Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India c7: Chapter VI: Painted Wooden Book-Covers
Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India c7
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Chapter VI: Painted Wooden Book-Covers
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IN ancient India, wooden panels were used for painting, though, unfortunately, no such example has survived the ravages of time. In the middle ages, however, painted wooden covers were used for palm-leaf manuscripts, several of which have survived and are stowed away carefully in the Jain Jñāna Bhaṇḍārs of Gujarāt and Rājputānā. The oldest of such painted wooden book-cover was discovered by Śrī Muni Jinavijayajī in the famous Jñāna Bhaṇḍār at Jaisalmer. The cover measures 26 or 27 inches in length and 3 inches in breadth.¹ The painting is done in unwashable colours, though, unfortunately, some details are worn out from one corner of this wooden book-cover. In the centre of the cover is represented the inside of a Jain temple with a Jain image in the central square and an attendant on each side. In the compartment on the right are two worshippers standing with folded hands, two drummers furiously playing, and two female dancers contorting their bodies in various attitudes; at the top is a *kinnarī* flying in the sky. In the left compartment may be seen three worshippers standing with folded hands, and a *kinnara* flying in the sky at the top (Figs. 190—192). On the left and right of this central scene, separated by compartments containing rosettes framed on both sides by decorative floral bands, are represented the scenes of the Discussion Hall (*Vyākhyāna Sabhā*) of Śrī Jinadatta Sūri. On the left side may be seen Āchārya Jinadatta, clad in white, seated on a high-backed seat. His identity is revealed by a Sanskrit inscription in front of his face. Before him is seated a Jain monk whom a Sanskrit inscription at his head calls Paṇḍita Jinarakshita; two laymen are seated on the cushions laid on the floor hearing to the discourse of the Āchārya. Behind Jinadatta are seen a layman and two women, perhaps his wives, seated on the floor holding some round objects, may be fruits, in their hands. In front cf the Muni is kept a *sthāpanāchārya* inscribed with the word Mahāvīra. In the Discussion Hall seen on the right the Āchārya is seen in the same pose discussing with Śrī Guṇachandrāchārya. Behind him are seated a Jain monk and a layman. At the back of Āchārya Jinadatta are seated two laymen. The *sthāpanāchārya*, placed in between the munis, is inscribed with the name of Mahāvīra. The borders of the panel are decorated with the leaf design known as *mārwārī*.
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¹ *Bharatiya Vidyā* (Samsodhanātmaka Hindi Gujarātī Vividhanibandha Samgraha), Vol. III, V. S. 2000-2001, pp. 233—235, Pls. a, ā.
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From the contents of the painted wooden book-cover, Muni Jinavijayajī has come to the conclusion that the cover perhaps belonged to some personal palm-leaf manuscript of Āchārya Jinadatta, presented to him by some rich disciple. It is possible that men and women represented on the cover were the members of the family of the layman who presented the manuscript. However, to what particular book this cover belonged, there are no means to determine.
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Śrī Jinadatta Sūri, who is represented on the panel, is a well known teacher of the Jain Śvetāmbara community. He was born in Vikarama Samvat 1132 (1075 A.D.), was initiated as a Śvetāmbara monk in Samvat 1141 (1084 A.D.), and rose to become an Āchārya at Chitrakūṭa (modern Chittor) in V. S. 1169 (1112 A.D.). He died at Ajmer in V.S. 1211 (1154 A.D.), in the reign of Chāhmāna Viśaladeva. During his lifetime, he made constant tours of Gujarāt, Mārwār, Mewār, Bāgāda and Sindh. At Vikrampur, in Mārwār, he consecrated an image of Mahāvīra in the temple built by the banker Devabhadra. Śrī Jinavijayajī is of the opinion² that the scene of the Jina temple represented in the panel mentioned above, probably represents the consecration ceremony of the above temple, because, in the temple depicted in the panel, the image is that of Mahāvīra, and on the sthāpanāchārya, in front of the Sūri, is also inscribed the name of Mahāvīra. It is possible that Devabhadra, at this occasion, presented the Sūri with some manuscript, of which this panel formed as a cover, and, to commemorate the occasion, it was painted with the scene of the consecration in which the Sūri played an important part.
