Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c46: Chapter XXXIX: Greater India: (4) Java and Bali
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c46
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Chapter XXXIX: Greater India: (4) Java and Bali
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THE island of Java in the Malay Archipelago received the same form of religio-culture as that which developed in India, conveyed to it in the same manner as the other countries of Greater India, by means of progressive movements which infiltrated into it during the course of the first millennium. Specific indication of this contact are first seen in certain Sanskrit inscription of the fourth century discovered in the western portion of the island, but of any structures connected with these, there are no traces. It is in the region east of this, towards the centre of the country that the earliest and principal architectural remains are to be found. Here it may be explained that owing to the longitudinal shape and orientation of the island as a whole, it has been found expedient to resolve the country politically into three regions, referred to as West, Middle, and East, and accordingly in this order the building art of Java will be described.
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The western region possessing no architectural records, a study of the subject begins with the central division, termed Mid-Java, where on a site known as the Djeng Plateau, a group of Vaishnavite temples was erected about the eighth century A.D. These Hindu temples represent the earliest phase of the building art in Java. About a century later, the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism began to make their appeal to the people, and for some considerable time, as shown by their monuments, the two religions flourished side by side. This combined movement led to the consummation of the architectural effort in the island, referred to as the Golden Age, where in Mid-Java, in an area not far removed from the more recent capital of Jokyakarta, the finest examples were created, culminating in the grandest of all Buddhist buildings the stupa of Borobudur (c. 850 A.D.). Then, early in the tenth century, for some reason hitherto unexplained, the erection of buildings of all forms abruptly ceased, authority in the centre was relinquished, and no further constructional activity in this part of the country is recorded. The Golden Age of Javanese architecture was ended.
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An interval then appears to have ensued, a break in the continuity of the style occurred, and when the pendulum came into action again it swung over to the eastern division of the country, where a new regime rose to political power, and a fresh development of the building art resulted. From East-Java, therefore, from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, the island was administered, and in the course of time a considerable number of buildings were erected, which although possessing certain architectural qualities, were not equal to those of the previous era, so that this eastern movement has been designated the Silver Age. (Plate CLXII). In the fifteenth century this period also came to an end owing to the acceptance by the people of Islamism, a condition which has prevailed to the present day. But merged with this new orientation, or more correctly parallel or co-existent with it, arose another movement on the part of the Indonesians, a reversion to a form of folk-art, with the *Wyang* or puppet shadow-play as its basic structure. Finally the occupation of the island by the Dutch in the eighteenth century, brought in European forms and these are becoming the main features in the modern style.
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Such in outline is the course the building art in Java pursued during the main periods of its history, this outline will now be amplified according to the chart set out below.
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ANTIQUITIES AND MONUMENTS OF JAVA, (HINDU AND BUDDHIST)
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| WEST-JAVA | MID-JAVA (Golden Age) | | | EAST-JAVA (Silver Age) | | |
| to 625 A D | A.D. 625 to 928 | | | A.D. 928 to 1478 | | |
| Hindu | Indo-Javanese | | | Indonesian | | |
| | Hindu | Buddhist | Hindu | | Hindu-Buddhist | |
| | 625-750 | 750-860 | 860-950 | 11th & 12th cents | 1250-1292 | 1294-1478 |
| Kingdom of Taruma | Djeng Plateau | Sailendra-Sumatra | “Restoration” | Kadiri | Singasari | Majapahit |
| Inscriptions of 4th and 5th centuries | Temples of Bhima, Arjuna Punta Deva Srikandi Bagelen Pekalongan Parikesit | Temples of Kalasan (778) Mendut Sari (800) Sewu (825) Sewu (859) Pawon Plaosan Stupa of BOROBUDUR (c 850) | Temples of Asu PRAMBANAM (Loro-Jonggrang, c 900) | Lalatunda (tomb & bath) Belahan (bath built by Erlinga 1010-42) | Temples of Singasari (1250) Kidal (1250) Jago (1268) | Simping (1295) Papoh (1300) Jaboeng (1354) PANATARAM (Palah) (1370) Sawentar Surawana Tigawangi Djedong Sukuh (1450) |
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Beginning in Mid-Java with the emergence of the group of stone temples on the Djeng Plateau, these represent the first phase of three developments which form the Golden Era as this flourished from the seventh to the tenth centuries. The initial movement in the architectural history of Java, as this originated on Djeng in the seventh century, is exemplified by some eight relatively small temples, recorded however to be the sole existing remains of a temple-city of considerable proportions of much the same character as similar concentrations of religious buildings exist in India, for instance at Sonagarh near Datia in Central India, and elsewhere. Some of these temples that have survived on the Djeng Plateau have been designated colloquially in more recent times by the names of the heroes of the Ramayana, such as Bhima and Arjuna, but they were all originally dedicated to Vishnu. Comparatively limited in size, averaging in plan not more than fifty feet side, they consist of a single cell contained within an architectural exterior based on a cubical system of design and construction. This is emphasised by marked horizontal and vertical projections, a massive portico with stairway, the whole