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Elements of Hindu Iconography v1.c10: Vishnu

Elements of Hindu Iconography v1.c10

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Vishnu

Dhruva-Beras

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IN modern popular Hinduism, Vishnu is one of the gods of the Hindu trinity, and is conceived to be responsible for the universal protection, as Brahmā and Śiva, the two other gods are held to be responsible for universal creation and destruction. However, Vishnu is in fact an old Vēdic god, who is mentioned in all the four Vēdas— the Ṛigvēda, the Yajurvēda, the Sāmavēda and the Atharvaṇavēda. In none of them does he appear as the one supreme deity. He is there identified with the sun, and is said to have stridden over the seven regions and to have covered the whole universe by means of three steps. According to Śākapūṇi, an old Vēdic commentator, Vishnu is the god who has manifested himself in the threefold form of fire, lightning and the solar light on earth, in the mid-region of the atmosphere and in the sky respectively. According to Aurnavābha, another commentator, the three steps of Vishnu do not denote fire, lightning and the solar light, but indicate the different positions of the sun at his rising, culmination and setting. The idea underlying this solar explanation is obviously incorporated in the *dhyāna-ślōka*, *dhyēya-ssadā savitṛ-maṇḍala-madhyavartī Nārāyaṇa-ssarasijāsana sanniviṣṭah kēyūravān makara-kuṇḍalavān kirīṭī hāri hiraṇmaya-vapuh dhṛita-śaṅkha-cakrah*, wherein Viṣṇu as Nārāyaṇa is described as residing in the orb of the sun. The idea that Viṣṇu is the sun appears to be still maintained in the worship of the sun as Sūrya-Nārāyaṇa generally conducted on Sundays and other prescribed occasions. In the Ṛigvēda, Viṣṇu, has received in one place the epithet ‘the ancient’ and in another ‘the protector’ applied to him. The supreme position, which he now occupies in Hindu theology, became his at a later period in history. In the majority of references to Viṣṇu in the Vēdas, he is introduced as the subject of laudation forming one among a great crowd of other divinities; and there he is in no way distinguished from them as being in any respect superior. From this fact we may conclude that he was regarded by the ancient Vēdic bards as a god who was on a footing of equality with the other deities. In the Vēdas the Ādityas or sons of Aditi, are alluded to as being seven or eight in number. In the *Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa* they are once said to be eight, and in another instance twelve, in number; and Vishnu is included as one among them. The *Mahābhārata*, after referring to the twelve Ādityas as the sons of Kaśyapa by Aditi, declares that the twelfth Āditya is Vishnu, who, though the latest born, surpasses all Ādityas in the greatness and glory of his attributes.

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Thus the solar origin of Vishnu seems to be easily demonstrable; and it is probably not without a struggle among his worshippers that he rose to occupy the position of eminence which became his in later times. The *Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa* says that, when Vishnu attained the pre-eminent position among the gods, the other gods became envious of him, and through machinations managed to have his head cut off. Soon, however, they became alarmed at the loss of Vishnu and desired to have him restored to them. With this object they prayed to the Aśvins, the celestial physicians, and they made Vishnu whole again and placed him alive among the gods. Vishnu is also conceived in the Vēdas and elsewhere as the Sacrifice, and in this aspect he is at present worshipped under the name of Yajña-Nārāyaṇa.

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Concerning the position of Vishnu in Vēdic Mythology, Muir says—"It will be observed that in the preceding classification of the gods, the principal places are assigned to Agni, Vāyu or Indra, and Sūrya, who appear therefore to have been regarded in the time of Yāska (the Vēdic Commentator), as the triad of deities in whom the Supreme Spirit was especially revealed. Viṣṇu is only alluded to as one of the divinities who were worshipped conjointly with Indra; and Rudra is only mentioned as worshipped along with Sōma. If we may judge from his silence regarding it, the conjunction of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Rudra, as the triple manifestation of the deity (trimūrti), would appear to have been unknown to Yāska”. Weber has given his view of Viṣṇu in the following terms:—“According to our view it would have been perhaps more advantageous for the course of the representation in general to start, not from the later triad of gods, but from the Vēdic triad, which so often appears in the Brāhmaṇa texts themselves, viz., that of Agni, Vāyu and Sūrya, the rulers of the earth, the air and the heaven; as we have in fact actually to recognize this as the foundation of the later triad. The sun, as the generative, creative principle, is throughout the ritual-texts regarded as the equivalent of Prajāpati, the father of creation. The destructive power of fire in connection with the raging of the driving storm lies clearly enough at the foundation of the epic form of Śiva.

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By the side of Vāyu, the wind, stands his companion Indra, the lord of the light, clear heaven; and with him again Vishnu, the lord of the solar orb, stands in a fraternal relationship. This close relation of Vishnu to Indra is far from being estimated by the author in its full significance. Vishnu owes to Indra his blue colour, his names Vāsava and Vāsudēva, and his relations to the human heroes, as Arjuna, Rāma and Krishna, which have become of great importance for his entire history”.

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When we come to the later period of the Itihāsas and Purāṇas, the supremacy of Vishnu is clearly established, and he has already acquired his place in the Hindu trinity. The manifestations of this Vishnu as the supreme protective god in the Hindu trinity are all embodied in interesting images some of which we describe in the following pages.

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The materials for the description of the images of Vishnu are not so abundant as they are in the case of the images of Śiva. Besides the unpublished Vaikhānasāgama, the Tantra-sāra of Madhvāchārya and a few other minor works, no other authorities are available in relation to the images of Vishnu. The Pāñcharātrāgama, which was propagated in S. India by the great Vaishṇava reformer Rāmānujāchārya, is said to consist of one hundred and eight *saṃhitās*: of these a very large number is reported by Vēdāntadēśika to have been lost even in his time. Of the few of the remaining *saṃhitās* that have come down to our own days, only three or four have been published. The *Sātvata-saṃhitā*, the *Nārada-pāñcharātra-saṃhitā* and the *Brihad-brahma-saṃhitā* have appeared in print; but unfortunately they do not contain any valuable information on the subject of iconography. The *Vaikhānasāgama*, which is probably the older *āgama* of the Vaishṇavas, is not, however, wanting in information in this respect. In the sculptures of Mahābalipuram and in other Dravidian rock-cut shrines, including the famous Kailāsa at Ellora, it is the *Vaikhānasāgama* that appears to have been followed. This important *āgama* and other available authorities have been taken advantage of in giving the following detailed description of the principal Hindu images commonly met with in India.