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² *Bharatiya Vidyā* p. 34. Continuation of the Note from page 59. developed technique of the drawing which is of the 15th century and the excellent state of preservation of the cover, which would certainly have been greatly rubbed had it been nearly eight hundred years old. I shall have the occasion to discuss the differences in execution of the covers depicting Jinadatta and Kumuda-chandra and Devasūri as they are more or less contemporary. But such differences may only be due to the vagaries of the transitional period. As for its good state of preservation it may be purely accidental. It is remarkable that jackets worn by men in this cover do not appear in paintings after the 13th century and if fashions in costume be the indication of age then the 12th century date proposed for this cover is not wrong.
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Śrī Jinadatta Sūri, as various dates in his life indicate, was a contemporary of Siddharāja Jayasimha and Kumārapāla, and, as the panel was painted when he had risen to be an Āchārya, its date should fall between 1112 A.D., the year in which he became an Āchārya, and 1154 A.D., the year in which he died.
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Technically this painted wooden cover is of great interest, as it is the earliest of its kind and its painting forms a connecting link, as it were, between the later paintings at Ellura and the full fledged Western Indian school. The painting is done on plain background and there is little attempt made to distinguish the planes, though in the dancing group in the cover (Fig. 190), the figures are considerably shorter than those of the worshippers. This may be due either to the convention showing the distance between the sanctum and the dancers, or may be simply due to the crowding of in four dancers and musicians within a very restricted space. We have shown elsewhere that, in the early Jain palm-leaf miniatures, the poses of the figures are restricted, but, from this panel, it is evident that the artists were quite capable of depicting intricate dance poses. Such outstanding features of Western Indian painting, as angularity of drawing and the protrusion of the farther eye into space, are present, though it must be admitted that these features in no way detract from the æsthetic merit of the painting. The drawing On the obverse of the wooden cover, beginning from the left, there is the temple of Śrī Neminātha at Asāpalli, followed by a bell-tower (ghaṭikāgṛha). Then comes the preaching hall of Devasūri (Fig. 193). The Āchārya is seated on a high-backed stool, behind which stands a boy disciple fanning with a piece of cloth. In front of Devasūri lies the sthāpanāchārya. He is apparently explaining some intricate point to his disciple Paṇḍit Māṇikya. There are four laymen seated on the floor, hearing to the discourse. These laymen, as the Sanskrit inscription at the top says, are Rāhaḍa and other Digambaras who had apparently assembled to acquaint themselves with the trend of the discussion and report it to their guru Kumuda-chandra. They all wear short jackets and shorts, their hair is tied behind in buns; they wear beards and their foreheads are decorated with the U-shaped tilakas. In the next compartment Kumuda-chandra is seated on a high-backed stool with a boy disciple holding the peacock-tail whisk (mayūrapichchhi) standing behind. The Āchārya, apparently in a very excited mood, is conversing with a naked disciple seated in front of him. There are two men seated on the floor, apparently explaining to the Āchārya the message of Devasūri (Fig. 194). In the next compartment is shown Devasūri with a disciple standing at his back and another seated in front. Two laymen are seated on the floor and the third, as the inscription at the top says, is a messenger from Kumuda-chandra challenging Devasūri for discussion. In the next compartment is shown Kumuda-chandra with a layman seated on the floor (Fig. 195). On the right is shown an old nun dancing, who is being roughly handled by a follower of Kumuda-chandra for her act of sacrilege. In the next compartment, the old weeping nun is shown complaining to Devasūri about the treatment meted out to her by a follower of his adversary, Kumuda-chandra. In the next compartment, Kumuda-chandra is hearing to the message brought by his messenger from Devasūri. In the last compartment is a market scene. At the top a woman is selling ghee to a merchant who is measuring and pouring it in a pot. In the lower part is shown a florist carrying out his trade. Before him lies a huge basket of flowers.
