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Elements of Hindu Iconography v2.c16.s10: Other Important Aspects of Siva

Elements of Hindu Iconography v2.c16.s10

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Other Important Aspects of Siva

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Gauḍapāda, Ādiśaṅkara, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, Prabhākara, Vācaspati Miśra and Vijñānabhikṣu.

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THE king Sagara had, by his first wife Kēśinī, a son named Asamañjasa and sixty thousand others by the second wife Sumatī. Asamañjasa was from his childhood a wicked man and his example affected the other children of Sagara and made them equally bad. The gods who could not bear the evil ways of the sons of Sagara asked the *rishi* Kapila, one of the aspects of Viṣṇu, as to what would be the fate of all the wicked sons of Sagara, to which the *rishi* replied that in a short time they would all perish. Sagara arranged for a horse-sacrifice, for which purpose he let loose a horse. It was stolen by Indra and hidden in the *Pātāla-lōka*. Tracing the footprints of the horse the sixty thousand sons of Sagara excavated the earth till they reached the *Pātāla-lōka* and there found the horse in the hermitage of Kapila. These wicked sons of Sagara mistaking Kapila for the thief rushed on him to kill him. But Kapila by the power of his penance reduced them to ashes. Having waited long for the return of his sons in vain, Sagara sent his grandson Aṃśumat (son of Asamañjasa) to search for the horse as also his uncles. He too traced his way into the Pātāla-loka and found the horse near Kapila. Being, unlike his uncles and father, a well-behaved boy, he implored Kapila to permit him to take away the horse; the *rishi* pleased with the boy gave over the horse to him, informed him of the fate of his uncles and conferred upon him the boon that they would all go to heaven in the life-time of his grandson. The horse-sacrifice was celebrated by Sagara and after sometime he passed away. The son of Aṃśumat was Dilīpa and his son was Bhagīratha. The *rishi* Kapila had told Aṃśumat that if the water of the Gaṅgā was sprinkled on the ashes of his uncles they would go to heaven. Bhagīratha performed severe austerities to bring down the celestial river Gaṅgā; the latter was pleased with Bhagīratha and asked him who could resist the force of her fall on earth from heaven; if none could, the fall would cause the earth to be pierced in the middle. He replied that Rudra, the powerful, would be able to bear the force of her descent and began to address his penances to Rudra for granting him the boon of receiving Gaṅgā on his (Rudra’s) head. Śiva, being satisfied with the austerities of Bhagīratha, went to the Himalayas to receive Gaṅgā. At first Gaṅgā thought Śiva would be unable to bear her descent and came down in great volume and with enormous force. Śiva, indignant at her haughty behaviour towards him, determined to humble her. Having received her on his mighty head covered with matted hair, Śiva made Gaṅgā to wind through the labyrinth of his locks of hair for a long time before she was able to reach the earth. Being once again requested by Bhagīratha, Śiva let the river Gaṅgā flow down on the earth. Bhagīratha led Gaṅgā to where his ancestors' ashes lay and made them attain heaven by the contact of the waters of the holy river Ganges. It is under the circumstances described above that Śiva came to wear on his head the Gaṅgā and thence became known as Gaṅgā-dharamūrti. The story of the descent of Gaṅgā for the sake of Bhagīratha is given in the Viṣṇu-purāṇa, the Bhāgavata-purāṇa and the Rāmāyaṇa.

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The image of Gaṅgādharamūrti is described in the Amśumadbhēdāgama, the Kāmikāgama and the Kāraṇāgama. It is stated that the figure of Śiva should be standing with his right leg planted vertically on the earth and the left one slightly bent. The front right hand should be placed near the chin of his consort Umā, whom he should be embracing with his left front arm; the back right arm being lifted up as high as the *uṣṇīsha* or the crown on the head, should be holding a *jaṭā* or a lock of matted hair, on which should be the figure of the goddess Gaṅgā; the back left hand should carry a *mriga*.

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On the left of Śiva there should be Umā standing in a state of mental uneasiness * which emotion must be portrayed on her face by the sculptor. The right leg of Umā should be somewhat bent, while the left one should be straight. Her right hand should be hanging down freely and the left one should be carrying in it a flower; or, the right hand might be holding a few folds of the cloth about her thigh.

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On the left should be Bhagīratha in company with a number of *rishis*, praising Śiva. The group of figures described above constitute the panel of Gaṅgādharamūrti. The central figure of Śiva may also be called Gaṅgā-vīsarjanamūrti.

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The following are the additional facts found in the *Kāmika* and the *Kāraṇagamas*. The figure of Śiva should have four arms and three eyes; of these, the front right hand should be in the *abhaya* pose and the front left one in the *kaṭaka* pose. The other two hands should be carrying the *paraśu* and the *mṛiga*. The hand that touches the *jaṭā* (this must be the one which keeps the *paraśu*), should be lifted as high as the ear. The height of the figure of Bhagiratha should be that of the navel, the chest or the neck of that of Śiva and it should be made according to the *aṣṭa-tāla* measurement. The figure of Bhagiratha should be draped with the garment made of barks of trees; the matted hair of the head of Bhagiratha should be dishevelled and flowing down and he should have only two eyes and two arms and these latter should be held in the *añjali* pose on his chest or over his head.

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∗ This is the feeling of jealousy due to Śiva trying to favour another lady with his attentions.

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Gaṅgādharamūrti: Stone Panel: Elephanta.