rising up into a solidly built double storied building of agreeable proportions. What makes these Djeng examples of special significance is that in their character they prefigure the architectural style of the Javanese development as a whole. It is possible to see for instance in the temples of Arjuna and Srikandi of this group a certain structural procedure which marks the beginning of the movement, a feeling for simplicity and mass, a broad and robust treatment comparable with the first efforts of the Gupta builders in India (A.D. 350). Not that there are any signs of a definite relationship with this Indian mode but the same textural temper is observable in both forms of structure. Yet there is one example of the Djeng series, which differs from the generalization outlined above, and may be the earliest of its kind. This is the Bhima, which has a resemblance in some respects to that "key" temple of brick at Bhitagaon near Cawnpore although it must be admitted that the likeness to the Indian type is more in intention than in substance. There is however the tall tower or sikhara in receding chases, tapering as it rises, while the cella is entered by a projecting portico Then the surfaces are freely decorated with reproductions of the chaitya-arch motif, alternating with panels and string-courses, all of which features, both architectural and ornamental, are combined with much the same effect in each instance. Moreover on the quoins are *amalakas*, those ribbed elements so distinctively of Indian origin that the conception of the Bhima as a whole has evoked the opinion that "in all probability Indian architects were at work here"¹ (Plate CLXII). No account of the temples on the Djeng Plateau would be complete without a reference to one of these known as the Punta Deva, built presumably about A.D. 750. This is a lovely little building exquisitely designed and wrought, a gem of its kind, and presenting an architectural scheme in miniature treated in a notably classical manner. From such a beginning, and denoting a keen sense of refinement allied with a certain quality of vigour the style was launched upon its course. (Plate CLXII)
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¹ Coomaraswamy.
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After this initial Brahmanical phase as illustrated by the shrines at Djeng, a period of Buddhism intervened, when a number of large and important buildings were erected on a separate site in Mid-Java some distance to the south-east of the earlier group. It is recorded that these were inspired by the advent in the island of the Sailendras of Sumatra (760-850), a powerful Buddhist dynasty whose influence extended over a very large portion of south-east Asia towards the 8th century A.D. Their domination over a great part of Java stimulated the architectural aspirations of the people to a remarkable degree, so much so that the productions, of the Sailendra-Sumatra period in Mid-Java were of such a high order as to entitle this movement to be designated as already mentioned the Golden Age in Java's architectural history.
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Of these temples dedicated to the Buddha, the most notable are the Kalasan (c 778), the Sari, the Mendut (c 800), and the Pawon, and although none of these is of any great size—the largest, the Sari, (Plate CLXIII) being only eighty feet in its extreme width—they represent a phase in the building art of Java of great significance But contrasting with the relatively moderate dimensions of the above, and included with this group, as it was built about the same time, is the stupa of Borobudur, the largest and most remarkable monument erected to the Buddhist faith, and therefore in every way standing in a class by itself. Taking the lesser buildings of this period first, the earliest is the Kalasan, its date being verified by an inscription, and it is accordingly the first Buddhist temple to have been raised in Java. Dedicated to the goddess Tara it is planned in the shape of a Greek cross, its projecting wings forming side chapels each approached by a stairway through a prominent portico Standing on an elegantly moulded base, it appears to have been of one story only, but above is a substantial cornice, supporting a cluster of ornamental stupa-finials, the whole crowned by a graceful central tower. On the broad middle wall-space of the exterior, sculpture has been freely applied in a scheme of niches, alcoves, and openings, each embellished with a foliated pediment in the form of a *kirti mukha* of intricate design. In spite of being considerably ruined, it is clear that the Kalasan temple presents a complete and finished example of a style of architecture, not self-originated, but the logical result of a long tradition of structural experience in the art of building The question naturally arises from whence was this experience obtained, thus enabling this fully matured structure to emerge towards the end of the eighth century in the heart of Mid-Java? An analysis of the mode illustrated in this building may partly solve the problem In some of its aspects the Kalasan recalls the manipulation of the Khmer productions in Cambodia of the same date, and also in a similar manner with the earlier monuments at Pagan in Central Burma But the general character of much of the work on the Kalasan temple and other examples of this group seems most nearly allied to the art of Bengal at the beginning of the Pala period (8th century A D.). As almost all the productions of this Indian School have perished, mainly owing to the Muhammadan invasion of the thirteenth century, a comparison is difficult, but what has been referred to as the "lost temple type of pre-Islamic Bengal" may provide some data. Fragments of this type of structure recovered from various sites in Bengal and Bihar, bear a peculiar resemblance to some of the plastic art on the buildings in Java, while the same patterns and relief treatment are observable in the architecture of Burma and Cambodia of approximately the same date It appears therefore that during the latter half of the first millennium an art movement encompassing a very large region extending from the lower Gangetic plain to the islands of the China Sea was in operation, carried to distant places mainly through the medium of the Indo-Buddhist faith.