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Fig. 97
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Fig. 98
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On the left side on the reverse (Figs. 196-197), is the representation of that part of the story when the disputant Āchāryas had decided to hold a discussion in the court of Siddharāja and accept his final verdict. In keeping with the spirit of the decision, both the Āchāryas started with their followers from Āśāpallī to Pāṭan. On the left is depicted the march of Devasūri, for whose successful ending the Śvetāmbara laymen had arranged good omens. On the extreme end is shown Devasūri, accompanied by two disciples, coming out of the hospice. He is preceded by three laymen. The Āchārya sees a chariot procession of a Jina image coming from the right. The chariot is dragged by laymen, and behind it follow the processionists carrying umbrellas and unfurling flags. In front of the chariot are the pipers and drummers and a dancing girl performing a lovely dance pose (Fig. 196). The action of the drummers, who are also dancing, is very artistically represented. Hilarious joy and action pervade the entire scene. The descriptive label in Sanskrit reads, ‘Śrī Devasūrayaḥ paṭṭānapratipra-chalitārathaśakunamabhinandayati’, ‘Śrī Devasūri starting from the town hails the good omen of the chariot procession.’
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⁷ Bharatiya Vidya., Pl. i.
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Fig. 99
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The right half of the panel on the reverse depicts the march of Kumuda-chandra and party (Figs. 197–198), and the painter has quite successfully depicted the gloom covering the entire scene. There are a few warriors and musicians accompanying, but they seem to be without any enthusiasm, treading their way cautiously. Beginning from the extreme left is a palanquin carrying Kumuda-chandra, accompanied by a number of parasol-bearers and preceded by two warriors equipped with swords and shields, and a trumpeter. In the way is shown the Sābarmatī river, on whose opposite bank may be seen a banyan tree with a platform encompassing its root; a cobra is shown passing nearby. This ill-omen greatly perturbed Kumuda-chandra, and its immediate results are shown on the extreme right. Here Kumuda-chandra, after reaching Pāṭan, is making an attempt to meet the Queen Mother but is stopped from doing so by the gatekeeper, who, in the first panel, is shown pushing him aside uncere-moniously. In the second panel is shown the palace with the Queen Mother conversing with a companion. This desire of Kumuda-chandra to see the Queen Mother may be attributed to the fact that Mayaṇallādevī, the mother of Siddharāja, was a princess from the south and her father’s side had partiality for the Digambaras. Kumuda-chandra also hailed from the south, and, therefore, the Queen Mother had great regard for him as a compatriot. It seems that Kumuda-chandra went to visit the Queen Mother privately to concoct some scheme with her, in order to ensure his victory in his coming discussion with Devasūri.⁸
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⁸ Bharatiya Vidya p. 240.
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The wooden panel described above is of a very great interest, for we find in this panel, for the first time, all the distinguishing features of Western Indian school. It is an art of draughtsmanship, and the straight line and angles are preferred. The pointed nose and chin are very prominent, and the distended chest, which is very much exagge-rated in later paintings of Western Indian school, appears. The drawing of the hands is, however, expressive. It is also interesting to note that the protuberance of the farther eyes has not yet reached that conventionalised stage when they do not form part of the face, but seem quite detached. Here, in the three-quarter profile, part of farther cheeks, having eyes with a slight tendency to protrude into space, is noticeable. It is, however, in the delineation of the dancing figures that the painter has achieved great success. The female dancer, with her well proportioned limbs, curved breasts, and narrow hips, reminds the influence of the contemporary sculpture on painting. The rhythmical swaying of the body in dance has been well rendered in the pulsating curves of the dancing figure. Caught in the whirlpool of rhythm, the drummers are also dancing, and the graceful movements of their hands, expressive of rhythm, are well rendered. Considering from every point, this example of Western Indian painting, in its formative period, possesses a vigour of the primitive, and its æsthetic interest lies in the graceful adaptation of the line to the subject it depicts. In this painting, the art of draughtsmanship rises to much higher level than in the later mediocre Jain paintings. Here, the lines have a definite purpose to serve and they never swerve from the correct definition.