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Five illustrations of the Gaṅgādharamūrti are given; of these the first, Pl. XC, is to be found in the rock-cut cave at Elephanta and is executed in a very admirable manner. In the centre of this fine panel are the figures of Śiva and Umā. The back right hand is holding a *jaṭā* from which a female, whose figure is broken and whose legs alone are visible at present, seems to be descending: near the end of this *jaṭā* is Brahmā seated upon a *padmāsana*. The front right hand of Śiva is kept in the *abhaya* pose. Even though the forearm of the back left arm is broken it is easy to find that it must have been directed towards the chin of Umā; it is not easy to say what there was in the front left hand of Śiva. To the left of the figure of Śiva is seen standing that of Umā, whose left arm is let down hanging, while the right is bent and held up; the forearm of this arm is broken; it is very likely that this hand held in it a flower. Near the shoulder of the goddess Umā is seen Viṣṇu seated upon his vehicle, the Garuḍa. On the right and near the foot of Śiva is seated Bhagiratha with flowing jaṭās and facing the lord Śiva. His arms are broken; perhaps they were in the añjali pose. Between Śiva and Umā and to the left of Umā are two dwarfish gaṇas or attendants of Śiva. On the head of Śiva is a triple headed goddess who is in all probability the triple river Gaṅgā after she was joined by the Yamunā and the Sarasvatī branches. On a level with the head of Śiva are sculptured a number of devas, all flying in the air, which is shown in the conventional manner of a cumulus cloud. This, like the other pieces of sculpture in the large cave at Elephanta, is of rare workmanship and is remarkable for its gigantic size.

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The second photograph, Pl. XCI, is that of a large panel sculptured on the west wall of the rock-cut cave at Trichinopoly. In this Śiva is standing with his left leg placed straight upon the ground and the right bent and placed upon the Apasmāra-purusha (or a gaṇa). His back right arm is lifted up and bent to take hold of one *jaṭā* issuing from his head; at the end of this *jaṭā* is the river goddess Ganges seated with hands folded on her chest in the *añjali* pose. The front right hand holds a snake in it; whereas the back left hand is meant to keep a *mṛiga*, which is actually shown at a distance from this hand; the remaining hand is resting upon the hip of Śiva. Bhagiratha on the right and another *rishi* on the left are holding up their hands in an attitude of praise. On either side of Śiva is a *dēva* also praising him. Besides these, there are some other beings also praising the lord. The whole panel is supported by an ornamental platform; both the panel and the base are exquisitely carved. The age of this piece of sculpture is the middle of the seventh century and it was carried out by the order of the Pallava King Mahēndravarman.

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Gaṅgādharamūrti : Stone Panel : Trichinopoly.

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Fig. 1. Gaṅgādharamūrti : Stone : Kailāsa, Ellora.

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Fig. 2. Gaṅgādharamūrti : Bronze : Vaidyīśvaraṅkōyil.

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The third piece of sculpture given as fig. 1, Pl. XCII, is to be found on the south wall of the central shrine of the famous Kailāsa temple at Ellora. Śiva is seen here also as letting down the river goddess Gaṅgā from one of his *jaṭās*, which he holds with his front right hand and his back right one rests upon the hip. The front left arm is kept bent upwards as if to carry either the *paraśu* or the *mṛiga*; the back left arm which is broken, was apparently near the chin of Umā. The river Gaṅgā is descending upon the head of a *rishi* seated with crossed legs supported by the *yōga-paṭṭa*, evidently Bhagīratha. From near him it flows to where the deceased Sagaras are, that is, below the foot of Śiva; they are all sculptured as seated cross legged and with arms folded in the *añjali* pose. Above these Sagara-putras are sculptured an elephant and a horse, for what purpose, it is not possible to say. At the foot of Śiva is a figure bending lowly in obeisance; it is also perhaps that of Bhagīratha who expresses his gratitude to Śiva after his ancestors reach heaven. Above and near the head of Śiva are two or three celestial figures praising Śiva. Near Śiva and to his left stands Umā with one arm resting upon her hip and the other holding a flower. Her left leg is planted firmly on the ground and the right is kept bent and crossing the left one.

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The fourth illustration, Pl. XCIII, belongs to the Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple at Tāramaṅgalam in the Salem District of the Madras Presidency. It is of comparatively modern date (*circa* 15th century A. D). In this sculpture Śiva is standing in a very solicitous attitude towards his consort who is angry with him for having sheltered another woman, Gaṅgā. He is pacifying her with the

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Gaṅgādharamūrti : Stone : Tāramaṅgalam.

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front right hand placed near her chin; with one of his left arms he is embracing her. In his back left hand which is kept in the *kartari hasta* pose he holds Gaṅgā who is descending from a *jaṭā* of his head; and she is flowing down in the form of water and the river thus descending is swallowed by a bull, which is seated on the pedestal on which Śiva and Umā are standing. In the remaining hand of Śiva is to be seen (rather faintly in the photograph) the *mṛiga*. The right leg of Śiva is planted firmly on the ground and the left one is somewhat bent; the left leg of Umā is straight while the right one is somewhat bent. In her left hand is a flower and the right hand rests upon her thigh.

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The fifth illustration (fig. 2, Pl. XCII) is that of a bronze belonging to the Śiva temple at Vaidyēśvarankōyil (Tanjore district) which is exactly similar to the sculpture of Tāramangalam, just described.

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It is stated in the *Śiva-purāṇa* that Brahmā first begot a number of male beings, the Prajāpatis, and commanded them to create various other beings. They were found later on to be unfit for the task for which they were intended and Brahmā, feeling uneasy at the slow progress of creation, contemplated on Mahēśvara. The latter appeared before him in the composite form of a male-female and asked him to cease feeling distressed. Thitherto it did not occur to Brahmā to create a female also, and at the sight of this composite form of Mahēśvara he realised his error; thereupon he prayed to the female half of Mahēśvara to give him a female to proceed with the act of creation: Brahmā’s request was complied with and the creation went on afterwards very well. This story accounts for the Ardhanārīśvara form of Śiva. The real meaning of this aspect has already been adverted to in the Chapter on Liṅgās.