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Such may be an explanation of the form and finished structural appearance of the Kalasan temple in Mid-Java in the year 778.
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But while the Kalasan temple acts as a pointer in the movement, other examples of this group, built rather later, show the trend of the style at a more advanced stage. Of these the temple of Mandut is the most expressive, as it represents this particular phase in the development of the building art in its most refined mood. As with all the buildings of this group it is raised on an expansive and ornate base, approached by a graceful and prominent stairway. The central structure resolves itself into a scheme of rectangular elements, the combination of which, mounting up by diminishing stories each defined by a bold cornice, forms an elegant and well proportioned whole Contrasting with the simple vigour of the upper and lower portions is the broad middle area of the exterior surface which is left free for an arrangement of fiat wall spaces, but all richly carved in patterns of relatively low relief. The interior is a single cell, plain in its treatment but enshrining three statues of great sculptural merit, illustrating the high standard the plastic art had attained in Java at this early period. Decorating the throne of the central figure are certain symbolic motifs, not only exquisitely carved, but displaying features closely associated with the contemporary art of Southern India. It should be noted here, that throughout its course, although pilasters and similar attachments figure in the building art of Java, the style itself is distinctly astylar, as no use of pillars is made in its structure.
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Yet although this group of shrines contains some admirable architecture, these buildings may be regarded as merely the satellites of the stupendous structure of the Borobudur, which rose in their vicinity, and is of virtually the same period. This immense stupa, undoubtedly the largest monument dedicated to Buddhism, and one of the most remarkable architectural productions achieved by the hand of man, not only on account of its vast dimensions, but also by reason of its endless galleries of bas-reliefs and statuary, must have taken many years to complete. No definite date of its construction is recorded, but it probably occupied the large army of skilled workmen engaged in its creation part of the eight and probably the whole of the first half of the ninth century, a total of at least seventy-five years. It is the only stupa of note on the island, but the entire Buddhist community at the time appears to have concentrated its efforts on this one grand symbol of their faith. As with most Buddhist monuments the site of the Borobudur was selected with great care, and is a singularly appropriate one, as it crowns a high commanding position which adds not a little to its impressive appearance. The elevated plateau on which it stands overlooks the undulating wooded country-side, interrupted by areas of vivid green rice fields, while the distance is encircled by ranges of mountains, some of them still active volcanoes, from which pillars of smoke erupt to disperse themselves into the upper atmosphere. Wrapped in that supreme spirit of peace emblematic of the creed with which it is identified, yet the Borobudur has gazed for over a thousand years on a landscape where the forces of nature are ever restless and frequently display their most turbulent mood. And over all is bathed a golden light, characteristic of this tropical island, an iridescent refulgence probably occasioned by the volcanic vapour with which the whole air is surcharged.¹
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¹ In the year 1910 the author had the fortunate experience of seeing this vast structure under the most unique circumstances. It was the last appearance of Hallys comet then at its zenith, and the spectacle of this monumental pile with its "Many Buddhas" gradually emerging from the darkness lit by its great luminous beam mysteriously rising from behind the heavy smoke emitted at regular intervals from a distant volcano, is unforgettable.
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It is however a strange irony that from the harvest, so to speak, of these volcanic ranges the materials for the construction of this stupa were obtained, as the blocks of which it is built are what is known as trachyte or volcanic rock, in a word solidified lava. This is a roughly textured substance (hence its name), and the surfaces of the blocks, sometimes even worked from the boulders erupted from the craters, were ground down by hand to level beds and joined together without any cement, following the dry masonry technique of the builders of India. Afterwards the sponge-grained surfaces were made smooth by the application of thick lime-wash, or a form of plaster, remains of which treatment are still discernible on the sculptures, where it was specially necessary to produce a finished appearance to the carved figures or ornaments. It is also understood that a considerable amount of colour was applied to the sculptured forms, in which case a general view of the entire monument may have been very different from the monotone appearance it now presents. The above system of construction applies not only to this stupa, but it was also the method by which most of the buildings in Mid-Java were produced.