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The principal image in a Vishṇu temple is generally represented in one of three attitudes, that is, standing, sitting or reclining. The standing image is called a *sthānaka-mūrti*, the sitting image an *āsana-mūrti* and the reclining image a *śayana-mūrti*. The images in each of the three attitudes are classified further into the *yōga*, *bhōga*, *vīra* and *ābhichārika* varieties in consequence of certain slight differences in their descriptive characteristics.

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Dhruva-beras of Vishnu. These varieties are intended to be worshipped by devotees with different desires and objects in view: thus, the *yōgi* should worship the *yōga* form of Vishnu, the persons who desire enjoyment should worship the *bhōga* form, those who desire prowess the *vīra* form, and kings and others who wish to conquer their enemies the *ābhichārika* form. Some of the Vishnu temples in S. India have central shrines built in three storeys; as examples we may mention the Vaikunthapperumāḷ temple* at Conjeevaram, the Kūḍal-aḷagar temple at Madura, the temple at Tirukkōṭṭiyūr and the temple at Mannārkōyil in the Tinnevelly district. In the three storeyed central shrine of such temples, each storey is occupied by an image of Vishnu, the standing, sitting and reclining images being placed in the lowermost, middle and uppermost storeys in order. The *yōga*, *bhōga*, *vīra* and *ābhichārika* images of Vishṇu are again classified into superior (*uttama*), middling (*madhyama*) and inferior (*adhama*) forms according to the number of the subordinate deities and other beings found in association with the central Vishṇu image.

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∗ See the sectional elevation of the Vaikunthapperumāḷ temple on Pl. lxiii, in Rae's *Pallava Architecture*, or *Fig.* 210 on *p.* 359 of Fergusson's *Eastern and Indian Architecture*, as re-edited by Burgess.

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It is taught that the images of Vishṇu should always be sculptured in keeping with the *uttama-daśa-tāla* measure, a complete description of which may be found in Appendix B.

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As the name indicates this is a *yōga* variety of the standing figure of Vishṇu. It should have four arms and should be of dark colour. The back right hand has to carry the *chakra*, while the front one is to be in the *abhaya* or *varada* pose. The front left arm should rest upon the hip (*katyavalambita-hasta*), while the back left hand has to hold the *śaṅkha*. The *rishis*, Bhr̥igu and Mārkaṇḍēya, have to be sculptured as kneeling and resting on one knee on the right and left respectively of Vishṇu; or the goddess Bhūdēvi and Mārkaṇḍēya* have to be sculptured on the right and the left of the Vishṇu image. The figure of Śiva has to be carved on the north wall of

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Yogasthanaka-murti.

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∗ Puṇya is another name of Mārkaṇḍēya: in the Vaikhānasāgama Puṇya, Purāṇa and Amita are given as synonyms for Mārkaṇḍēya : मार्कण्डेयं पुण्यं पुराणममितमिति ॥

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Madhyama Yōgasthānakamūrti : Stone : Mahābalipuram.

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while the right one has to be hanging. Similarly Bhūmidēvī, who has to be on the left of Viṣṇu should have her right leg folded and resting on the seat, the left one being left hanging. Lakṣhmi should carry a lotus in her left hand, their other hands dēvī a nīlōtpala in her right hand; their other hands are to rest upon the simhāsana or to be kept on their laps or to be held in the kaṭaka pose. On the south wall of the shrine of Bhōgāsanamūrti there should be the image of Brahmā and on the north wall that of Śiva, both these images being in the sitting posture. Mārkaṇḍēya and Bhr̥igu have to be kneeling with one knee on the floor. The rest of the details are exactly similar to those given in the description of the Yōgāsanamūrti. On the back wall of the shrine immediately behind the central figure of Viṣṇu there should be the images of the goddesses Māyā and Saṁhlādinī, of Tumburu and Nārada, of a pair of Kinnaras, a Yakṣha and a Vidyādhara, the r̥ishis Sanaka and Sanatkumāra and of Chandra and Sūrya. The celestial kalpaka tree should also be sculptured on the wall. A group-ing such as this constitutes the uttama class of Bhōgāsanamūrti. If the Kinnaras, Tumburu and the Nārada, the Yakṣha and the Vidyādhara happen to be absent, the image of Viṣṇu would be consider-ed to belong to the madhyama class; if further the in the Siddhārtha-saṃhitā as quoted in the Vāchaspati-kośa According to this authority Vishnu has to be sculptured as seated upon the padmāsana with the eyes slightly closed and the vision fixed upon the tip of the nose. The two front hands should be kept on the crossed legs in the yogamudrā pose. On either side of the seated figure have to be carved a padma and a large sized gadā respectively. In the two other hands which are somewhat raised there should be the sudarśana-chakra and the pāñchajanya-śaṅkha. This aspect of Vishnu is conceived to bestow the salvation of souls from the bondage of birth and death, and is therefore specially fit to be worshipped by yōgins.

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In this aspect Vishnu is seated on a simhāsana, with his consorts Lakshmi and Bhūmidēvi on the right and left sides respectively. The colour of this form of Vishnu has to be dark. He should have four arms, in one of the two right hands the chakra has to be held, while the other has to be in the varada or abhaya pose. Of the left hands one has to carry the śaṅkha and the other has to rest on the hip or upon the lap or kept in the simhakarṇa pose. To the right of Vishnu there should be, as we have already said, the image of Lakshmi. Her left leg should be folded and made to rest on the seat, Bhōgasanamūrti.

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Yōgāsanamūrti : Stone : Bāgali.

