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The Hindu Temple v1.c4.s2: Site and Builder

The Hindu Temple v1.c4.s2

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Man here is the patron or Yajamāna (lit. the sacrificer) on whose behalf the temple is built by the architect who is guided by the priest in the principles of his work. In the diagram of the Vāstupuruṣa a communication is established between man (puruṣa) as the patron of the work and the Puruṣa, the Essence, of all things. At the definite time and place where the temple is to be set up, all times and all places congregate in the symbolic diagram of the Vāstupuruṣa. On this ritual drawing rests the super-structure of the temple, which is the manifestation (mūrti) of God.¹³ The ritual diagram of the Vāstupuruṣa is drawn wherever the site is prepared for this purpose. The preparation is in the readiness and discipline of the mind and heart of the patron and of those who are entrusted with the work because they have the competent skill. The priest has the guidance; the architect, who builds the temple, works in conformity with the knowledge of the priest.

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A pilgrimage or visit to a temple is undertaken for the purpose of looking at it (darśana) with the sight of knowledge. Darśana is also the name of the six traditional points of view or methods of cognising Truth.¹⁴ The architect of the temple was not only a master of the 'ocean of the science of architecture'. Balanced himself in body and mind, he had to be versed in the traditional science (śāstra) in its various branches, and as much in the knowledge of rhythms (chandas),¹⁵ mathematics and astronomy as in the conditions of different places, etc. ('Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra', XLIV. 2-4, and 'Vāstuvidyā', I. 12-15). The various arts and sciences had to be known for one and the same purpose, so that he could apply them in his work which was to be an image and reconstitution of the universe.

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¹⁴ They are: Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta. While Vedānta cannot be realised without Yoga, Darśana, a direct seeing of the meaning which the temple demonstrates, presupposes Yoga.

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¹⁵ This refers to the rhythmical disposition of the ground-plan, for example (Pt. VII).

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In the 'Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra', a treatise on architecture, the author, King Bhoja of Dhārā, who ruled over Mālava in the first part of the eleventh century, says: "He, who begins to work as an architect (sthapati) without knowing the science of architecture (vāstuśāstra) and proud with false knowledge must be put to death by the king as one who ruins the kingdom (rājahiṃsaka); dead before his time, his ghost will wander on this wide earth. He, who though well versed in the traditional science is not skilled in the work will faint at the time of action like a timid man on the battle-field. He, who is expert only in his workmanship, but unable to understand the meaning of the traditional science, will like a blind man be misled by anyone" (S.S. XLIV. 6-10). Even so, he who knows the traditional science and its meaning and masters the craft, is not as yet the perfect architect. For immediate intuition, a readiness (pratyutpanna) of judgment (prajñā) in contingencies, and the ability to fuse them into the requirements of the whole, are the distinctions of a true Sthapati.¹⁶ It is then, that the builder himself, once his work is completed, is struck with wonder and exclaims: "Oh, how was it that I built it."¹⁷

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¹⁶ ib., verse 14, paraphrased.

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¹⁷ This is expressed in a copper-plate inscription from Baroda of a Rāṣṭrakūṭa king of Gujerāt, and is said to refer to the Kailāsanātha temple at Elura (Elāpura), a Kirtanam which the king "caused to be made in the hills at Elāpura, a wonderful building, on seeing which the best of immortals who move in celestial chariots, struck with wonder think much constantly, saying: This temple of Śiva is self-existent; in a thing made by art such beauty is not seen. The Śilpin (architect) of this temple in consequence of the failure of his energy as regards (the construction of) another such work, was himself suddenly struck with wonder, saying: Oh, how was it that I built it!" ('Epigraphia Indica', Vol. I, p. 159; R. G. Bhandarkar, 'The Rāṣṭrakūṭa King Kṛṣṇarāja I', 'Indian Antiquary', Vol. XII, p. 228 f.).

