist people of pronounced architectural ideals whose chief structures occupied a region towards the south of India before and after the beginning of the Christian era. Later, the art of the Pallavas, as already indicated, may have affected the style of the Sinhalese monastery buildings when these began to be erected at Anuradhapura These however were peaceful penetrations brought about by the demand on the part of the people for a constructional procedure to aid them in their building projects. But when the Cholas came in the eleventh century as ruthless invaders to force their Hinduism and its form of building art on the inhabitants of the island different circumstances prevailed. Whereas previously the features from India were incorporated in the indigenous style to give strength and character to the Buddhist architectural productions of the Sinhalese, on the other hand the Cholas destroyed the historical monuments which had been so laboriously evolved, and raised Siva temples in their place. And so there was imposed on the people during their period of occupation, extending over the eleventh and twelfth centuries, a style of building alien both in its structure and in its expressiveness, in a word a provincial development of the Tamilian type of Hindu temple architecture as this existed in Southern India at such places as Tanjore and Pudukottai. Examples of this architectural importation from the mainland may be seen at Polonnaruwa in the two temples of Siva Devale of the eleventh century, related clearly to a somewhat earlier Chola temple at Srinivasanallur in the Trichinopoly District. (Plate LVI, Fig. 1). Constructed of stone masonry in the characteristic Tamilian manner, these Siva temples, among other buildings of the same period, mark plainly the effect of the south Indian invasion at this stage of Sinhalese history. With their prominent pilasters crowned by the Tamilian order, of capital distinguished by its wide scalloped abacus, its walls divided by the "split" openings and sunken alcoves, its foundational string-course displaying the typical motif of immured gryphons, the entire composition manifests all the architectural attributions of the Dravidian mode under the Chola regime.
c41.69
Such a forceful style as that which flourished with so much vigour in southern India naturally influenced the building productions of the country even after the Chola invaders had been driven out of the island, and the Sinhalese sovereignty restored by Vijayabahu (1070-1114) towards the end of the eleventh century. One aspect of this may be seen in the Thuparama temple at Polonnaruwa of the twelfth century, built by the greatest of all the kings of this line, Parakrama Bahu I, and to whom much of the architectural glory of the capital was due In the main obviously of Dravidian extraction inspired no doubt by the style of those Siva temples of the Cholas which preceded it, yet it differs from its archtypes in one important constructional particular, it is not built of stone, but of the Sinhalese masons' favourite material, brick Apart however from the changes brought about by this difference of technique, the Thuparama is obviously a provincialized conception, an attempt to reproduce a classical type of building without the finished knowledge and experience necessary for such an effort. Of considerable size but with much of its substance taken up by the abnormal thickness of its walls, although hardly decadent, it shows how the robust ideals of the Pallavas, developed more fully by the Cholas, could in less practised hands result in this somewhat uninspiring composition. In its mass there is a certain dignity and a sense of proportion, with an imposing tower-like structure surmounting the whole, but the surface treatment is inclined to be crude and unconvincing The Thuparama is significant because it marks a stage in the course of the building art of Ceylon, not exactly a transition but the finale of an architectural intrusion which both directly and indirectly affected to a degree the arts of the island generally
c41.70
With the return of the rule in Ceylon to an indigenous dynasty in the twelfth century, the second era of the greatness of the country began. And as the first era centred round the capital of Anuradhapura, so it came about that the succeeding historical period had as its focus the royal city of Polonnaruwa, situated some fifty odd miles towards the south-east of the older metropolis It was however under Parakrama the Great (1153-86) that this city assumed premier rank, as this ruler devoted all his resources to the production of monumental buildings, with the result that Sinhalese architecture had a second and brilliant flowering under his enthusiastic patronage. But this monarch's reign, in spite of its length, proved but a short, although illustrious episode in the chronicles of the country, recalling in some respects the Moghul Emperor Akbar's magnificent civic scheme at Fatehpur Sikri in India some centuries later, for both these imperial cities after a transitory but dynamic existence were abandoned and fell into decay after experiencing little more than a generation of sumptuous ceremony and regal splendour. At Polonnaruwa spoliation began as early as the thirteenth century, and although an attempt was made to revive some of its ancient glory in the fourteenth century, it availed little, since when it has remained a ruined record of the past, its temples and palaces fighting a steadily losing battle against the merciless inroads of the surrounding vegetation.
c41.71.1
In reviewing the remains of Polonnaruwa one feels that something of the contemporary feudal system in Europe, which expressed itself in impregnable fortresses, may have in some manner communicated itself to king Parakrama the Great as well as to his nephew and successor Nissanka Malla (1187-1196), and so moved the former to construct his capital as a great walled city. But there was an oriental spaciousness, luxury and splendour in the Sinhalese conception rarely found in the strongholds of the West What is further remarkable is that in such a relatively limited time so much should have been accomplished, and all of the most superb quality. Moreover in the broad lay-out of this city the ramparts of which cover a circuit of nearly four miles, there are definite evidences of that traditional form of planning observable throughout the ages in many capitals of the orient. With its trace in the shape of a parallelogram, one of its long sides is built on a "bund" or rampart overlooking the expansive stretch of water known as the Topa Vewa, and against this in the form of a smaller parallelogram also enclosed by a wall and within the city area, was the citadel.
c41.71.2
Apart from the fact that the lake acted as a protection, it also brought cool air and an open view to the palace buildings on its verge, the entire scheme being worked out on a general principle which underlies most imperial city plans Within this enclosure an aggregation of buildings was erected which in number and variety few cities can excel. These comprised palaces, temples, monasteries, audience and council chambers, stupas and bathing places, together with all the miscellaneous structures, large and small, which go to make up an eastern capital of the first class. Polonnaruwa thus in the twelfth century became not only a city of marked architectural grandeur, but it was significant of a movement of great importance in the history of the building art in Ceylon From its remains, now emerging throughout a large area of tangled undergrowth, certain important examples may be here selected which will explain the trends of the art at this period. One of these buildings, although perhaps not specially attractive in its composition, is notable as its conformation is fully expressive of the ideals which motivated Buddhism at this stage of its development. For it represents a change in the structure of the creed which reacted in a marked manner on the religious architecture of the time, as may be seen in such distant places as in the building art of Bihar in India, Burma, Cambodia, and even extending into Java.
First 66 of 78 passages. Read on