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The Vishnu image are to be in the yoga-mudrā pose. It is distinctly mentioned that śaṅkha and chakra ought not to be put into the hands of this image. The colour of the underwear of this deity has to be yellow and that of the upper cloth has to be white. The image is shown as wearing a yajñōpavīta on the body, kuṇḍalas in the ears, kēyūras on the arms and a hāra round the neck. Its eyes have to be slightly closed. On the north wall of the shrine of the Yōgāsanamūrti the figure of Śiva in the sitting posture should be sculptured, and on the south wall that of Brahmā in the same posture. On the back wall, which is the western one, there are to be the figures of Chandra, Sūrya, Sanaka and Sanatkumāra. On either side of the central Vishnu image Bhr̥gu and Mārkaṇḍēya or Mārkaṇḍēya and Bhūmidēvi have to be represented. A grouping of deities and votaries such as this is essential in relation to the uttama class of the Yōgāsanamūrti of Vishnu. If the images of Chandra, Sūrya, Sanaka and Sanatkumāra happen to be omitted in the group the image would belong to the madhyama class; it would belong to the adhama class, if Bhr̥gu and Mārkaṇḍēya be also wanting in addition.

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The following slightly different description of the Yōgēśvara form of the image of Vishnu is found This is a seated figure of Vishnu with four arms, and should have a white complexion; on its head there should be a jaṭāmakuta, and the āsana on which it is seated should be the brahmāsana which is synonymous with the padmāsana. The front hands Yogasanamurti.

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the abhichārikamūrtis should be conducted in the dark half of the month under such inauspicious asterisms as the Ārdrā nakshatra and at night in a chararāśi month.*

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दैविकं विहितं विंशत्यदं मानुषमुच्यते । पैशाचान्तं बहिः प्रोक्तमष्टाविंशद तथा ॥ (पूर्वकारणागमे ॥)

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If a village is divided into five (concentric) divisions, the outermost one is called the paiśāchapada: temples for Śiva, Vishnu and the Saptamātṛikās must be built in this division. Or the village might he conceived as divided into sixty-four squares by two sets of nine lines drawn at right angles. The space covered by the four central squares is called the brahma-pada, the next outer circuit of twenty squares is called the daivika-pada, the circuit of twenty squares immediately surrounding this daivika-pada is called the mānusha-pada and the outer-most circuit of twenty-eight squares is called the paiśācha-pada.

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∗ Chara-rāśi is the same as chara-bhavanam; this is said to be the varying signs of the zodiac, i.e., the first, fourth, seventh and tenth which are Mēsha, Karkaṭaka, Tulā and Makara.

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Madhyama Bhōgasthānakamūrti : Bronze : Madras Museum.

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[Between pages 84 and 85.]

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Sthānakamūrti : Stone : Māthura Museum.

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Pūjakamunis* be also absent, it will be known as belonging to the adhama class.

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Abhichārika-sthanakamurti. This type among the images of Vishnu has either four or two arms, has to be of dark complexion and possess a faded countenance. This image should be clothed in black, and is not to be surrounded by any divine beings or human votaries as in the previous cases. If a temple for this type of Vishnu has to be built, it is said that there should be no beauty or symmetry in its construction and that it should be situated in the quarter known as the paiśāchapada.† The ceremony of installing In this, as in the previous instances, the central figure is a standing image of Vishnu. He carries in his hands *chakra* and *śaṅkha* as usual. The Sanskrit texts do not mention for what purpose the other hands are to be used. Surrounding the figure of Vishnu, the following images have to be sculptured, namely, those of Brahmā, Śiva, Bhr̥gu, Mārkaṇḍēya Kishkindha, Sundara, Sanaka, Sanatkumāra, Sūrya and Chandra. It is not easy to make out who are referred to by the names Kishkindha and Sundara here. In company with such a group of images the standing figure of Vishnu happens to be the *Virasthānakamūrti* of the *uttama* class. If, however, the images of Kishkindha, Sundara, Sanaka, Sanatkumāra be absent, it will belong to the *madhyama* class. If, further, the images of Sūrya, Chandra and the goddesses and devotees as described above, is said to constitute a *Bhōgasthānakamūrti* of the *uttama* class. If the figures of the Yaksha, the Vidyādhara, of Nārada and Tumburu be absent from the group, the image will belong to the *madhyama* class. If, in addition, the figures of Sanaka, Sanatkumāra, Sūrya, Chandra and the Pūjakamunis be also absent from the group, the central image of Vishnu will belong to the *adhama* class.

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∗ The Pūjakamunis mentioned in the description of all the aspects of Vishnu appear to refer to Bhrigu and Mārkan-dēya.

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† ग्रामं तु पञ्चधा कृत्वा भागमेकं बहिर्न्यसेत् । तत्पेशाचमिति ज्ञेयं तत्र देवालयं भवेत् ॥ कति तस्मिन्निवेशितं तं विशेषं शृणु द्विजाः! । वास्तुपेशाचिके स्थित्वा विष्णोश्च मातुमिः ॥ चतुष्पञ्चाशतीवा वास्तुमूर्यखिलं ततः ॥ चतुष्पञ्चविमाने तु प्राचीनान्यदेव । सूत्राणि कल्पयेत्तद्वद्दिनानि वास्त्वित् ॥ ब्रह्म विद्याचतुष्पादेपदेष्वन्तश्चतुष्पदम् । तद्दिहद्वैशापदं परितो दैविकं विदुः ॥

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Virasthānaka-mūrti.

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Bhōgasthānakamūrti : Stone : Tāḍpatri.

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[The page is blank.]

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Adhama Bhōgasthānakamūrti : Stone : Tiruvottiyūr.