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The architect, Sthapati,¹⁸ is the foremost of the craftsmen (śilpin), of whom there are four classes, Sthapati, Sūtragrāhin, Takṣaka and Vardhakin, the designing architect, surveyor, sculptor and builder-plasterer-painter. These craftsmen carry out the instructions of the Sthāpaka, the architect-priest, who has the qualification of an Ācārya. The relation of priest and executive craftsman corresponds to the rule laid down for Christian art in the second Council of Nicaea (787 A.D.): "His art alone belongs to the painter, its organisation and arrangement belong to the clergy." It is defined in the 'Śilparatna' (I. 29-42) in which it is said of the Ācārya or Guru, who is the Sthāpaka :

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¹⁸ Sthapati, in 'Āpastamba Śrauta Sūtra', XXII. 7. 6, designates the Yajamāna, the sacrificer who is to be consecrated as priest. As builder of the Hindu temple, the Sthapati, by his special knowledge guided by the Sthāpaka is competent to act for his patron, the Yajamāna. ('Īśānaśivagurudevapaddhati', Pt. III, ch. XXVI; JISOA, Vol. IX, p. 152 f). The patron is also designated as Kāraka, who makes the architect, the Kartṛ, do the work ('Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra', LVI. 303).

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"He who wishes to build villages, etc., or royal palaces, etc., tanks, etc., or temples, should select a Guru and Śilpin for this purpose. Let the Guru be a Brāhmaṇa of high born family, who has performed all the sixteen purificatory rites, who knows the essence of the sacred texts, the Vedas and Āgamas, and who observes the rules of conduct according to his caste (varṇa) and stage of life (āśrama), who has received initiation (dikṣā), is competent, exerts himself in his work (tapasvin) and is a believer (āstika) in the sacred tradition.

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The Sthapati who is called Viśvakarmā, in 'Mayamata', V. 13 f., is described as a disciple (anuśiṣya) of the Sthāpaka, ib. XII. 35 f. This essential relation is ignored by P. K. Acharya, in his 'Dictionary of Hindu Architecture', s. v.

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The Sūtragrāhīs or Sūtradhāras, who hold the cord (sūtra, śulva, rajju, etc.) [originally the bamboo rod (veṇu)] in the construction of the Vedic altar, have been, it appears, described by Democritos (440 B.C.) as Harpedonaptai.

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The descent and fall of the Hindu architect and the craftsmen, from their celestial origin, and from Vedic tradition is told in the 'Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa', I.X. 20-23f.

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Viśvakarman begot nine illegitimate sons on a Śūdra woman: They are named Mālākāra (garland maker), Karmakāra (blacksmith), Śaṅkhakāra (conch shell carver), Kuvindaka (weaver), Kumbhakāra (potter), Kāṃsyakāra (metal worker), Sūtradhāra (architect, carpenter), Citrakāra (painter), Svarṇakāra (goldsmith). All of them are expert in the arts (kalā) but the last three being cursed by a Brāhmaṇa became unholy and were deemed incompetent by the Śāstras to offer sacrifices.

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Viśvakarman cursed by Ghṛtācī (an Apsarā) descended to earth and was born by a Brāhmaṇa woman. Viśvakarman when he came to the world as a Brāhmaṇa was regarded as an unparalleled architect in view of the very grand, extraordinary and royal mansions which he constructed. He also instructed ordinary people on matters relating to architecture in various ways.

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Svarṇakāra became outcasted and unholy on account of the curse pronounced against him by a Brāhmaṇa whose gold he had stolen. Sūtradhāra neglected to carry out the orders of a Brāhmaṇa to collect fuel for sacrificial purposes, and being cursed by him, was likewise degraded. Citrakāra transgressed the orders of a Brāhmaṇa in respect of a picture the composition of which was defective and not according to the rules and underwent the same fate.

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It was then that the original function of art (śilpa) was lost. The destination of works of art is defined in the 'Aitareya Brāhmaṇa' VI, 5. 27: "Śilpāni, works of art of men, are an imitation of divine forms; by employing their rhythms a metrical reconstitution is effected of the limited human personality" (trans. by Coomaraswamy; in 'La Nature du Folklore', E. T., 1937, pp. 206-18).