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The stupa of Borobudur, or "Many Buddhas," so called on account of the innumerable images distributed over its various surfaces, stands on the summit of a low hill-top, the upper portion of which was levelled for its reception. Square in plan, but its right lines interrupted by projecting faces, it measures some five hundred feet side, and mounts up by a series of terraces to a total height of one hundred and sixteen feet. It assumes therefore the appearance of a huge mound of masonry with its paraboloid skyline fretted by a range of turrets, replicas in miniature of the stupa-shape, thus giving it a serrated contour. As a whole, and seen from a distance, the Borobudur presents no inspiring architectural composition as it lies tortoise-wise basking on the wide rocky bed prepared for it, yet one cannot fail to be moved by its immense size and massive bulk, and also on closer approach by its overwhelming spiritual significance emphasized by the long galleries of sculptured friezes carried around the corridors of its elevated terraces. These terraces, three in number, make up the square formation of the building, and each is approached by a steep flight of steps through an elaborately carved arched doorway. It is by means of these doorways that access is obtained to the galleries of sculpture, probably the most remarkable feature of the monument. Up to this height the stupa has followed the shape of a low pyramid in its general configuration but above the third terrace this pyramid becomes truncated to produce a wide flat surface, and from this stage what may be referred to as a change of key in its structural scheme takes place. Here the square system ceases, and a circular formation is introduced. For over the square platform three circular terraces arise, one above the other, diminishing in size, on each of which is disposed a regular series of smaller stupas amounting to seventy-two in all, and it is from these that the crenellated outline of the composition is derived. Then to crown the summit of the entire conception is a larger stupa raised in the centre forming the finial or pinnacle of the whole. (Plate CLXI).
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In somewhat the same manner as all colossal monuments make their appeal, as for instance the pyramids of the Pharoahs, the stupa of Borobudur stirs the emotions not so much on account of its architectural character, but more through its phenomenal proportions, for what to the spectator seems to form part of the natural landscape, dwarfing its immediate surroundings, he realizes is a structure laboriously built up stone upon stone by means of the puny hands of his own kind. And it is also within the nature of things that such a unique creation should evoke feelings of a mystic quality with which in the course of time it has become associated. For example an attempt has been made to interpret its plan as a structural form of a "mandala," a subject pictured not unfrequently in the imaginative designs painted on Tibetan "tangkas" or temple banners. The mandala is a visionary conception reproduced in one dimension, of an assembly of celestial "mansions in the skies," as viewed by the Buddhist artist priests working in the Lamaseries on the heights of the Himalayas, and in some of the concentric passages and geometrical shapes of the Borobudur there is a certain resemblance to these magic buildings The fact that this great pile takes the form of a tumulus, but in plan is square has moved one writer to state that the architect's conception was "to erect a stupa on at pyramid."¹ Another has described it as "in its mass a cupola half rising from the earth, and holding within its bosom a stepped pyramid, loaded with images."² While a third remarks that its designer "instead of putting the stupa above the pyramid, really put the pyramid inside the stupa,"³ adding that it is a "symbolic microcosm, of which the superimposed stories symbolize the different stages of the ecstasies of dhyana" The actual facts no doubt were that under a powerful Buddhist hegemony and an inspired hierarchy it was resolved to raise a monument which while conforming in its general scheme to the traditional stupa ideal, should in the first place exceed all previous productions of a like nature in its dimensions, and secondly excel them in the prodigality of its sculptured themes. That both these objects were attained in the Borobudur is clearly demonstrated, on the one hand its immense size cannot fail to fill the spectator with awe, while on the other, the vast amount of statuary and the continuous friezes of plastic forms all of the highest quality are excelled in no other building. These friezes consist of a double series of panels numbering some thirteen hundred in all, and which if placed end to end it is estimated would extend in length for over three miles In these reliefs the projection is bold, what may be described as almost in the half round, and the vigour, perceptivity, and emotion expressed in the compositions entitle this Javanese school of plastic art to take a prominent place in the field of sculpture as a whole.