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The colour of the Bhōgasthānakamūrti has also to be dark. The figure of Śrīdēvi should be made to stand on the right side of Viṣṇu, with her right leg placed firmly on the ground and the left slightly bent. In the right hand of this goddess there should be a lotus flower, and the left hand should be allowed to hang freely by her side. The colour of Śrīdēvi has to be golden yellow. On the left of the figure of Viṣṇu, there should be the image of Bhūdēvi, whose colour has to be dark. In her left hand she should be made to hold the blue water-lily, and her right hand should be made to hang freely by her side. On the right and left of Viṣṇu respectively Bhṛgu and Purāṇa, obviously Mārkandēya, have to be kneeling on one knee, or sitting in the utkuṭikāsana posture. Above the central figure of Viṣṇu there should be the images of the goddesses Māyā, Saṁhlādini, Kāmini and Vyājani, of the divine musicians Tumburu and Nārada, of a pair of Kinnaras, of a Yakṣa, a Vidyādhara, the ṛishis Sanaka, Sanatkumāra and the luminaries Sūrya (sun) and Chandra (moon). On the north and the south walls of the central shrine the figures of Śiva and Brahmā have to be respectively worked out as in the case of Yōgasthānakamūrti. The image of Viṣṇu, in association with the group of gods, or is made to be in the kaṭaka pose.

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It should have four arms; one of the left arms has to rest on the hip, while the other has to carry a deer; the raised right hand has to hold a paraśu, and the other right hand being held in the abhaya pose. On the south wall of the central shrine facing the north, a standing image of Brahmā should be sculptured with four arms; two of the hands should carry respectively the akṣamālā and the kamaṇḍalu, while the third hand has to be held up so as to represent Brahmā in the act of praising Vishnu, the fourth being placed on the hip in the kaṭyavalambita pose. Vishnu in association with the deities and ṛishis mentioned above is understood to be the Yogasthānakamūrti of the uttama class. If the subordinate images of Brahmā and Śiva happen to be wanting in the group, then the main central image of Vishnu is said to be of the madhyama class; and if the Pūjakamunis are also omitted, the group is held to belong to the adhama class.

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Bhogasthānaka-mūrti.

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This is also a standing image of Vishnu having four arms. The image carries the chakra and śaṅkha in the two back hands. The front right hand is in the abhaya or the varada pose, while the front left hand hangs by the side so as to rest upon the hip Bhōgāsanamūrti : Stone : Dādikkombu.

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Bhōgasthānakamūrti : Bronze : Madras Museum.

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Bhōgāsanamūrti: Stone: Bādāmi.

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Madhyama Bhōgāsanamūrti : Stone : Conjeevaram.

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[Between pages 88 and 89]

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Adbama Vīrasanamūrti : Stone : Aihole.

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images of Sanaka and Sanatkumāra, Sūrya and Chandra and the Pūjakamunis be wanting, it would, belong to the *adhama* class.

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**Virasanamurti.** This variety of the image of Vishnu is represented as seated upon the *simhāsana* with the left leg bent and the right somewhat extended. Lakshmī and Bhūmidēvī should be shown in association with it as kneeling on the floor on one knee in the positions generally occupied by the sages Mārkaṇḍēya and Bhr̥igu. This image of Vishnu should be draped in black clothing, while the colour of the figure itself has to be coral-red. In one of the right hands the *chakra* should be held and the other hand should be in the *abhaya* pose. One of the left hands has to hold the *śaṅkha* and the other left hand should be in the *simha-karṇa* pose. On the right of the figure of Vishnu there are to be the images of Brahmā and Mārkaṇḍēya, and on the left of Śiva and Bhr̥igu. Two celestial damsels, Kāminī and Vyājani, should be shown as waving *chāmaras* on both the sides, and there should also be the following figures surrounding the central image, namely, those of Sanaka, Sanatkumāra, Tumburu, Nārada, Sūrya and Chandra. Such a group of images is representative of the Vīrāsanamūrti of the *uttama* class. If Tumburu, Nārada, Kāminī, Vyājani, Sanaka and Sanatkumāra be absent from the group, then the image of Vishnu would belong to the *madhyama* class of the *Vīrāsana* variety. And if the figures of Brahmā, Śiva, Lakshmi, Bhūmidēvī and Sūrya and Chandra be absent it would belong to the *adhama* class.

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This is also a seated image with either two or four hands. The seat upon which this image of Vishnu is made to sit is known as the *vēdikāsana*, which is an unadorned pedestal meant to be used for minor deities. The *Abhichārikāsanamūrti* must have an ill-looking face suggestive of viciousness or *tāmasa-guṇa*. The complexion of the figure of this form of Vishnu has to be blue and the colour of the garment should be black. The eyes must be uplifted; there should be no attendant deities around. The installation of this kind of image should take place in what is called a *chara-rāśi* month, on the Ashṭami *tithi* in the dark fortnight, and under such inauspicious asterisms as the Ārdrā *nakshatra*. The shrine should be situated in the *paiśācha-pada* and should face the direction of the enemy who is to be injured.

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This is a recumbent image of Vishnu with only two hands; about a fourth of the body should be somewhat raised, and the remaining three-fourths

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Abhichārika-sanamurti.

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Yogasayana-murti.

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(Fig. 1.) Bhōgāsanamūrti : Ivory : Trivandram.

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(Fig. 2.) Yōgaśayanamūrti : Ivory : Trivandram.

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[To face page 91.]

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should be lying flat upon the serpent bed. The right hand should be placed near the pillow so as to touch the *kiriṭa*; the other hand, bent at the elbow, should be held in the *kaṭaka* pose. Or, this left hand may be made to be parallel to the body so as sometimes to touch the thigh. The right leg has to be stretched out, while the left, should be slightly bent. The image itself should be adorned with various ornaments. The eyes must be somewhat opened. The colour of the image should be a mixture of black and yellow. By the side of this recumbent figure there should be Bhṛigu and Mārkaṇḍēya, and near the feet, the demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha, while on the lotus issuing from the navel there should be Brahmā. On the back wall of the shrine and above the level of the image of Viṣṇu should be sculptured the images of the Āyudha-purushas, of Garuḍa, of Viṣhvaksēna, and of the Sapta-ṛishis, all standing with their hands in the *añjali* pose. On the south wall should be shown Brahmā, and on the north wall Śiva,—both in the sitting posture. Such a group constitutes the *uttama* class of Yōgaśayanamūrti. If the figures of the Sapta-ṛishis and Viṣhvaksēna are absent, the group belongs to the *madhyama* class; if the Pūjakamunis and Madhu and Kaiṭabha are also absent, it is conceived to belong to the *adhama* class.