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The architect, Sthapati,¹⁸ is the foremost of the craftsmen (śilpin), of whom there are four classes, Sthapati, Sūtragrāhin, Takṣaka and Vardhakin, the designing architect, surveyor, sculptor and builder-plasterer-painter. These craftsmen carry out the instructions of the Sthāpaka, the architect-priest, who has the qualification of an Ācārya. The relation of priest and executive craftsman corresponds to the rule laid down for Christian art in the second Council of Nicaea (787 A.D.): "His art alone belongs to the painter, its organisation and arrangement belong to the clergy." It is defined in the 'Śilparatna' (I. 29-42) in which it is said of the Ācārya or Guru, who is the Sthāpaka :

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¹⁸ Sthapati, in 'Āpastamba Śrauta Sūtra', XXII. 7. 6, designates the Yajamāna, the sacrificer who is to be consecrated as priest. As builder of the Hindu temple, the Sthapati, by his special knowledge guided by the Sthāpaka is competent to act for his patron, the Yajamāna. ('Īśānaśivagurudevapaddhati', Pt. III, ch. XXVI; JISOA, Vol. IX, p. 152 f). The patron is also designated as Kāraka, who makes the architect, the Kartṛ, do the work ('Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra', LVI. 303).

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"He who wishes to build villages, etc., or royal palaces, etc., tanks, etc., or temples, should select a Guru and Śilpin for this purpose. Let the Guru be a Brāhmaṇa of high born family, who has performed all the sixteen purificatory rites, who knows the essence of the sacred texts, the Vedas and Āgamas, and who observes the rules of conduct according to his caste (varṇa) and stage of life (āśrama), who has received initiation (dikṣā), is competent, exerts himself in his work (tapasvin) and is a believer (āstika) in the sacred tradition.

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The Sthapati who is called Viśvakarmā, in 'Mayamata', V. 13 f., is described as a disciple (anuśiṣya) of the Sthāpaka, ib. XII. 35 f. This essential relation is ignored by P. K. Acharya, in his 'Dictionary of Hindu Architecture', s. v.

v1.c4.s2.22

The Sūtragrāhīs or Sūtradhāras, who hold the cord (sūtra, śulva, rajju, etc.) [originally the bamboo rod (veṇu)] in the construction of the Vedic altar, have been, it appears, described by Democritos (440 B.C.) as Harpedonaptai.

v1.c4.s2.23

The descent and fall of the Hindu architect and the craftsmen, from their celestial origin, and from Vedic tradition is told in the 'Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa', I.X. 20-23f.

v1.c4.s2.24

Viśvakarman begot nine illegitimate sons on a Śūdra woman: They are named Mālākāra (garland maker), Karmakāra (blacksmith), Śaṅkhakāra (conch shell carver), Kuvindaka (weaver), Kumbhakāra (potter), Kāṃsyakāra (metal worker), Sūtradhāra (architect, carpenter), Citrakāra (painter), Svarṇakāra (goldsmith). All of them are expert in the arts (kalā) but the last three being cursed by a Brāhmaṇa became unholy and were deemed incompetent by the Śāstras to offer sacrifices.

v1.c4.s2.25

Viśvakarman cursed by Ghṛtācī (an Apsarā) descended to earth and was born by a Brāhmaṇa woman. Viśvakarman when he came to the world as a Brāhmaṇa was regarded as an unparalleled architect in view of the very grand, extraordinary and royal mansions which he constructed. He also instructed ordinary people on matters relating to architecture in various ways.

v1.c4.s2.26

Svarṇakāra became outcasted and unholy on account of the curse pronounced against him by a Brāhmaṇa whose gold he had stolen. Sūtradhāra neglected to carry out the orders of a Brāhmaṇa to collect fuel for sacrificial purposes, and being cursed by him, was likewise degraded. Citrakāra transgressed the orders of a Brāhmaṇa in respect of a picture the composition of which was defective and not according to the rules and underwent the same fate.