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¹ M. Stutterheim,
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² G Coedes,
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³ M. Mus (Indian Art and Letters, Vol VIII, London 1934)
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Regarded in all its aspects therefore the Borobudur represents not only the high water mark of Javanese creative genius, but stands forth as one of the world's greatest constructional and artistic masterpieces. Here it may be noted that this immense stupa corresponds in its vast bulk and sculptured magnificence to that other stupendous building undertaking rising somewhat later also in Greater India, the temple of Angkor Vat in Cambodia. Both these grand architectural productions were an expression in material form of Hindu-Buddhist ideals emanating from an Indian source It is also significant that both were the conception and creation of people living outside the accepted geographical limits of the country in which these ideals originated. No Hindu or Buddhist monument in India can compare with either of these achievements, not in size, architectural character, plastic embellishment, or in the vision that incited them. It yet remains to be explained how these supreme accomplishments came to be planned and brought to such perfect consummation in both countries so far removed from the origin of their inspiration.
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Despite however the *tour de force* as exemplified in the Borobudur, a monument intended no doubt to act as a stimulant to the declining faith of pure Buddhism, almost before it was completed there appears to have been a reversion to the creed of Hinduism in the form that this had previously found favour in the island. Referred to as the "Restoration," as the country seems to have been restored to its original belief, this movement, which began about A.D. 860 and continued until the middle of the succeeding century, produced several important temples dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. But as a proof that the two cults flourished contemporaneously in this area, a Buddhist temple, the Plaosan, was also erected about the same time. Yet an outstanding work of architecture, representing this Restoration phase, is a complex of shrines known as the Prambanam, or the Loro-Jonggrang⁴ group, which, in view of its size and importance, was probably conceived and constructed as a Hindu rival to the Buddhistic Borobudur This great Brahmanical temple-scheme in Mid-Java was completed about A D. 900, and was clearly designed with the object of reviving the practice of Hinduism throughout the country And just as the Borobudur made its appeal mainly on account of its colossal size, so the Hindu hierarchy realizing that in this respect it could not be surpassed, proceeded in an attempt to rival it by a numerical effort. For the Prambanam consists of an expansive composition aggregating over one hundred and fifty individual shrines arranged in rows on a commodious terrace, and, so that its influence should be as wide as possible, the main buildings were consecrated respectively to the deities Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma, thus providing an all-embracing dispensation Further, in order to be abreast with the sculptured reliefs proving so effective at Borobudur, a long frieze was carved on the walls illustrating the mythology of these age-old Indian divinities In its architectural appearance the Prambanam temple could not have been very imposing, the main effort being concentrated on the range of temples on the upper platform, that dedicated to Shiva being most important and representative of the style at this juncture The structure is square in plan with re-entrant angles, having flights of steps in the middle of each side, thus producing a cruciform shape on the ground Only one of the stairways leads to the central square cella, the remainder ending in small independent chapels. The elevation, unfortunately much ruined, shows a symmetrical tower-like edifice, ascending in diminishing tiers, its projecting faces merging by stages to form a broad sikhara In the design of this temple there is evidence of a refinement and elegance expressive of an advance on the more robust examples of the previous phase The figure subjects with which it is embellished are a confirmation of this progressiveness, and these are usually regarded as the consummation of the plastic art in the hands of the Javanese sculptors. While there is admirable breadth and restraint in the bolder forms of the Borobudur reliefs, the Prambanam carvers have improved on these by means of a more delicate and suave method of modelling, in the subtle grading of one passage into another, and in the play of surface as a whole. Architecturally this temple illustrates a movement towards a riper and more polished type of structure, a natural stage in the course of evolution in the building art.
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⁴ This is a comparatively modern name and relates to a local legend having no real connection with the temple
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It is significant that some of the sculptures at Prambanam are left unfinished, and it is not improbable that the period of Brahmanical supremacy, with the architectural movement that this temple exemplifies, ended at this date. It represents therefore the passing of the "Golden Age," the conclusion of an era, an event which took place in the first half of the tenth century. For not only was this Hindu Buddhist site, with all its varied types of religious structure abandoned, but the region of Mid-Java, as the main administrative centre of the island, for the time being in its history ceased to function. When next the ruling power comes into view, a transfer has taken place, for the seat of the government has been moved to a position in East-Java, and from here the third and last period of the building art was developed. This period began about A D 950, and continued until the latter half of the fifteenth century, when it was gradually submerged by the approach of Islamism, finally coming to a prolonged and attenuated end. During this eastern phase, extending over nearly five centuries, the art still maintained evidences of being a living force, yet compared with the grand monuments of the Golden Age, it falls short of the same high standard, and has rightly been designated the "Silver Age." Apart from the fact that no buildings of outstanding importance were produced in East-Java, there is a noticeable decline in the quality of the designs, although on occasion some of the old spirit was revived, as for instance in the Kidal temple (1250), and even as late as the Jaboeng temple (1354), it is obvious that in spite of these transient efforts the style was drawing towards its close.