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There is yet another account of the appearance of Śiva in the Ardhanārīśvara form. On a certain occasion when Śiva was seated with his consort Pārvatī on the top of the Kailāsa mountain, the dēvas and ṛishis went there to pay their homage to him. All of them except the ṛishi Bhṛiṅgi, went round both Śiva and Pārvatī in their circumambulations and also bowed to both. This ṛishi had a vow of worshipping only one Being, that is, Śiva; in conformity with his vow, he neglected to go round or bow down to Pārvatī. Pārvatī growing angry with Bhṛiṅgi, desired in her mind that all his flesh and blood should disappear from his body and instantly he was reduced to a skeleton covered over with only the skin. In this state he was unable to support himself in an erect position. Seeing his pitiable plight Śiva gave him a third leg so as to enable him to attain equilibrium; Bhṛiṅgi became pleased with his lord and out of joy danced vigorously with his three legs and praised Śiva for his grace. The design of Pārvatī to humble Bhṛiṅgi thus failed and the failure caused great annoyance to Pārvatī who returned to do penance for obtaining a boon from Śiva. At the end of the penance, Śiva, pleased with his consort, granted her wish of being united with his own body. Thus was the Ardhanārīśvara form assumed by Śiva, for offering difficulty to the ṛishi Bhṛiṅgi in circumambulating, or bowing to Śiva alone. But, undaunted by this impediment Bhṛiṅgi assumed the form of a beetle pierced a hole through the composite body of Śiva and circumambulated Śiva alone to the great wonder and admiration of even Pārvatī, who became reconciled to his vow and bestowed her grace upon the pious ṛishi for his steadfastness to his vow.

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The description of the image of Ardhanārīśvara is given in the Aṃśumadbhēdāgama, the Kāmikāgama, the Suprabhēdāgama, the Śilparatna, the Kāraṇāgama and a few other works. As the name indicates, the form of this image should be half man and half woman. The right half is male, that is, Śiva and the left half is female, that is, Pārvatī. The male half should have a jaṭāmakuṭa on the head, which should be adorned with the crescent moon. In the right ear there should be the nakra-kuṇḍala, sarpa-kuṇḍala or an ordinary kuṇḍala and the right half of the forehead should have one half of an eye sculptured in it. The image of Arddhanārīśvara may have two, three or four arms. If there are four arms, one of the right hands should be held in the abhaya pose and the other should keep the paraśu; or one hand may be in the varada pose the other carrying a śūla; or there may be a ṭaṅka in one hand, and the other may be held in the abhaya pose; or one of the arms may be somewhat bent and rested upon the head of his bull-vehicle and the other hand held in the abhaya pose; or there may be the śūla and the akṣamālā in the two right hands : if there are only two arms, the right one should be held in the varada pose; or there may the kapāla held by it. The whole of the right side should be adorned with the ornaments peculiar to Śiva and the chest on the right side should be that of a man. On the right side the garment should cover the body below the loins only up to the knee and the material of the garment is the tiger's skin and silk. On the right half of the chest there should be the *nāga-yajñopavīta* and on the loins of the same side, the *sarpamēkhala* (or girdles of snake). The whole of the right side should be covered with ashes. The right leg should be somewhat bent (or it may also be straight) and be resting upon a *padma-pīṭha*. The right half might be terrific in appearance and should be of red colour. So much about the Śiva half of ArdDhanārīśvara. The left or the Pārvatī half of the ArdDhanārīśvara image, is as described below.

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On the head of the female half or the left side there should be a *karaṇḍa-makuṭa* or a fine knot of hair well-combed and divided, or both. On the forehead of this half a half *tilaka* mark, contiguous with the half eye of Śiva should be shown. The left eye should be painted with collyrium. In the left ear there should be a *kuṇḍala* known as *vāḷikā*.* If the image of ArdDhanārīśvara has four arms, of the two left ones, one is to be bent and rested upon the head of the bull of Śiva and the other kept in the *kaṭaka* pose, holding a *nīlōtpala* in it; or the latter may be let down hanging below.

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∗ This is the rendering of the Tamil word *vāḷi*, which is the name of an ear-ornament; such words are common in the Āgamas, and indicates distinctly the fact that the authors of the bulk of the āgamas were residents of the Tamil country.

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If there be only three arms in the image of Arddhanārīśvara, there should be only one on the left side. This hand may keep in it either a flower, a mirror or a parrot and it must be adorned with *kēyūra*, *kaṅkaṇa* and other ornaments; if, on the other hand, there are only two arms, the left one may be hanging below, or keeping in it a mirror, a parrot or a flower, or it may be bent and resting upon the head of the bull. The parrot may be sculptured as perching upon the wrist of Pārvatī. On the left side there should be the bosom of a woman with a round well-developed breast; on this side of the chest and the trunk there should be sculptured *hāras*, and other ornaments made of diamonds and other gems. The female half should be smeared with saffron, draped in multicoloured silken female cloth, covering the body down to the ankles; or, the garment may consist merely of white silk. The garment may be held in position on the loins by three girdles. On the left ankle there should be an anklet and the left foot tinged red with the leaves of henna (Tam. *Marudāṇi*). The left leg might be somewhat bent or stand erect upon the *padmāsana*. The colour of the left half may either be parrot-green or dark, and should be of pacific appearance.

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Ardhanārīśvara: Stone Panel: Bādāmi.