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It was then that the original function of art (śilpa) was lost. The destination of works of art is defined in the 'Aitareya Brāhmaṇa' VI, 5. 27: "Śilpāni, works of art of men, are an imitation of divine forms; by employing their rhythms a metrical reconstitution is effected of the limited human personality" (trans. by Coomaraswamy; in 'La Nature du Folklore', E. T., 1937, pp. 206-18).

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First a Sthapati is to be selected—one well versed in the Śilpa-śāstras; similarly, a Sthāpaka also, knowing the Śilpa-śāstras and possessing all the qualifications of an Ācārya, being selected by the patron, should perform the architectural rites (vāstu-karma). The temple (vimāna) or any other (construction), begun by these two should be continued by them only and by no other. In case they be not available, the work should be done by either their sons or disciples who are competent in the work.” Then follows the description of the four classes of craftsmen (śilpin).

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“The Sthapati should be fit to direct (sthāpana) the construction and should be well-versed in all Śāstras, the traditional sciences, perfect in body, righteous, kind, free from malice and jealousy, a Tāntrik and well-born; he should know mathematics and the Purāṇas, the ancient compendia of myths, etc., painting, and all the countries; he should be joyous, truth speaking, with senses under control, concentrated in mind, free from greed, carelessness, disease and the seven vices (‘Manu-Saṃhitā’ VII. 47-48), famous, having firm friends and having crossed the ocean of the science of Vāstu.

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The disciple or son of the Sthapati is the Sūtragrāhin. He should always carry out the orders of the Sthapati, should be expert in all sorts of work, and should know the proportionate measurement by the cord (sūtra) and rod (daṇḍa) as applied to the whole building and its parts (see Pt. VII), the horizontal and vertical proportions (māna, unmāna).

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The Takṣaka is so called because he cuts off and carves (takṣ) the large pieces and the subtle detail. He is also expert in working in clay. He should be qualified, able, and capable to perform all sorts of work on his own initiative, in the right way, devoted to the Guru, ever cheerful, and obedient to the Sthapati.

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The Vardhakin is so called because he increases (vṛdh) [by placing together what the Takṣaka has carved and by adding to the finished work, the painting] and he always follows the Sūtragrāhin.

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Without these four nothing can be undertaken. Therefore all these four, the Sthapati and the others, should always be honoured.”

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Vāstu-śāstra, the traditional science of architecture, is subordinated to, and forms an auxiliary part of the Veda, the primordial Knowledge; in it intellectual intuition is laid down as sacred word.

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Vāstu-śāstra belongs to, and is, applied astrology. Varāhamihira, in his ‘Bṛhat-Saṃhitā’ introduces the chapter on architecture (LII) saying: “Vāstu-jñāna (the knowledge of Vāstu), architecture, will be explained by me for the pleasure of the astronomers and astrologers, as it has been transmitted from Brahmā to our days through an unbroken series of sages.” Building is begun under favourable stars. They are consulted when the ground is taken possession of and when the rite of depositing the Germ of the temple is performed. The regents of the planets and the stars have their allocation in the diagram of the temple and their images are carved on its walls. By them are regulated the measurement of the whole building and its parts; the life of the donor (yajamāna), and the age of the temple too. The temple is built in the likeness of the universe and is its reduced image. The architect of this world image, the temple, is looked upon as descended from, and in his sphere alike to, Viśvakarman, who made all that exists in the universe.¹⁹ The architect in charge of the building is therefore generally called Sthapati. The name means "master of what stands or abides". The science of architecture, called as a rule, Vāstu-śāstra, is also named Sthāpatya-śāstra-veda. It is the knowledge of ordered and planned extension (vāstu) and is put into practice by the master who makes existing things (vastu) abide in order. Sthāpatya-śāstra-veda is enumerated as an Upaveda, a lesser, applied knowledge subordinated to the Atharvaveda.²⁰ Vāstu-śāstra in its fullest exposition belongs to Tantra which is the applied knowledge of the Atharva Veda. As a ritual, architecture is moreover doubly linked with the primordial Knowledge, the Veda, and is included in two of the six Vedāṅgas. These are appendices which are auxiliary to the Veda. The fifth Vedāṅga, astronomy-astrology, Jyotiṣa, and the sixth Vedāṅga, Kalpa, in which are laid down the rules of the sacrificial acts, the ritual, are both, in parts, essential constituents of the science of Indian architecture.²¹ The Śulva-sūtras contained in the Kalpa-sūtras, represent the rules and give proportionate measurement for laying out and piling up the Vedic altar.²² On them, basically rests the building of the Hindu temple.

