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Elements of Hindu Iconography v3.c19: Devi

Elements of Hindu Iconography v3.c19

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English

Devi

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GOD, according to Hindu philosophy and theology, may be viewed as being either with or without attributes, that is, as *saguṇa* or *nirguṇa*. In the former case God is spoken of as He or She, and in the latter case as It. In the *saguṇa* form of worship, which is prescribed for all common people, the Vaiṣṇavas worship him as Viṣṇu and the Śaivas as Śiva. Those Hindus who worship the Supreme deity exclusively as a female principle are called Śāktas. The classification of Hindu worshippers into Vaiṣṇavas and Śaivas on the one hand and Śāktas on the other is not, however, exclusively rigid or inviolable, in as much as Vaiṣṇavas and Śaivas also worship the Dēvī in the form of Lakshmī and Pārvatī, although the supreme place of honour is reserved for the male Dēva, that is, for Viṣṇu or Śiva as the case may be. Here the Dēvī comes only next to the Dēva. But the Śāktas make the Dēvī supreme deity and assert that without the co-operation of this goddess the absolute Brahman of itself can achieve nothing. This Śakti may be conceived to be the personification of universal energy in the abstract. She resides in the macrocosm as well as in the microcosm. The discovery and development of Śakti or psychic energy in man is the aim of the Mantra-śāstras. The Śakti which resides in man, and the development of which is one of the aims of the Yōga-śāstra, is called the Kuṇḍalini Śakti. The place where it resides is called the Mūlādhāra, and is understood to be at the lower extremity of the spinal cord. By a successful development and working of this Śakti at the Mūlādhāra, even the attainment of mōksha or the liberation of the soul is believed to become possible. In the ordinary condition the Kuṇḍalini Śakti is latent and sleeps quietly at the Mūlādhāra. The yōgic aspirant may first awaken the sleeping faculty in two ways, that is, either by means of the prāṇāyāma or by means of mantras. Of these the former process consists in the regulation and the holding of the breath for certain definite periods of time. This is the course advocated in works on the Yōga śāstra. The second process requires the aspirant to be initiated in certain mantras or incantations which he has to repeat a fixed number of times at certain hours of the day, keeping all the while before his mental vision the image of the deity associated with the mantra. When thus roused up, the Kuṇḍalinī ascends from the Mūlādhāra to the next higher centre the Svādhiṣṭhāna: thence to the centres Maṇipūra and Anāhata in the latter of which this psychic śakti is transformed into sound; then to the centre Viśuddhi where it becomes sāttvic; and then at last to the centre Ājñā where the śakti becomes manifest in the form of a flash of light. By repeatedly practising the process of holding the breath and controlling it, as laid down in the Yōga śāstras, one may be enabled to enjoy this divine light perpetually, and thus be in union with Divinity itself. The practice of holding the breath and controlling it for the purpose of rousing the Kuṇḍalinī śakti possibly brings into active play some latent power residing in the several parts of the spinal cord of the human being, which has not been as yet examined by Western Science.

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The effects produced in each of the six centres mentioned above are often depicted diagramatically; and the diagrams may convey to the initiates some concrete idea of the internal psychic results attained by the practice of yōgic breath control and mental concentration. These diagrams are called by the names of Chakras and Yantras. A chakra is defined in the Tantras as a figure consisting of angles and petal-like parts; that which consists of angles alone is called a yantra. The yantras generally consist of triangles cutting each other or straight lines crossing each other so as to produce a number of rectangular spaces and terminating in trident-like projections. Certain letters called bījāksharas or seed-letters are associated with these chakras and yantras, and are written down invariably in specified parts thereof. The bījāksharas may be imagined to be something like code words, whose significance is known only to the initiates. The worship of yantras is common throughout India; perhaps the most important of these yantras is the Śrīchakra. It generally consists of forty-three triangles interestingly arranged in a plane and may also be produced in three other different forms called Mēru, Kailāsa and Bhū. The Mēru is the same as the plane Śrīchakra in plan; but the various triangles, surrounding the innermost one, are piled one over another in different planes so that the whole becomes shaped into the form of a pyramid. The topmost layer of the Mēru contains a circle called the bindu. If associated with the eight mātṛikā deities the Mēru becomes the Kailāsa; and with the Vāsinī deities it becomes the Bhū. The Śruti or Vēdic revelation itself supports the worship of yantras (vide, Taitt. Āran.). The drawing of the famous yantra known as the Śrīchakra is given herein: the lettering of the spaces is also shown in the photograph reproduced below; with an ordinary reading lens, the letters of the Dēvanāgari alphabet may be seen engraved in various parts on this mystic figure.* This and other yantras are generally engraved on some metallic plate, preferably one of gold; silver and copper also are often enough employed. The Śrīchakra engraved on metallic plates is an object of worship. In South Indian temples of the medieval and later periods, there are shrines called by the name of Śakti-pīṭhālayas, in which there is a pīṭha or smaller altar very much resembling the common bali-pīṭha whereon the oblations of formal worship are usually offered in temples. It is said that these pīṭhas associated with the Śakti-pīṭhalayas contain inside them the plate on which the Śrīchakra is engraved. Regular pūjā is offered to the Śakti-pīṭha at least twice a day. In as much as this is thus an object of worship, it has been treated in this work as an icon.