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During this last period, a marked change gradually came over the arts, they took on a certain character, not of an extraneous nature, on the contrary they absorbed some of the indigenous qualities of the people, in other words they ceased to draw inspiration from any Indian source, so that there finally evolved a style having national attributions which has been defined as Indonesian. And as it progressed its indigenous character became more pronounced. Throughout its course the movement in the Eastern region resolved itself into three historical periods, according to the dominant rule at the time. These are (1) the Kadiri, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, (2) the Singasari, from 1250 to 1292, and (3) the Majapahit, 1294 to 1478. Although during the first of the phases, a ruler of some note, Erlanger (1010-1042), occupied an important place in the historical archives of the country, few remains of consequence have survived. But from these it is surmised that the decisive change of location referred to above affected very considerably the outlook of the people Two facts emerge, one of these being that the rulers were arrogating to themselves divine power, which found expression in canonization after death, as the sculptured statuary shows, and the other is that a form of royal tomb associated with a sacred bath was taking the place of the temple which had been almost the only structure erected hitherto. An example of this may be seen at Djalatunda, dated 977, while there are several others of a like nature to be found in East-Java. It should be remarked that although the building art was not prominent during this phase, which may be referred to as a stage of transition, some fine sculpture was produced under this and the succeeding regime, although perhaps of a somewhat florid order. Briefly the plastic art maintained its original supremacy while the structural art declined.
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With the advent of the Singasari rule and the second phase in East-Java which began towards the end of the thirteenth century, temple building appears to have been revived, as the leading example, dedicated to Shiva amply proves. This Singasari temple consists of a central shrine surmounted by a tall tower and having a supplementary shrine to a smaller scale projecting from each of its four sides. Another temple is the Kidal, erected in 1250, and from the style of these, together with a third example, the Jago (1268), some of the trends of the art may be surmised. The general tendency of these structures shows a definite departure from type, so that in no manner do they resemble the parent art in India. Neither is there any likeness to the stupa or the Buddhist temple of Jago, nor to the Indo-Aryan style in the Hindu temples of Singasari or Kidal. All of them are more or less of a self-originated order, having only a remote connection with the style of the previous period in Mid-Java. It is true there is the pronounced and expanded base on which rises the cubical body of the cella, and above this a massive and heavily projected cornice supporting a tall pyramidal tower. But a striking and invariable feature is a boldly executed makara-head above each opening, while large circular medallions, a favourite decorative device with the Indonesians, were frequently distributed over the wall surfaces.
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Following the ascendancy of the Majapahit dynasty (1294-1478), the third and final phase of the East-Java development comes into view ; it also signifies the close of the Hindu-Javanese architectural productions on the island. More prolific builders than their immediate predecessors, and dominating most of the country, the important capital city of Majapahit was one of the undertakings of this regime, near what is now Majakista. Completely ruined, mainly from volcanic eruptions, what remains indicates that the style of the previous phase was continued, but carried even further away from its original derivative. Still maintaining much of its solid square and cubical character, with finely moulded members both on its spreading platform and overhanging cornice, the general outlines of the structure tend to become more pronounced, as may be seen in the temples of Panataram (1370), and of Sawentar (c 1400). Although there is an appearance of strained elegance in the shape of these buildings of this last effort, the high standard of the masonry is remarkable, and in the manipulation of the stonework combined with the precision of the finely chiselled mouldings the craftsmen of this period were unequalled. That a sense of originality still survived is shown in the Buddhist shrine of Jaboeng (1354) near Kraksaan, executed when the Majapahit rule was at the height of its power. Less formal in its composition than most of the Javanese buildings, as, although the typical terraced basement is retained, somewhat higher than usual in this instance, the superstructure, instead of being cubical in its treatment takes the form of a circular tower as its basis with its entrance and side alcoves imposed on its curved surfaces in a strikingly able manner. Above is the richly moulded expanded cornice, with probably a tapering pyramidal sikhara, all however, in such a ruined condition that this part is unrecognizable. But the "phase of transition" from the square basement to the circular plan of the body of the shrine, and the attachment of the openings, both difficult problems, have been most artistically solved, and the whole structure shows that even at this late stage the art was still a living movement. An example of the final development may be studied in the small shrine of Papoh, a diminutive monument of a somewhat "precious" order, in a manner recalling the small scale productions signifying the last stage of the classical period in the Indo-Buddhist architecture of a slightly earlier date in the distant country of Kashmir.