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Eight photographs are reproduced to illustrate the description of Arddhanārīśvara given above. Of these, Pl. XCIII is of a fine panel to be found in the rock-cut temple at Bādāmi. In this sculpture, Arddhanārīśvara has four arms; in one of the right hands he holds the paraśu, wriggling round which is to be seen a snake, one of the favourite animals of Śiva; the same arm has a sarpa-valaya round it. The remaining right and one of the left hands hold a vīṇā in them and play upon it. On the right upper arm there is a snake ornament; there is a sarpa-kuṇḍala in the right ear. On the right half of the head is the jaṭāmakuṭa bearing on it the crescent moon, the skull and other ornaments. An exceedingly well wrought necklace adorns the neck. There is also the yajñopavīta on the chest. This side is draped from the loins down to the knees with deer's skin. The right leg is somewhat bent and is resting upon an ornamented platform. The female half has a karaṇḍa-makuṭa, a knot of hair with bands of jewelled ornaments running across it, a large number of kaṅkaṇas on each forearm and a well executed kēyūra; there are mēkhalas or girdles keeping in position the silk garment which descend down to the ankles. On the foreleg is an anklet. The other left hand holds a nīlōtpala flower. The whole of the head is surrounded with a *prabhāmaṇḍala*. To the left of Arddhanārīśvara is a female attendant standing with the right arm hung down and the left arm bent and carrying in it a vessel; she is also beautifully adorned with all ornaments and is draped in a fine cloth. Her hair is done up in a knot, *dhammilla*. To the right of the central image is the bull of Śiva, meek and quite, with its eyes casting glances on the ground before it. Behind the bull is a human figure with a thoroughly emaciated body; it may be representing either Bhairava or the *ṛishi* Bhṛiṅgi. Its hands are held in the *añjali* pose. On the right and left of the head of the central figure are the representations of Dēvas with their consorts, flying in the air and praising Śiva. Below the platform on which stands the figure of Arddhanārīśvara, are sculptured small figures of the *gaṇas*, some dancing and others playing upon different musical instruments.

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The second illustration, fig. 2, Pl. XCV, belongs to Mahābalipuram. The figure of Arddhanārīśvara reproduced here is sculptured on the Dharmarāja-ratha. In this, the image has four arms; one of the right hands holds a *paraśu* and the other is kept in the *abhaya* pose. The right half is shaped male and the left half female; of the two arms on the female half one is hanging down and the other one bent and lifted up holding a flower. The forearm of this last mentioned arm has a number of bracelets. In the right ear there is an ordinary small kuṇḍala while the left ear bears a big disc of a patra-kuṇḍala.

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Fig. 1. Arddhanārīśvara : Stone : Kumbhakōṇam.

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Fig. 2. Arddhanārīśvara : Stone : Mahābalipuram.

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The third illustration, fig. 1, Pl. XCV, the original of which is to be found in the Nāgēśvarasvāmin temple at Kumbhakōṇam, represents that class of the image, with the bull at the back. This piece of sculpture is one of the finest of the Chōḷa period and is remarkable for the exactness of the proportions both of the male and the female portions of the torso and the excellence of its artistic effect. The figure in this instance has three arms, two on the right and one on the left; of the right arms one is bent and placed upon the head of the bull and the other bent and lifted up carrying the paraśu. The left hand keeps a mirror towards which the head of the image is slightly turned; the left forearm bears a number of bracelets. On the left the hip and the pelvis are shaped larger than on the right and bring out beautifully the relative proportions of the male and female pelvises. The garment on the right side does not descend below the knee, whereas that on the left side descends as far as the ankle and has a many-folded portion tucked up in front near the loins.

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On the whole, this is one of the many excellent pieces of sculpture in the Nāgēśvarasvāmin temple.

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The fourth illustration, fig. 2, Pl. XCVI, is exactly similar to the third and belongs to about the same period. The original of this is to be found set up in the circuit round the Śiva temple at Tiruchcheṅgāṭṭaṅguḍi in the Tanjore district.

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The fifth illustration is a photograph of a bronze preserved in the Madras Museum (see fig. 1, Pl. XCVI). It is noteworthy in some points: the back right arm is bent and lifted up and carries a paraśu; the front right hand is held in the kaṭaka pose, apparently to hold a triśūla. Of the two left arms, the back one is bent and kept raised and holds in it a nīlōtpala flower, whereas the front one has on its wrist a parrot. In other details, it resembles the other images described above.

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The sixth illustration is entirely different from all the others noticed above (see Pl. XCVII). The original stone sculpture is a loose piece lying in the first prākāra of the Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple at Conjeevaram and is as old as the middle of the seventh century A.D. In this, the image of Arddhanārīśvara has three arms; the front right hand is seen carrying a triśūla by its lower end and the back one is raised up as high as the head and holds a cobra by its tail; the reptile hangs down and lifts up its hood near the hand holding the *triśūla*. The left hand, that of the female half, holds a *vīṇā* in it; it is bent and its elbow is resting upon the head of the bull upon the back of which the figure of Ardhanārīśvara is seated. Nowhere in the authorities quoted in the beginning is it stated that the figure of this composite aspect of Śiva may be a seated one and this particular piece of sculpture is noteworthy for its breach of the rule in this respect. The bull is also seated, an unusual attitude for this animal, especially in the presence of its master.

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Fig. 1. Ardhanārīśvara : Bronze : Madras Museum.

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Fig. 2. Ardhanārīśvara : Stone : Dārāsuram (?)

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Fig. 3. Ardhanārīśvara : Stone : Tirucheṅgāṭṭaṅguḍi.

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Ardhanārīśvara : Stone : Conjeevaram.

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Ardhanārīśvara : Stone : Madura.

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The seventh illustration, Pl. XCVIII, comes from Madura and belongs to the time of Tirumala-Nāyaka (A. D. 17th century). In its details, it agrees closely with the Mahābalipuram sculpture; the workmanship exhibits peculiarities which were common to the age to which the sculpture belongs, namely, a conventional mode of standing, sharp-pointed nose, artificial disposition of the drapery etc. However, it is a strikingly fine piece of workmanship.