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Bhogasayanamurti.

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This type of the image of Vishnu should be of dark colour and have two or four arms and a well built body. It should be recumbent, with a fourth of the body slightly raised and the remaining three-fourths lying flat upon the serpent-bed. One of the right hands should be made to touch the kiriṭa or be stretched out towards the head. One of the left hands is to be made to lie parallel to the body so as to rest upon the thigh. Nothing is mentioned about the other two hands, when the image is given four of them. The right leg should be stretched out straight and the left should be slightly bent. It is laid down that the distance between the two legs should be twenty aṅgulas, that between the ankles four aṅgulas, and that between the knees fourteen aṅgulas. The face of the image should be deflected from the medial line (brahmasūtra) by three aṅgulas. On the head-side of this recumbent figure of Vishnu there should be the figure of Lakshmi seated so as to be in contact with the shoulders of Vishnu. This goddess should have in her right hand a lotus and hold her left hand in the kaṭaka pose.

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In another manuscript it is stated that one half of the body should be raised and the other half should rest upon the serpent-bed. The whole body of Vishnu in this recumbent posture should resemble a bow.

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Madhyama Yōgaśayanamūrti : Stone : Aihoḷe.

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Uttama (?) Bhōgaśayanamūrti : Stone : Rājaputāna.

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Bhūmidēvi should be shown seated on the foot-side of Vishnu so as to make her touch the left foot of the recumbent Vishnu. This goddess should hold a *nīlōtpala* flower in her right hand and keep the left hand in the *kaṭaka* pose. On the right side of the *kautuka-bēra* there should be the seated image of Mārkaṇḍēya, and corresponding to it on the left, there should be the image of Bhr̥igu. On the south wall should be sculptured the figure of Brahmā and on the north wall that of Śiva, both of them being in the sitting posture. Again, on the south (apparently outside the shrine and in niches provided for them in the wall), there should be the figure of Gaṇēśa, and on the north that of Durgā. Near the feet of the central image of Vishnu the demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha should be worked out in a ferocious attitude indicating their tendency to rush into violent action, their legs below the knees being hidden within the waves of the ocean. They should both be made to appear to be suffering from the scorching effect of the poisonous breath of Ādiśēsha, the serpent upon which Vishnu is reclining. Brahmā should be seated on the lotus which issues from the navel of Vishnu; on his right there ought to be the five Āyudha-purushas and Garuḍa. Above the figure of Garuḍa on his right there should be the figure of the sun-god Sūrya. Similarly on the left of Brahmā should be shown the Aśvinī-dēvatas, Tumburu and Nārada, represented as young children, and also Chandra the moon. Besides these there should also be the guardian deities of the eight quarters, the Dik-pālakas as they are called, and Apsaras damsels waving chāmaras. A collection of gods and votaries as described above makes the central Bhōgaśayanamūrti belong to the uttama class. If the figures of Tumburu and Nārada and of the Dikpālakas be absent, it would belong to the madhyama class; and if the figures of the Pūjakamunis and the Apsaras damsels be further wanting in the group, it would then belong to the adhama class.

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This is also a reclining figure of Vishnu; its colour has also to be dark. One of the right arms should be made to serve as a pillow for the head, while the other should hold the chakra; similarly one of the left hands, carries the śankha, the other left hand being stretched out parallel to the body. On the sides of the feet of Vishnu there should be seated the goddesses Lakshmi and Bhūmidēvi. The demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha should be holding the feet of Vishnu in their hands as if in the act of supplication. On the

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Virasayanamurti.

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right and left of the *kautuka-bēra* there should be the sages Mārkaṇḍēya and Bhṛigu respectively, and Brahmā should be seated on the lotus issuing from the navel of the recumbent image of Vishnu. The five Āyudha-purushas, Garuḍa, Chandra and Sūrya, the seven *rishis* and the twelve Ādityas and the eleven Rudras, Apsaras damsels, Tumburu and Nārada, two Kinnaras, Sanaka and Sanatkumāra, and Brahmā (?) and Śiva should also be shown on the wall at the back of the shrine. Then the image of Vishnu would belong to the *uttama* class of *Vīra-śayanamūrti*. The five well-known weapons of Vishnu are, the *chakra*, *gadā*, *śaṅkha*, *dhanus* and *khaḍga*. If the Rudras, the Ādityas, the Apsaras damsels and the seven *rishis* be absent from the group, the image of Vishnu would belong to the *madhyama* class; and if, in addition to these, the Kinnaras, Sanaka, Sanatkumāra and the Pūjaka-munis be also absent, it would belong to the *adhama* class of *Vīraśayanamūrti*.

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In this case the image of Vishnu should be lying on the floor, the bed consisting of the serpent Ādisēsha with a hood having only two heads and with the body coiled into two turns. The hood of the serpent should not be raised high. The complexion of the Vishnu image should be blue; and it may have two or four arms, and should be shown to be in full slumber and therefore lying completely flat on the serpent. The face should be so made as to present a faded appearance, and the image must be clad in black clothing. There should be no attendant deities. Such a figure is conceived to belong to the *uttama* class of the *Ābhichārika-mūrti*. If the serpent has one head and has its body coiled only into one turn, the image of Vishnu lying thereon would belong to the *madhyama* class. Again, if the image has no serpent-bed at all and is made to be lying flat on the bare floor, it would belong to the *adhama* class.