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After discussing the two contemporary painted wooden covers in detail, it will be interesting to point out certain differences such as the preferences for curves in one and angles in the other. The painted cover depicting Jinadatta has a preference for curves, while the painted cover depicting scenes from the historical discussion between Devasūri and Kumuda-chandra prefers angles and straight lines. In the former, there are greater vestiges of the art of Ajaṇṭā and Ellura, while in the latter, we see Western Indian in its full-fledged state. All these differences are self-explanatory if we bear in mind that the period, to which these two paintings belong, is that of the transition, when the painters had not yet absolutely discarded the ancient tradition, though the new Western Indian art had undergone great changes and had formulated its own set of conventions, which the later painters followed unquestioningly.
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An important painted wooden cover in the collection of Mr. Sarabhai Nawab probably belongs to the middle of the 12th century. It measures about 30" in length and 2¾" in width. The subject-matter of the painting is a battle between two brothers, Bharata Chakravartī and his younger brother Bāhubali (Fig. 199—203). The story goes that once there was a war between Bharata and Bāhubali which lasted for twelve years. Such was the slaughter of the soldiers on both sides that Śakra advised both brothers to force a decision by a personal duel. Four forms of duel, namely, duel by stern glances (dṛṣṭiyuddha), duel by discussion (vāgyuddha), duel by boxing, and duel with stick (daṇḍayuddha), were suggested. In all these four forms of duel, the valiant Bāhubali was victorious. At this defeat Bharata lost the presence of his mind, and in great anger attacked Bāhubali with a discus, with, however, no result. Bāhubali, at this wanton attack, thought that fraternal love was of no consequence in that war, and rushed towards Bharata ready to strike him with his fist which would have surely killed him.
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Fig. 100
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But half way, the thought flashed into his mind that fratricide was the greatest crime, and as the bound fist could not recoil without attaining its purpose, he, after plucking his hair, became a Jain monk.
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On the obverse of the panel, on the right end, is shown the battle between Bharata and Bāhubali (Fig. 199). Both the brothers are mounted on chariots shooting arrows. Full details of the chariot and a mediæval warrior's equipments are shown. The animals yoked to the chariots are not horses but composite animals with the body of a horse and the head of an elephant. In the centre of the field may be seen two warriors, and two other figures, apparently not soldiers. By their gestures it is apparent that they are asking the brothers to stop the fight. Apparently, the figures represent Śakra, according to the story. The descriptive labels show that on the extreme left is Bāhubali and opposite to him, Bharata.
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The next scene, on the left, depicts six laymen, three men and three women (Fig. 200) They are hearing to the sermon of Ṛṣabha, the first Tirthamkara and the father of Bharata and Bāhubali. In the panel, in the centre, is represented Bāhubali practising penance attended by his two sisters, Brāhmī and Sundarī, who had also joined the monastic order.
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The most interesting part of the panel is the decoration on the reverse in the double meander, with the interspaces between the loops filled with decorative patterns (Figs. 201—203). Beginning from the left, in the first loop facing downward compartment, is an elephant, in the second loop facing upward there is a pair of geese, in the third downward loop the details are chipped off, then are represented two Chinese dragons with a common face, their tails serving as the springing point of the meander, the details of the fourth loop downward are lost, in the fifth upward loop there is a pair of geese, in the sixth downward loop there is a lion, and in the seventh upward loop a pair of geese. Lotus flowers are shown springing from the body of the meander wherever looped compartments appear, the rest of the intervening spaces are filled with the arabesque. The perfect balance in the design and the lively representation of birds and beasts remind us of the similar decorative patterns at Ajaṇṭā, and are certainly not commonly met with in the mediæval Western Indian painting. This pattern once again proves the vestiges of the ancient Indian art in the painting of the 12th century.
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The back ground of the painting is red and the colour scheme is extremely simple consisting of red, pink, indigo blue, yellow and black. The linear conception of Western Indian school is quite apparent and the nose and chin are pointed. The farther eyes as yet do not protrude very prominently into space. They are not represented as fully open, only three-quarters or half of the pupils being shown; this is apparently an attempt to indicate the eyelids which, in the absence of shading, are not represented. Attempt has been been made at modelling by colour washes or thick lines. The painter did not allow the lines to run adrift, and this has added a definite quality to them. In the battle-scene of Bharata and Bāhubali, the painter has been successful in depicting the spirit of action. The stern battle poses of the warriors and the flying arrows add to the grimness of the scene.