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The eighth and the last illustration, fig. 3, Pl. XCVI, is an exceedingly interesting and extraordinary piece of sculpture; in this Ardhanārīśvara has three faces and eight arms. The heads are surrounded by a *prabhā-maṇḍala* and the hands carry in them the *akshamālā*, the *khaḍga*, the *pāśa*, the *musala* (?), a *kapāla*, a lotus flower and other objects. The right side of the figure is male and represents Śiva and the left side is female and represents Pārvatī. In no Sanskrit work that has been examined do we meet with a description of Ardhanārīśvara which agrees with the image whose photograph is reproduced here.

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Having described the image of Ardhanārīśvara it is easy to describe the figure of Haryarddhamūrti. Before proceeding with its description it is necessary to say a few words regarding the origin of this aspect of the deity; it is related in the *Vāmana-purāṇa* that Viṣṇu is reported to have said to a *rishi* that he and Śiva were one and that in him resides Śiva also and manifested himself to the *rishi* in this dual aspect of his. In the Ardhanārīśvara form the left half is occupied by the Dēvī or Prakṛiti and Purusha and Prakṛiti are united with each other for the purpose of generating the universe; the same idea is, as we have already noticed, represented by the *liṅga* and the *yōni*. Umā, Durgā or Dēvī is also considered to be a female aspect of Viṣṇu. It is necessary in this connection to draw the attention of the readers to the fact that Durgā, the consort of Śiva,

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Haryarddhamurti or Hariharamurti.

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is represented in all sculptures with the *saṅkha* and the *chakra*, the weapons characteristic of Viṣṇu. In one instance, she is also called the sister of Viṣṇu. Viṣṇu is also viewed as the *prakṛiti-tatva* and hence we see Viṣṇu substituted in the place occupied by Dēvī in the Arddhanārīśvara aspect of Śiva.

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Again, it appears likely that the sculpturing of the Haryarddhamūrti and its worship as a chief image in many temples came into existence after the conflicts between the partizans of the cults of Śiva and Viṣṇu had abated and a compromise was arrived at, namely, that Śiva is Viṣṇu and Viṣṇu is conversely Śiva and that they are essential for the creation, protection and destruction of the Universe. It is gratifying to note that during the *mahōtsavas* in the temples of Harihara, the vehicles, decoration and ceremonies are alternately those that are peculiar to Śiva and to Viṣṇu respectively and these festivals are attended by both Vaiṣṇavas and Śaivas.

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In the figure of Harihara or Haryarddhamūrti, the description of the right half or the Śaiva portion is exactly identical with the description given under Arddhanārīśvara. The left half or the Vaiṣṇava portion is described in the Sanskrit texts as follows: On the left side of Harihara there should be two arms, of which one should be carrying the chakra, the śaṅkha or the gadā and the other held in the kaṭaka pose near the thigh. On the head, in the Vaiṣṇava half, there should be a kirīṭa set with precious stones and of excellent workmanship; there should be a makara-kuṇḍala in the left ear. The arms on this side should be adorned with kēyūra, kaṅkaṇa and other ornaments. On the right foreleg there should be an anklet shaped like a snake while that on the left leg should be set with all precious stones. The Vaiṣṇava half is to be draped with a yellow silk garment. The colour of the Śaiva half is snow-white and that of Viṣṇu either green or bluish brown. It is also stated that the two legs of Harihara should be kept without any bends in them. The right half should be terrific and the left half pacific. On the Śaiva portion of the forehead the third eye of Śiva must be half visible and behind the head of the image of Harihara there should be a śiraśchakra or halo. The Viṣṇudharmōttara adds that to the left of the figure of Harihara should be sculptured that of Garuḍa and to the right, of Nandi.

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Of the two photographs given in illustration of the Haryarddhamūrti one, Pl. XCIX, belongs to the panel found in the lower cave temple at Bādāmi. The central figure in this panel is Harihara; a clear vertical line of demarcation between the jaṭāmakuṭa of Śiva and the kirīṭa-makuṭa of Viṣṇu is visible in the head-gear. In the right ear is a sarpa-kuṇḍala whereas in the left one there is a nakrakuṇḍala. In the right back hand the image carries a paraśu with a snake round it: and the back left hand keeps a śaṅkha. The front right hand, though broken, appears from its position to have been held in the abhaya pose: the corresponding left hand is resting upon the thigh. There is a śiraśchakra surrounding the crown of the head and the legs stand straight. On the right and left are two goddesses, evidently Pārvatī and Lakshmī, the consorts respectively of Śiva and Viṣṇu. Between Pārvatī and Harihara is a short figure of the bull-faced Nandi carrying in his right hand a daṇḍa; and on the left between Lakshmī and Harihara is a dwarfish figure of Garuḍa. Below the panel and in a long horizontal niche in the platform, over which the figures of Harihara and others stand, are carved a number of gaṇas, some playing upon musical instruments and others dancing.

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Haryarddhamūrti (or Harihara, Śaṅkara-Nārāyaṇamūrti) : Stone Panel ; Bādāmi.

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On the top of the panel and on both sides of the head of Harihara are shown two celestial beings with their wives as flying in the air and carrying in their hands a flower garland each.

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The second photograph, Pl. C, is that of a beautiful image of the Chālukya period preserved in the Office of the Superintendent of Archæology, Western Circle. In all details regarding the ornaments and dress this is not different from the first. In this sculpture the hands in the Śaiva half carry the triśūla and the akshamālā, whereas those on the Vaishṇava half keep the gadā and perhaps a śaṅkha, (this hand is broken and hence the object carried cannot be correctly guessed). As in the previous illustration here also there are the two devīs, Pārvatī and Lakshmī each one carrying a fruit and a flower in the two hands. Garuḍa is kneeling on the left and Nandi, here represented wholly in the form of a bull, is standing on the right. The sculpturing of this image is excellent; great credit is due to the sculptor for the remarkably minute carving of the ornaments. At the back of the central figure is a prabhāvali. Even here distinction is shown between the Śaiva and Vaishṇava halves, the right half being an ordinary prabhāvali and, the left being one-half of an expanded hood of a five-headed snake; but on the top of the prabhāvali the central figure is the face of a lion. On the right and near the blades of the triśūla might be observed the figure of Brahmā seated crosslegged, with hands in the usual poses and carrying the objects characteristic of this deity.