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In illustration of the standing, sitting and reclining images of Vishnu, figures prepared from photographs of nineteen such actual images belonging to the various parts of India are given herein. Plate XVII represents an image found in Mahābalipuram and belongs to the *madhyama* class of the *Yōgasthānakamūrti*. Resting on one knee are found on the right and left of Vishnu the images of Bhrigu and Mārkaṇḍēya. They have one of their hands in the pose of praising, while the other is seen resting upon the hip. Their heads carry *jaṭāmakuṭa*, which is a characteristic of *rishis* in general. Above these images of Bhrigu and Mārkaṇḍēya there are the images of two dwarfs, who are very probably the *Ayudha-purushas* relating to the *Chakra* and *Śaṅkha*; both these images are also seen to have one of the hands in the pose of praising. The central figure of Vishnu wears the *kirīṭa-makuṭa* and carries in one of its right hands the *chakra* and in one of the left hands the *śaṅkha*; the other right hand is in the *abhaya* pose while the other left hand is seen to be resting upon the hip in the *kaṭyavalambita* pose. Across the chest and passing over the front right arm is the *yajñōpavīta*; round the neck the *hāra* is worn, and the *udara-bandha* goes round the abdomen; and there are *kēyūras* on the arms and *kaṭakas* on the wrists. This image of Vishnu is standing on the *padma-pīṭha*. It may be assigned to the seventh or at the latest to the eighth century A.D., as all the works of sculpture found in Māhabalipuram were executed in the palmy days of Pallava rule and prosperity in South India.

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Plate XVIII represents a bronze statuette of the *Bhōgasthānakamūrti* preserved in the Central Museum at Madras. It appears to have lain buried in the earth and discovered as a treasure-trove; its face and portions of its chest are covered with verdigris, but in other respects it is in an excellent state of preservation. This figure of Vishnu carries in its back right and left hands the *chakra* and the *śaṅkha* respectively, while the front right hand is held in the *abhaya* pose and the front left hand is made to rest upon the *gadā*. The image is adorned with the *kirīṭa-makuṭa* on the head, with *makara-kuṇḍalas* in the ears, with *hāras* round the neck, with the *yajñōpavīta* and *udara-bandha* round the body, with *kēyūras* on the arms and *kaṭakas* on the wrist. The figure stands upon the *padma-pīṭha*, which has on either side a vertical metallic strut to fix the *prabhāvaḷi* on. From the features noticeable in the workmanship and its details, it may be assigned to the tenth or the eleventh century A.D.

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The figure of Viṣṇu reproduced on Plate XIX is seen set up in a niche on the west wall of a shrine in the large Śiva temple at Tiruvottiyūr near Madras. This shrine was, according to an inscription found on a wall therein, constructed in the fifth year of the reign of Rājakēsarivarman Vīrarājēndradēva (A.D. 1067-8.) Therefore the image of Viṣṇu shown on Plate XIX must have been set up about this period and must be nearly eight and a half centuries old. Being placed in its present position as an attendant deity, it is naturally isolated, and has no deities and votaries in association with itself: it should therefore be classed as a *Bhōgasthānakamūrti* of the *adhama* class.

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The photograph of the standing figure of Vishṇu reproduced on Plate XX represents an image from Tadpatri which belongs to the highly degenerated later period of the Hoysaḷa school of sculpture in South India. Marked features of degeneration in the art are prominently visible in the long inartistic nose of the image, in its very small chin and disproportionately broad shoulders. Like the figure shown on Plate XIX, the image of Vishṇu in this case also holds the *chakra* and *śaṅkha* in the back hands; the front right hand is in the *varada* pose, while the front left hand is in the *kaṭyavalambita* pose. On the right of this central Vishṇu there is the image of Lakshmī and on the left that of Bhūmidēvī. The height of these goddesses is up to the knee of Vishṇu, as required by some authorities. The goddess Lakshmī holds a lotus in her left hand, and Bhūmidēvī has a *nīlōtpala* in her right hand. In the light of the conventional art of image-making this piece of sculpture is not without merit; but otherwise it is certainly disappointing. The stone statuette of Vishṇu preserved in the Mathura Museum at Muttra, is reproduced from a photograph on Plate XXI. It may be seen to carry in its back right hand the *gadā*, in the back left hand the *chakra*, in the front left hand the *śaṅkha*, and in the front right hand a full-blown lotus.

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A Viṣṇu-image, which carries the *chakra*, *śaṅkha*, *gadā* and *padma* in the manner in which they are carried in the present instance, is considered to be a special form of Trivikrama. The chief peculiarities worth noticing in this image are the curious cut of the face and the shape of the *kirīṭa*. The face is of the type which is characteristic of the sculptures in Northern India generally, and more especially in Bengal. Its oblique eyes, thin lips and pointed chin clearly indicate the Mangoloid features. This type, we are told by Mr. Abanindranath Tagore, is known in Bengal as the *pān* or leaf-shaped type, and is characteristic of the Bengal-Orissa school of sculpture. The group of the three bronze figures of Viṣṇu, Lakshmī and Bhūmidēvī pictured on Plate XXII is found in the Central Museum at Madras. As in the case of the figure pictured on Plate XVIII, the central figure of Viṣṇu carries in the two back hands the *chakra* and the *śaṅkha*, while the two front hands are in the *abhaya* and the *kaṭaka* poses respectively. The *gadā* which must be under the left front hand is however wanting; evidently a *gadā* made separately used to be inserted under this hand whenever required, and it is likely that this separate piece of casting has been lost. As usual the goddesses Lakshmī and Bhūmidēvī are on the right and left of Vishnu and are also carrying a lotus and a nīlōtpala respectively.

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One special point worth noticing is that the goddess, who stands on the right of Vishnu or of any other deity such as Subrahmanya, is shown to be wearing the kucha-bandha, while the goddess who stands on the left is shown to be without it. This general rule is followed in this instance also. The explanation of this observed fact is not apparent. This peculiarity is perhaps connected with the right-hand and left-hand manner of worshipping (dākshiṇā-chāra and vāmāchāra) the Dēvī goddess. From the size and form of the kirīṭa-makuṭa of Vishnu and karaṇḍa-makuṭa of the goddesses, from the peculiar curvature of the pose of the hands of the goddesses and the formation of the faces of all the three figures, it may be surmised that they cannot be older than the twelfth or the thirteenth century A. D. The original of the photograph reproduced on Plate XXIII is a very pretty little piece of workmanship of the conventional style of art. The whole height of this group of images is not more than ten inches. In the centre is a standing figure of Vishnu with the chakra and the śankha in its back hands; the front right hand is held in the varada pose, while the front left hand is kept resting on the hip in the katyavalambita pose. On the right and left of Vishnu are the images of the goddesses Lakshmi and Bhūmidēvī. The former holds a lotus in her left hand and the latter a nīlōtpala in her right hand.