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The next dated examples are the scenes from the former lives of Pārśvanātha, painted on the wooden covers of a palm-leaf manuscript of the *Dharmopadeśamālā*, by Maladhārī Hemachandra Sūri, belonging to Mr. S. M. Nawab (Figs. 204). The covers measure 35¼" by 3⅛", with variation, and are dated in V. S. 1425 (1368 A.D.), as is also the manuscript.⁹ Certain outstanding characteristics of these painted covers may be marked. The drawing is careful and the protrusion of the farther eyes is not yet so pronounced. The architectural and ornamental details strive towards realism. There are definite attempts at shading in the treatment of the bodies of the king and queen. Prof. W. Norman Brown¹⁰ assigns these covers to variety A. 2 of the palm-leaf period.
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⁹ Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma, pp. 48-49.
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¹⁰ J.I.S.O.A., V, p. 5, Fig. 5.
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In these covers, the artist first laid a white base, then made his drawing and applied his colours. The colours are red background, with all figures in yellow, except Pārśva, who had his traditional colour of green. Green is also used for trees, in the women's bodices, and elsewhere in clothes. The paintings contain some black. On the reverse, that is the outside of the covers, are flower designs on red back-ground with yellow flowers and leaves, except that the leaves are often overlaid with dark green.¹¹
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¹¹ Ib., p. 5, fn. 4.
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The next dated example is a wooden cover illustrating scenes from the life of Mahāvīra. It forms a cover for a manuscript of the *Sūtrakṛtāṅga-vṛtti* in the collection of Muni Puṇyavijayaji (Figs. 205-208). The cover measures 34½" by 3" with variations, and is not dated. But the manuscript which it covers is dated in V. S. 1456 (1399 A.D.), and the cover is quite possibly of the same date.
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The obverse of the cover is very much flaked. From the details available, one panel depicts Mahāvīra in the *bhava* of Viśvabhūti, uplifting a cow to the sky (Fig. 205). On the reverse, the following incidents from the life of Mahāvīra are illustrated (Figs. 206-208). (1) Beginning from the right, king Siddhāratha, seated under a pavilion, is shown conversing with queen Triśalā. (2) Outside the pavilion is seen an astrologer interpreting the dreams of the queen. (3) It represents the birth of Mahāvīra. The mother is shown lying on a cot under a pavilion, fondling the child. (4) Outside the pavilion is shown Harinaigamesa carrying the foetus of Devānandā for transferring it to the womb of Triśalā. He is attended by several servants (Fig. 206). (5) Indra is performing the lustration rite of Mahāvīra (Fig. 207); he is represented seated in the middle with the child; two Devas are pouring water. (6) Siddhārtha and Triśalā are shown conversing. (7) the marriage of Mahāvīra; the marriage pavilion has for its post piled up jars; it is also decorated with the plantain trees; in the centre are shown Mahāvīra and his bride; there are also Brahmins participating in the ceremony. (8) It depicts Varshīdāna, *i.e.*, the distribution of daily alms by Mahāvīra for one year before he was initiated (Fig. 208); he is shown seated under a tree offering alms to a Brahmin. (9) Mahāvīra being carried on the palanquin Chandra-sibikā for the initiation ceremony. The palanquin is being carried by two men. (10) Mahāvīra plucking his hair which Indra stands nearby to receive. (11) It represents Mahāvīra offering half of his garment to a Brahmin named Soma; the story goes that the Brahmin, as he had gone out, when Mahāvīra was distributing alms, and, therefore, could receive nothing, approached him when he was renouncing the world, and, as he had nothing else to give, he parted with half of his garment. (12) Mahāvīra practising penance in the kāyotsarga pose (Fig. 208).
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Fig. 101
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Fig. 102
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Fig. 103
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Fig. 104
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Fig. 105
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Fig. 106
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Fig. 107
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Speaking from the artistic point of view, we find angularity in drawing an outstanding feature. There is little attempt to grapple with the ornamental details, and the architecture has been very much simplified. As a matter of fact, we find in this cover the consolidation of those conventions which became regular features of Western Indian painting in the paper period.
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PART II