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Harihara : Stone : Poona.

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Satī, the daughter of Daksha and the consort of Śiva was dead. The *asura*, Tāraka, was offering great annoyance to the *dēvas* and *brāhmaṇas* and could not be disposed of by any one but by one born of Śiva. In the absence of a wife Śiva can have no progeny and the gods became interested in the marriage of Śiva. Satī was already born to the god of the Himālaya (Himavān) as Pārvatī and was herself performing austerities to be joined to her lord once again. It was at such a moment that, induced by the *dēvas*, Kāma the god of love, tried his artifices upon Śiva and met with his end. But when once the mind of Śiva was disturbed he could not at once gather his mental determination and he yielded to the prayers of the gods; he resolved to enter marital life. He wanted to try the steadfastness of Pārvatī. The *Varāha-purāṇa* is alone in giving the following account of how he tested it. Śiva assuming the form of an old, decrepit *brāhmaṇa*, approached Pārvatī, who was absorbed in her austerities, and begged to be supplied with food, as he was feeling very hungry. Pārvatī was pleased to ask him to finish his bath and other ablutions and come for meals. The old man went to the river very near the hermitage of Pārvatī and as soon as he got down into the water contrived to be caught by a crocodile. He called out to Pārvatī for help. Pārvatī came to the riverside, but she could not stretch her arm, which was never meant to be held by others than that of her lord, Śiva, even in helping others. Perplexed with this feeling she was standing still for some moments but the danger of the guest being swallowed by the crocodile very soon became patent to her and she was obliged to give up her vow of not being touched by a hand other than that of Śiva; she stretched out her arm and took hold of that of the old brāhmaṇa and pulled him out of the water and the crocodile also left him. Pleased with Pārvatī, Śiva showed his real self to her and she was immensely gratified with her lord for having saved her from being held up to obloquy for having caught hold of a hand other than that of Śiva. She dedicated herself to Śiva and the regular marriage was celebrated later on. The details of the celebration and the description of the images of the gods and goddesses that are to be represented as having taken part in it are found in the Āgamas.

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In the composition of the scene of the marriage of Pārvatī with Śiva there should be Śiva and Pārvatī forming the central figures facing the east.

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Vishṇu and his consorts Lakshmī and Bhūmī as the givers—acting the parts of the parents in a brāhmaṇa marriage—of the bride should be there; of these Lakshmī and Bhūmī should be standing behind the back of the bride, touching her at the waist indicative of handing her over to her lord; and Vishṇu should be standing in the back-ground, between Śiva and Pārvatī with a golden pot of water ready to pour it in the ceremony of giving the bride to the bridegroom; then, there should be Brahmā in the foreground, seated and performing the ceremony of hōma or making offerings to the fire. In the back-ground and at various distances should be seen the eight Vidyēśvaras (or the lords of learning), Ashṭadikpālakas (or the guardians of the eight quarters), Siddhas (persons who have attained the eight great powers), Yakshas (semi-divine beings), ṛishis (sages), Gandharvas (another class of semi-divine beings), the Mātṛikās (or the seven mothers) and a host of other gods, with their respective goddesses, all of them standing with arms folded in the añjali pose, and with the feelings of pleasure, happiness and wonder portrayed in their faces. Such are the details of the general composition of this remarkable scene and the individual figures are described in detail as follows:—

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Śiva should be sculptured as standing firmly on the left leg and with the right one resting upon the ground somewhat bent; or, the left leg may be represented as slightly bent and the right straight and standing firmly on the ground. The front right arm should be stretched out to receive the right arm of the bride, Pārvatī; the front left hand should be held in the *varada* pose. In the back right hand there should be the *paraśu* and in the back left one the *mṛiga*. There should be three bends in the body of Śiva, that is, should be of the *tribhaṅga* posture. The head of Śiva should be adorned with a *jaṭāmakuṭa* with the crescent moon tucked up in it, and all other parts of the body, with their appropriate ornaments such as the *hāra*, the *kēyūra*, the *udarabandha* and the waist zone. The snake Vāsuki should serve Śiva as the *sarpa-kuṇḍala*, Takshaka as the waist band and Pushkara as the *hāra*. The figure of Śiva should be that of a young man who has just come to age. The colour of Śiva should be red. As usual Śiva should have three eyes.

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To the left of the figure of Śiva* should be standing that of Pārvatī, of dark complexion, with her right arm stretched out to receive that of Śiva, in the act of pāṇigrahaṇa (the ceremony of taking hold of the hands) and with her left hand keeping a nīlōtpala. Her head should be slightly bent down in shyness and her person should be adorned with all ornaments appropriate for the occasion. The figure of Pārvatī should be as high as the eye, the chin, the shoulder or the chest of Śiva and she should be represented as a well-developed youthful maiden, with two eyes and two arms and draped in silk garments.

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∗ Some authorities state that Pārvatī should be standing to the right of Śiva and there are sculptures representing Pārvatī as standing both on the right and on the left sides of Śiva.

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In front of Śiva and seated on the ground should be the figure of Brahmā doing hōma or making offerings to the fire. The figure of Brahmā should be as high as the chest of Śiva. The Pūrva-Kāraṇāgama gives numerical proportions for the height of the figures of Brahmā and Viṣṇu. It is therein stated that the height of Viṣṇu might be seven-twelfths, eleven-twelfths, three-fourths or two-thirds of the height of Śiva and that the height of Brahmā either equal to or one-sixth, one-seventh or one-eighth less than that of Viṣṇu.