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On the right and left respectively of Lakshmi and Bhūmidēvī stand Jaya and Vijaya, the two door-keepers of Vishnu with chakra, śankha and gadā in three of their hands, while the fourth one is held in the abhaya pose. Surrounding the images of Vishnu and others is the prabhāvaḷi in which are worked out the ten incarnations of Vishnu, of whom Buddha is one. On the right and left of the prabhāvaḷi respectively are sculptured Vishnu’s characteristic symbols the chakra and the śankha, immediately above the mythical makaras. Below the simhāsana, is seen Garuḍa kneeling on the right knee and keeping both the palms of his hands open as if to receive in them the feet of Vishnu; a cobra is thrown upon his shoulders in the fashion of a garland. To indicate that the seat on which Vishnu and others stand is a simhāsana, two lions are sculptured on either side of Garuḍa. This piece of sculpture is probably not older than two or three centuries at the most.

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We now come to the illustrations of the seated figures of Vishnu. Plate XXIV gives the photograph of a Yōgāsanamūrti, otherwise known also as Yōgēśamūrti. It is found in the Kallēśvara temple at Bāgaḷi in the Bellary district of the Madras Presidency, and belongs to the later Chālukya period. It conforms in every detail to the description of such an image given in the Siddhārtha-saṃhitā. The two front hands are in the yōga-mudrā pose, and the padma and gadā, which would otherwise be held in these hands, are sculptured separately on the right and left respectively. The back hands carry the chakra and the śaṅkha. The image itself is seated on the padmāsana in the yōgāsana posture, and is adorned with various ornaments, such as the kirīṭa-makuṭa, makara-kuṇḍala, kēyūra, kaṭaka, hāra and yajñōpavīta. Surrounding the head is a prabhāmaṇḍala with radial rays proceeding outwards. Outside this and concentrically with it is seen a prabhāvaḷi also. In its inner margin is the characteristically pretty creeper-ornamentation, in each circle of which may be seen sculptured from right to left the ten avatāras of Viṣṇu. It is also an item of convention that, when the central figure in any piece of sculpture happens to be standing, those that surround it should also be standing; they may be seated or standing when the central figure is seated or reclining. They should also be in the same posture as the central figure, when it is in the yōga attitude. This last rule is followed in this case, as also in case of the figure of Dattātrēya of Bādāmi shown elsewhere in this volume.

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The next Plate XXV gives a representation of the figure of Vishnu found in Cave III at Bādāmi, the ancient capital of the Chālukyas. The rock-cut shrine, in which it is sculptured, was brought into existence in A.D. 578 by the king Maṅgalīśa; and the sculpture of the image of Vishnu is therefore at least a century older than the one belonging to Conjeevaram, which is shown on the next plate. In this piece of sculpture found at Bādāmi Vishnu is represented as seated upon the serpent Ādiśēsha with a hood consisting of five heads and with the body coiled into three turns. The left leg of Vishnu is folded and made to rest flat upon the serpent, while the right leg is also folded but rests upon the serpent vertically. On the right thigh of the image rests the right front hand held in the varada pose while the front left hand is made to rest on the left thigh. In the back right and left hands the chakra and the śaṅkha are respectively held; the figures of two celestial damsels, one on each side, are seen standing, each carrying a chāmara. The figure of the goddess Lakshmi is sculptured on the left wall; and Garuḍa, the bird-servant of Vishnu is shown seated on the right of the image of Vishnu. Lakshmi holds a lotus in her right hand, and Garuḍa is sitting with his hands folded and crossed against his chest and himself leaning upon the body of the serpent. Below the seat the figures of dwarfs representing the *dēva-gaṇas* may be seen, some of them engaged in dancing and others playing on various musical instruments. This is one of the most remarkable pieces of sculpture belonging to the mediæval period. The calm and serene countenance of Viṣṇu is in striking contrast with the free and easy attitude of Garuḍa, and the hood of the serpent is indeed chiselled in a masterly manner.

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Plate XXVI represents a piece of sculpture found in the Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple at Conjeevaram. In the centre of the group is seen the image of Viṣṇu seated upon a *siṃhāsana* with the right leg hanging and the left folded and made to rest on the seat. Though the back right and left hands are held aloft as when they carry the *śaṅkha* and the *chakra*, these are not actually found in those hands. They are however borne by two small attendant figures, the *Āyudha-puruṣas* of *Śaṅkha* and *Chakra*, who also carry each a *chāmara* resting on the shoulder. The front right hand of the image of Viṣṇu is held in the *abhaya* pose, while the front left one is made to rest with the palm showing upwards on the folded leg. On the right of Viṣṇu is seated the figure of Lakshmī, with the right leg hanging and the left leg bent and made to rest upon the seat. The left hand of this goddess is in the *kaṭaka* pose and the right hand rests upon the *siṃhāsana*. On the left of the image of Viṣṇu there is the figure of Bhūmidēvī whose left leg is hanging and the right leg rests supported on the seat. The right hand of this goddess is in the *kaṭaka* pose, while the left hand is made to rest upon the seat. The temple in which this panel is seen sculptured was erected by the Pallava king Narasiṃhavarman II in the last quarter of the seventh century A.D. Therefore this sculptural representation of what may be called Viṣṇu’s Bhōgāsanamūrti of the *madhyama* class is most probably twelve centuries old.