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One of the symptoms of the indigenous trend in the building art of Java is noticeable in the plastic designs which decorate these later structures, where a grotesque treatment of the human figure gradually began to insinuate itself. This represents the influence of the *Wyang* or "Shadow Show" movement, a phase of Hinduism-cum-entertainment of a theatrical nature The Wyang phenomenon appears to have captured the imagination of the Javanese in a most remarkable manner, so much so that not only their art became intensely stylised but their figure compositions in a sense are replicas of the people themselves, who seem to have cultivated deliberately a stiff and emphatic form of pose and progression, as if the Wyang figures had come to life. At this stage therefore the sculptures on the buildings show that the art as a whole was losing its pronounced classical ideal, which gave such a distinguished and dignified quality to the productions of the Mid-Java development, and on the other hand was assuming a character, which although it may have a certain attraction, tends towards a formalized method of expression, and particularly a somewhat distorted, if not fantastic interpretation of the human form.
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Throughout the whole course of the building art in Java it is noticeable that the same method of technique in the process of carving the reliefs seems to have been maintained. The stone to be decorated was first "boasted" into a plain projected surface, and on this the figure subject was inscribed, afterwards being blocked out in the form of a "silhouette." Where unfinished it has been found there is every indication that the composition was first traced out on the prepared surface by means of a drawing, then the background was chiselled away by an apprentice, who merely followed the outlines of the tracing Then came the hand of the master craftsman to put the modelling into the "silhouette," and carve it into the subtle planes of the relief and so form the finished picture
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What has enabled many of the historical buildings in Java to be studied most advantageously is that within recent years their restoration has been perfected in a singularly scholarly and scientific manner by experienced officials employed for this particular work by the Netherlands Government. This operation may not have been so difficult as in other countries owing to the circumstances by which their ruin was brought about, but this is no reflection on the skilled and conscientious methods by which these reconstructions have been made. For while no doubt considerable dislodgment of the stones may have been due to the insidious growth of vegetation within the joints of masonry, in all probability the main demolition has been caused by earthquakes, to which the island is frequently and often violently subjected. Such disturbances, while sometimes throwing down large portions of the building and damaging in the process some of the materials of which it is composed, do not usually entirely destroy these stones, as has often been the case in other countries, as for instance when iconoclastic man is bent on utilizing these for his own base purposes In Java the masonry though displaced, lies about where it has been thrown in a more or less uninjured condition and in the vicinity of the structure it previously adorned, so that with care and judgment it can be returned to fulfil the specific purpose for which it was originally prepared In this operation the Netherlands officials have definitely shown the way in which such responsible work may be undertaken, with the result that a considerable number of the historical buildings on the island present now much the same appearance as when first erected over a thousand years ago. Specially does this apply to the vast structure of the Borobudur, which from a tumbled mass of scattered blocks strewn over the entire site, as was its condition at the beginning of this century, the whole monument is now in the most perfect order, having been rescued from impending disintegration, thus enabling its remarkable character to be studied under ideal circumstances ¹
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¹ In 1910, the author for over a month, was a witness of the scientific and scholarly manner in which Col Van Erp, who was entrusted with the work, carried out his exacting duties extending over a period of several years.
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Resuming the account of the course of the Hindu-Javanese mode in the island, the end of this movement approached with the close of the Majapahit power in the fifteenth century, which coincided with the introduction of Islamism, and with it the great classical school of Javanese art terminated. From this time the people took on a new orientation, and although buildings of an Islamic order, such as mosques, are to be found in several of the towns, showing occasionally some slight evidence of a revival of the ancient and mediaeval forms, the minarets and mihrabs with which these are provided proclaim the dominance of other ideals. Such are a mosque at Kudus, and another at Sendang-duwar. Later, towards the end of the sixteenth century, the Dutch occupation brought with it the influence of the European style of building. As an example of the transition from the indigenous to the alien and more modern is a palace or water-castle, the Taman Sari at Jokjakarta, described as an oriental Trianon, and erected in the middle for the eighteenth century for the Sultan Mangku Buwono Designed by a Portuguese, it is a synthesis of eastern and western elements, but is now a picturesque ruin so that its parts are almost unidentifiable A further Portuguese connection with the country is shown by a church at Batavia, containing a handsome pulpit typical of the style. Buildings of a Dutch character however predominate, of which the Government Record Office in Batavia is a copy of the old type found in the Low Countries ; others such as the Amsterdam Gate and the Palace of the Governor-General, also in Batavia, are of the more recent order.