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Brahmā must be seated upon a padmāsana facing the north, with, in front of him, a kuṇḍa in which the fire is burning with tapering flames. As usual he should be represented with four faces, four arms and as being busy with the performance of the hōma ceremony. He should be adorned with a jaṭāmakuṭa and the body with a yajñōpavīta, a girdle made of muñja grass, and all other ornaments; he should wear an upper cloth. In his front right and left hands he should hold the sruva and sruk respectively, and in the back right and left hands there should be the akshamālā and the kamaṇḍalu respectively. The colour of Brahmā should be red like the fire.

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The size of the sacrificial kuṇḍa is then given as follows: the kuṇḍa should have three mēkhalas (broad tiers going round the central pit in which the fire is kindled) each of twelve aṅgulas in width and the extreme length of the whole kuṇḍa including the mēkhalas being 22 aṅgulas. In the pit of the kuṇḍa, the fire should be shown as possessing seven or five jvālas or tongues of flame which ought to be a fourth of the height of Brahmā; and the breadth of the flames of fire must be half their height. The aṅgula mentioned here is the dēhalabdha-aṅgula of the central figure of Śiva.

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On the north of hōma-kuṇḍa should be standing the figure of Vishṇu, whose height should come up to that of the nose, shoulder or chest of Śiva. If it is as high as the nose, it is said to be a uttama figure; if as high as the chest, adhama. Dividing the distance between the nose and the chest into eight equal divisions, we shall get the nine classes, composed of the uttama, madhyama and adhama forms of Viṣṇu, that is, uttamōttama, uttama-madhyama, uttamādhama and so forth. Viṣṇu should be adorned with a kirīṭa-makuṭa on his head and all other ornaments in their proper places. In the back right and left hands he should bear the chakra and the śaṅkha, while the front right or left hands should carry a golden pot, held ready for pouring water from in the act of giving the bride Pārvatī to the bridegroom Śiva. The colour of Viṣṇu should be, as usual, dark.

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The figure of Lakshmī is required to be as high as the chin or the shoulder of Viṣṇu, with arms resembling the trunk of an elephant adorned with kēyūras, kaṅkaṇas and other ornaments. The hip of Lakshmī should be broad and graceful and she should be draped in richly embroidered silk cloth.

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Such are the descriptions of the individual figures composing the picture depicting the favourite theme of the Indian artist, as given in the Aṁśumadbhēdāgama, Uttara-kāmikāgama and the Pūrva-Kāraṇāgama. Let me now turn to the descriptions of the actual sculptures found in the various parts of India, whose photographs are reproduced on Pls. CI to CVII.

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Seven photographs are given in illustration of the marriage scene of Śiva with Pārvatī; the original sculptures are of varying degrees of complexity and consist in one instance of barely Śiva and Pārvatī standing hand in hand, while in others with all the divinities surrounding them and each doing a duty in connection with the marriage. Let me therefore describe each of them separately.

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The first photograph, Pl. CI, is that of the bronze images of Śiva and Pārvatī in the act of taking hold of each other's hand in marriage. The original image of Śiva is nearly three feet in height and has four arms and three eyes. The front right hand is held out to receive that of Pārvatī, while the back right one carries a paraśu with its head turned away from the face of Śiva. The front left hand is held in the abhaya pose and the back left one carries a mriga. The right leg of the image of Śiva is placed firmly on the ground and the left one is slightly bent and is resting upon the ground. There are two bends (dvibhaṅga) in this image. On the head of this image is a jaṭāmakuṭa adorned with very nicely executed ornaments; the hāra and the yajñōpavīta, the kēyūra and the kaṭakas the udarabandha and the kaṭibandha—all these are also artistically made. The image is apparently draped in tiger's skin and on the feet are the anklets. The figure is standing upon a *padmāsana*. The image of Pārvatī, with its face slightly bent down in shyness, stands by the right side of that of Śiva, with the right arm stretched out to receive that of Śiva, while the left hand is kept in the *kaṭaka* pose. On the head of Pārvatī is a *karaṇḍa-makuṭa* and her person is adorned with a large number of ornaments of good workmanship; she wears an exquisitely embroidered cloth which descends in flowing folds on either side and is held on the loin by *mēkhalas* (a kind of belt). The figure of Pārvatī is also standing on a *padmāsana* with two bends in its body. This piece of sculpture appears to belong to the early Chōḷa period (A. D. 1000-1100).

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Kalyāṇasundaramūrti : Bronze : Tiruvorriyūr.

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Kalyāṇasundaramūrti: Stone Panel: Ratanpūr (Bilāspūr District).

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The second sculpture whose photograph is reproduced on Pl. CII, comes from Ratanpur in the Bilaspur district of the Central Provinces. In this panel Śiva stands with his front right hand stretched out to receive that of Pārvatī, who in this instance alone, stands to the left of Śiva. His front left hand rests upon the right shoulder of Pārvatī. In the back hands he carries perhaps the *sūla* and the *ḍamaru*. Brahmā is seen seated before the fire, on the right of Śiva and is busy in making fire-offerings; the fire is burning in a cup placed in front of him. Near the *kuṇḍa* or cup of fire stands the bull of Śiva. Surrounding the central figures of Śiva and Pārvatī are a large number of gods and goddesses, several in the añjali attitude and some with their arms resting upon their hips (katyavalambita).