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¹⁹ With regard to the making of the universe, Viśvakarman is the working, Brahmā the thinking aspect of the Supreme Principle.

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²⁰ The other Upavedas are: Āyurveda (medicine), attached to the Ṛg Veda (acc. to Suśruta, I. 3, to the Atharva Veda); Dhanur Veda (military science) attached to the Yajur Veda, and Gāndharva Veda (music) attached to the Sāma Veda; cf. Apte, Dictionary, s. v. Sthāpatya Veda, the science of architecture; Āyurveda, the science of longevity, medicine; Dhanurveda, military science, and Jyotiṣa, the science of the luminaries,—astronomy and astrology,—are enumerated by the side of one another, in the 'Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra', X. 77; also 'Bṛhadśilpaśāstra', I. 10. Tantra, as a rule, is enumerated as Upaveda attached to the Atharva Veda. Tantra includes Vāstu-śāstra. According to the 'Śukranīti-sāra', IV. 3. 27-30, Śilpa-śāstra is included in the 32 Vidyās. Śilpa-śāstra is defined, 58, as the science which treats of palaces, images, parks, houses, etc.

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²¹ The six Vedāṅgas are: Śikṣā, recitation (articulation and pronunciation); Chandas, metrical science or the science of rhythms; Vyākaraṇa, grammar; Kalpa, ritual; Nirukta, hermeneutics, etymology; Jyotiṣa, astronomy-astrology ('Śukranīti-sāra', IV. 3. 28-29).

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²² The main subjects included in the general education of a Hindu were: Lipi or Lekhā (the alphabet, reading and writing), Rūpa (drawing and geometry) and Gaṇanā (arithmetic). These subjects were taught from the age of 5 till the age of 12, and in their higher stages up to the age of twenty-five. The Hathigumpha inscription, 163 B.C. says that King Khāravela spent 9 years, from the age of 16 onwards in the study of Lekhā, Rūpa, Gaṇanā. A knowledge of form (rūpa), number and proportion was an indispensable equipment; mathematics and architecture had their root in the Vedic altar. The indissoluble connection of number and form remained a consciously employed knowledge throughout. In the middle of the ninth century A.D. the mathematician Mahāvīra, in his 'Gaṇitasāra-saṃgraha', I. 9-19, speaks of the use of the science of number (gaṇita) in architecture and in all that constitutes the peculiar value of the arts (B. B. Datta and A. N. Singh, 'History of Hindu Mathematics', Pt. I, p. 5).

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The Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala, the diagram of the temple, is a Yantra. ('Vāstu-vidhāna' of Nārada, Ms. 1602, Adyar Library; VIII. 26).²³ A Yantra is a geometrical contrivance by which any aspect of the Supreme Principle may be bound (yantr, to bind; from the root 'yam') to any spot for the purpose of worship. It is an artifice in which the ground (bhūmi) is converted into the extent of the manifested universe. The nameless, formless entity which is bound in this case to the spot within the square maṇḍala is known henceforth as Vāstu-puruṣa. The components of the artifice are: the ground on which the maṇḍala is drawn; the form of the maṇḍala; and its name together with the names comprised in its form.

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²³ The MS. is in Grantha script; Chapters VIII and X are published in the Appendix, in Devanāgarī.

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