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Pl. XXVII represents a finely sculptured panel found in Cave No. 14, locally known as the *Rāvaṇa kā khāi*. In this the figure of Viṣṇu is seated with both legs bent, the left lying horizontal and the right one vertical. Both the front hands are broken and therefore it is not possible to say what articles they carried; the back hands are raised as if they were meant to hold the *śaṅkha* and *chakra*. The figure of Viṣṇu is adorned with a *prabhā-maṇḍala*, *kirīṭa*, *hāra*, and *yajñōpavīta*. On the right and left of the central Viṣṇu are the figures of the goddesses Lakshmi and Bhūmidēvi respectively. The hair on the heads of these figures is tied up in the form of a crown (*dhammilla*); the goddesses are decked with all ornaments. The figure of Lakshmi appears to have held a flower in the right hand, which is however broken. On the back wall are sculptured the figures of Kāmini and Vyājani each carrying a *chāmara* in her hand; besides these there are two other celestial damsels carrying flower garlands and other offerings. Below the seat are seen sculptured the five *Āyudha-purushas* and Garuda. These, as also the four female figures at the back of the central figure, are shown with a *prabhāmandala* each. This sculpture, like all the rest in Ellora, has suffered damage at the hands of the iconoclastic Mussalmans.

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The figure on Plate XXVIII is the representation of an image which is sculptured on a pillar in the Varadarājapperumāl temple at Dādikkombu near Dindigul in the Madura district of the Madras Presidency. This image belongs to the period of the Nāyakas of Madura, and is perhaps not older than three centuries. In this sculpture, Vishnu is seated upon Ādiśēsha, whose body is coiled into three turns, with the right leg hanging down and the left leg folded and made to rest upon the serpent. In the back right and left hands the *chakra* and the *śaṅkha* are held and in the front right and left hands there are the *gadā* and the *padma*. An image of Viṣṇu executed in this manner is said to be that of Vāsudēva. Below the seat and slightly to the left of the image of Viṣṇu there is a figure of Garuḍa standing with the hands folded and held in the *añjali* pose.

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The pretty ivory image of Viṣṇu represented by fig. 1 on Plate XXIX, is one of the most recent productions of Indian art having been carved in the School of Arts at Trivandram. It is almost similar in most of its details to the Dāḍikkombu sculpture represented on the previous plate.

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An example of the Vīrāsanamūrti image of Viṣṇu is available among the sculptures to be found in the temple at Aihole. In the panel, the photograph of which is reproduced on Plate XXX, the figure of Viṣṇu is seen seated upon the serpent Ādiśēsha. In the back right hand the *chakra* is held, and in the back left hand there is the *śaṅkha*; the left leg is bent and made to rest horizontally on the serpent-seat, while the right leg is also bent but rests vertically upon the same seat. The right arm is stretched and thrown upon the right knee, and the left hand is placed in ease upon the left thigh. The goddesses Lakshmī and Bhūmidēvi are shown as flying in the air on the right and left of Vishnu, while two *rishis*, also shown as flying, are figured somewhat below. This group represents the *adhama* class of Virāsanamūrti.

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Five Plates are given in illustration of the reclining images of Vishnu. Of these the figure on Plate XXXI represents a large panel sculptured on one of the walls of a rock-cut cave in Mahābalipuram. In this admirable piece of sculpture there is a central image of Vishnu reclining upon the serpent Ādiśēsha; near the feet there are the demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha; above are the Āyudha-purushas of Chakra and Gadā looking in the direction of the demons; below the serpent-bed the *rishis* Mārkaṇḍēya and Bhrigu are shown kneeling; and the goddess Bhūmidēvī is also just there. This reclining figure of Vishnu has the fourth of the body towards the head slightly raised, while the remaining three-fourths thereof is stretched flat upon the bed. The right arm is taken near the head and the left arm is bent at the elbow with the hand held in the *kaṭaka* pose. The right leg is fully stretched out, while the left leg is somewhat bent. This image of Vishnu is further adorned with the *kirīṭa-makuṭa*, *hāra*, *kuṇḍala* and *yajñōpavīta*. The demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha have their hair tied up in knots on the top of the head and on one side respectively, and each of these carries a *gadā* in his hand. In its artistic qualities this piece of sculpture also may take rank as one of the finest production of the mediæval period. The flying figures of the *Āyudha-purushas* are admirably chiselled and convey the appearance of flight in an exceedingly realistic manner. The demons Madhu and Kaiṭabha are shown as if conspiring with each other, and their attitude clearly brings out their intention to strike at once at Vishṇu. The figure of Vishṇu in this panel represents the *Yōgaśayana-mūrti* of the *madhyama* class.

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The next illustration which is given on Pl. XXXII, is that of an image to be found in the ruined temple of Vishṇu at Deogarh in the Jhansi district of the United Provinces. In this sculpture Vishṇu is seen reclining on the serpent Ādiśesha, with the head directed to the right of the observer. The reclining body is in its upper half somewhat raised and the other half is made to lie flat on the serpent-bed; the whole body has the outline of a bow which is described in the *āgamas* as appropriate to the reclining images of Vishṇu. One of the left hands is supporting the head, while the other is seen resting upon the bed; one of the right hands is held in the *kaṭaka* pose, and the other is stretched out parallel to the body so as to rest upon the thigh. The ornaments, *kiriṭa-makuṭa*, *kuṇḍala*, *hāra*, *kēyūra*, *kaṭaka* and *vana-mālā*, are all carved with great skill. Above this image of Viṣṇu there is the figure of the four-faced Brahmā seated in the middle of the lotus issuing from the navel of Viṣṇu. Like the other attendant deities in this sculptured group, Brahmā also possesses only two arms; in his left hand he carries a *kamaṇḍalu*, and the right hand is held in the *chin-mudrā* pose. There are *jaṭā-makuṭas* on the heads, and a deer-skin is thrown across the body in the *upavīta* fashion, with the head of the deer made to hang on the chest. To the right of the image of Brahmā is that of Indra seated upon the celestial elephant Airāvata; and he carries in his right hand his particular weapon *vajra*. To the right of Indra is to be seen what appears to be the figure of Subrahmaṇya seated on his peacock. Śiva also is seen in the group seated upon his bull. Pārvatī is leaning upon Śiva with her left arm resting upon his shoulder. It is not easy to make out whom the figure to the left of Śiva represents. It is worth noting that the left leg of Viṣṇu rests upon the lap of Bhūmidēvī, who is shown to be holding his right foot in her hands. By her side are made to stand two Āyudha-purushas representing respectively the Gadā and Dhanus.

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