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In the small island of Bali, detached by a narrow passage of sea from the mainland of Java, it is recorded that when the latter was submerged by Islamism what remained of the Hindu belief found a retreat in this little dependency. Although Bali retains the old culture of the Javanese as seen in the character of its minor handicrafts, its structural productions are but a pale reflection of the works of the great classical period as this flourished in the larger island. The Balinese appear to have been by nature too care-free Djeng Plateau, Mid-Java.
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Bhima Temple (c 700)
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Punta Deva Temple (c 750)
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Prambanam (c. 900), Mid-Java
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Panataram (c 1370), East-Java
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[Figure: CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF SARI VIHARA AT PRAMBANAM MID-JAVA C. 800 A.D. DETAIL OF AN ANTEFIX (FOLIATED ARCH OVER OPENINGS) MOULDINGS OF PLINTH PILASTER GROUND PLAN SCALE OF FEET 10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
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[Figure: JAVA STUPA OF BOROBUDUR c.800 A.D. SMALL ATTACHED STUPA PILASTER GATEWAY ELEVATION SECTION PLAN SCALE OF 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 FEET to rise to any great heights in the creation of examples of serious architecture, their buildings, chiefly local shrines, although valuable ethnologically, have no special significance except as objects of worship and in their decorative aspect. A few instances of rock-architecture are to be found in Bali including an ancient monastery known as the Goenoeng Kawi near Tampak-sering, and another in the vicinity of the pilgrim shrines of Poera Wato Kaoe in the Tabanan section. At the former a series of cells have been excavated in the rock containing rudely shaped altars hewn out of rock slabs, and there are also niches in the walls believed to have a royal funerary origin, the whole presumed to date as late as the eleventh century. Also in the Tabanan area at Bedhulu there is an "Elephant Cave", the Goa Gadjah, consisting of a rock carved in the semblance of a giant elephant's head with an opening under its trunk leading to a dark cell, in some respects recalling the "Tiger Cave" (c. 150 B.C.) at Udaigiri, Orissa, India. Mention should be made of a hunting scene of some spirit carved in rock relief, and known as Tojo Poela also near Bedhulu. Such attempts in the rock technique are however relatively unimportant except that they may support the theory of an early and direct contact with India.
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centuries. The more modern type of Balinese temple, although usually of a simple and primitive order displays in its arrangements certain features of interest. Dedicated to Hindu divinities, there are often images of these, such as Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma, carved in a black stone and enshrined within the interior courts. It is the disposition of these courts, with a large and highly decorated entrance gateway, which, although in a very rudimentary form, are reminiscent of the Hindu temple system in Southern India. Rectangular in plan the three courts are concentrically arranged, in the outer of which the *gamelan*, temple bells and musical instruments, are kept, while feasts are also held in this portion. In the second court, or *vale-agoeng*, the council meetings take place, while in the innermost court, or *djeron dewa*, the holy of holies, are the shrines and altars, generally carved in limestone, elaborately moulded and decorated in fantastic patterns in high relief similar to the later and Eastern Javenese School of sculpture Architec-turally the temple building is distinguished by pagoda-like structures, called *meioes* (probably referring to Mount Meru, the Olympus of the Hindus) which rise up into tiers of diminishing thatched roofs, seven or nine in number, sometimes even as many as thirteen, similar to those in the Buddhist umbrella finial. The main entrance to the enclosures is of brick with columns in pairs, or imposing stone gates, the whole elaborated with a confusion of ornamental attach-ments. Such are the temples of Poonkulang near Sangsit, the Taman Sari, Bengali, Sockawati, Den Pasur, Gelgel, and many others.
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Of the buildings composed of masonry these are comparatively rare and show a connection with the mediaeval School of Majapahit, which, in view of the proximity of Bali to East Java is not surprising, as proved by the temple of Pura ye Ganga dating from the fourteenth or fifteenth
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Java Krom N J. and Erp, T. Van, *Barabudur, Archaeological Description* (The Hague, 1927). Erp. T. Van, *Hindu Monumental Art in Central Java*. (Twentieth Century Impressions of Netherlands India 1909). Coomeraswamy, A K., *History of Indian and Indonesian Art*, Leipzig (1927). With, Karl. *Buddhistische und Brahmanische Architektur und Plastik Auf Java*, Hagen 1922
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Balı . Krom N J , *L'Art ancien de Bali* (Revue des Arts Asiatiques, 1924) Stutterheim, W, *Archaeological Research in Java and Bali* (Indian Art and Letters, London 1927). Stutterheim, W., *Indian Influences on Old Balinese Art*, India Sec. London 1935.