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The next illustration, CIII, is to be found in the Cave temple at Elephanta. It is a remarkably well-executed panel, but very unfortunately here and there mutilated. But what remains is sufficient to disclose the master-hand of the artist who sculptured this most interesting scene. Śiva is standing with Pārvatī to his right; his front right hand is as usual stretched out to receive that of Pārvatī. The figure of Pārvatī is of striking beauty; her slightly bent head and down-cast look depict an amount of shyness: her narrow waist and the broad hip, the well-formed bosom and the easy posture of the legs all lend a charm to the figure which is all its own. Brahmā is making hōma to the left of Śiva and Lakshmī is seen standing behind Pārvatī with her hands touching her back and behind Lakshmī stands her consort Viṣṇu with a large pot of water for pouring water at the ceremony of giving the bride to the bridegroom. The figure of a very well built man is to be seen standing behind Pārvatī with his right hand bent and resting upon the right shoulder of Pārvatī. From the size of the figure and from the fact that it has only two arms, as also from a sort of inferior head-gear, one may presume it represents Parvatarāja, the father of Pārvatī. If that is he, it is indeed noteworthy to find him in the panel. Below the right hand of this figure is a large drum, also very well-carved. A number of gods with their respective goddesses are seen in the air in the attitude of flying and praising the married couple. In point of size also this panel is most remarkable; the height of the figure of Pārvatī is 8 feet and 6 inches and the panel itself measures approximately 10¾ feet square.

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Kalyāṇasundaramūrti : Stone Panel : Elephanta.

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Kalyāṇasundaramūrti : Stone Panel : Ellora.

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Subrahmanya teaching Śiva : The scene of marriage between Śiva and Pārvati : Pārvati doing penance to obtain the hand of Śiva in marriage. Stone Panel : Ellora.

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The photograph reproduced on Pl. CIV is of the panel found in the Dhumar Lena Cave at Ellora. In its details the panel is exactly similar to that of the Elephanta Cave, though its workmanship has not got the latter's fineness and artistic finish.

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The large panel whose photograph is given on Pl. CV belongs to the Cave temple of Rāmēśvara at Ellora. It is divided into three sections, the two on the left are depicting scenes from the marriage of Pārvatī with Śiva. In the extreme left section and at its right end is seen Pārvatī standing erect on the mountain between two fires, performing penance to obtain the hand of Śiva in marriage. Her left hand rests upon her thigh, while the right one is counting the beads of an *akshamālā*. To her left stands a woman carrying a box; a male figure, with outstretched right hand as though asking for something from Pārvatī, is seen standing to the left of the tall girl with the box in her hand. It is the figure of Śiva as a hungry beggar asking for food. A little to the left, the scene changes: the beggar, who was asked by Pārvatī, according to the *Varāha-purāṇa*, to go to the river to bathe and return for meals, is in knee deep water, the surface of which is covered with lotus flowers and leaves; his left leg is caught hold of by a *makara* and he is calling out for help. Pārvatī who repairs to the spot to see what has become of her guest, sees him in this miserable plight; after hesitating for a moment if she should now offer her hand or not to this beggar, and with great reluctance, tries at last to lift him up with her left hand—note, she keeps her right one far away from the man and held in the *vismaya* pose. To save her from the tongue of slander Śiva appears to her in his real person, represented in the panel, just above the head of the beggar. His *jaṭā-makuṭa* and other ornaments readily proclaim his identity. It should be noted here that water, fire and mountain are represented in the conventional manner described elsewhere. Proceeding then to the next scene, that of the actual marriage ceremony, which is depicted in the middle section of the panel, it is seen that Pārvatī, standing to the right of Śiva is offering her right hand to him, who receives the same in his right hand. At the background and between the bride and bridegroom is Viṣṇu standing with a pot of water ready to pour in the hands of Śiva, in making the gift of the bride. Lakṣmī’s face is seen behind the head of the bride and she is standing behind Pārvatī and presenting her to her lord, Śiva. Behind the bride are two female attendants, one of them carrying a box and behind the bridegroom are two devas and a gaṇa, the latter being easily recognised by his size and head-gear. Brahmā, assisted by a ṛiṣi, is seen performing the fire-offering (hōma). The strangest thing in the panel is the anachronistic presence of Gaṇēśa and Kārttikēya, the two sons of Śiva and Pārvatī, even during the marriage of the two!! The little Gaṇēśa is standing between the legs of Śiva and Pārvatī and Kārttikēya between those of Śiva and the gaṇa. The latter appears to carry in his left hand a kukkuṭa (cock) whose tail is visible in the photograph. The presence of these two children is, in all probability, meant to indicate that they were not born by the union of the couple but had existed from eternity like all gods, but at a later period assumed the position of the sons of Śiva and Pārvatī.

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The remaining portion of the panel represents another scene in the life of Śiva. He is seen learning the significance of the mystic syllable Ōm from his son Subrahmaṇya. An account of this event will be found given in the chapter on Subrahmaṇya. Subrahmaṇya with six heads (of which three are visible in the sculpture) is seated on a high pedestal with a ṛishi; one of his right hands is held in the chin-mudra pose, while the other is kept with outstretched fingers. One left hand is resting upon his lap. He wears the cloth in the upavīta fashion; the legs are hanging below the seat and resting upon the ground. The ṛishi has also both his legs hanging down the seat and seems to have his hands kept in the añjali pose. In front of Subrahmaṇya is seated cross-legged on the ground Śiva with his right hand held in the jñāna-mudrā pose and the left one resting, in the yōga-mudrā pose, on his lap. He also wears his upper garment in the upavīta fashion. Behind him is seen standing Pārvatī, his consort.

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Below this remarkable composite panel is a row of most humourous gaṇas some with animal faces, others with animal-mouthed bellies (*vrikōdaras*) and the rest like human beings taking active part, with great cheerfulness, in the arrangements in connection with the marriage festivities. The two first on the right end are seen carrying each a banner and the third a mace ; the fourth is dancing. Three *gaṇas* are seen carrying a four-footed article resembling a table, which is evidently a raised seat. On the left of this group another *gaṇa* is seen playing upon the flute ; next to him is a lion faced *gaṇa* playing upon a stringed musical instrument. Adjoining this, there is a bear-faced *gaṇa* carrying something on his head ; another, tiger-faced, holds in his left hand something kept in a round leaf, apparently that of the lotus. The fourth from the left is a *vrikōdara* ; the rest are carrying some article or other in their hands.

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