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∗ The belief in the mystic potency of the interlacing triangle and other geometrical figures, does not belong exclusively to the Hindus. The interlacing triangle, which is known to the Freemason under the name of Agla, once contained cabalistic characters in each of its spaces and was considered to represent either the design of Solomon's seal or the Shield of David. By some strange and occult process of reasoning it was believed to be a security against wounds, to serve as an extinguisher of fires and to possess other marvellous properties. The interlacing triangle, or the pentangle, with the letter G placed in the centre forms jewel of the Mark-Mason; and the same, with an Egyptian Tau in the middle space and with a tail-devouring snake encircling the whole, constitutes the seal of Modern Theosophical Societies.

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Śrīchakra.

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Śrīchakara : On metal Pletī : Srīngāri Maṭha.

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The other yantras are engraved upon thin gold, silver or copper plates, which are rolled into a cylinder and then put into a golden or other metallic case so that they may be worn on the body of person with a view to avoid diseases, possession by devils, and other such evils, which, it is supposed, they have the power to ward off. Occasional worship is also offered to this case containing the magical yantra, and the wearer's faith in its efficacy may well effect cures in many cases.

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The goddess Dēvī is worshipped in many forms. She is variously named sometimes according to her imagined age; thus, when she is worshipped as an year old baby, she is known by the name of Sandhyā; if she is conceived to be two years old, she is called Sarasvati; if of seven years of age, Caṇḍikā; if of eight years of age, Sāmbhavi; if of nine years of age, Durgā or Bālā; of ten years of age, Gauri; of thirteen, Mahālakshmi; and of sixteen, Lalitā. Sometimes she is named in recognition of one or other of her heroic achievements; for instance, she is called Mahishāsuramarddani in consequence of her having destroyed the Mahishāsura. There are special forms of images corresponding to these various ways of conceiving the goddess Dēvi. In the Dēvimāhātmya found in the Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa, the Dēvi herself is made to say “In the Vaivasvata-manvantara, at the end of the Dvāpara-yuga and the beginning of the Kali-yuga, a new set of asuras called by the names Śumbha and Niśumbha, would be born; and then I shall also be born as Nandā to the cow-herd Nanda-gōpāla, and shall take up the Vindhya mountain as my abode. Thereafter, at the end of the Dvāpara-yuga, I shall kill the asuras born in the family of Viprachitta and eat them up; then my teeth, hair, body and weapons will all become red with their blood and for that reason they will call me in the world as Rakta-Chāmuṇḍa. Then there would occur a famine of a hundred years' duration in the world, when there would not be available in it even a drop of water. In response to the prayers of the Munis I shall at that time come out of the body of Pārvatī with a hundred eyes; and then people would call me by the name of Śatākshī. In the fortieth *yuga* of the Vaivasvata-manvantara I shall protect all the beings in the world with such vegetables as are necessary for the maintenance of life and relieve them from the famine. People would then call me Śākambharī. In this form of mine I shall kill an *asura* named Durgama, and shall thenceforth be known as Durgādēvī. I shall then proceed to the Himalayas and assume the terrific form of Bhīmā. There will then appear an *asura* by name Aruṇa; and in the sixtieth *yuga* I shall, with the aid of a swarm of wasps (*bhramaras*), attack him and kill him. I shall, for this reason, be called Bhrāmarī”. In this way the Mārkaṇḍēya-purāṇa gives the clue to some of the names of Dēvī, indicating that they often depend upon the achievements that are attributed to her.

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Regarding the supremacy of Dēvī as a deity and her position as the source of all divine as well as cosmic evolution, it is worth quoting from the same authority. It is said in the Mārkaṇḍēya-purāṇa—“The Gupta-rūpi Dēvī, that is, the Dēvī who is unmanifested, takes the three forms of Lakshmī, Mahākālī and Sarasvatī, representing the

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Rājasa, the Sāttvika and the Tāmasa attributes or guṇas of prakriti. She is also known in various other ways; for instance, at the time of srishti or creation, she is Mahākālī exercising control over Brahmā and bringing the world into existence; at the time of the pralaya or universal destruction, she is Mahāmārī; as giver of wealth and prosperity she is Lakshmī and as destroyer of wealth and prosperity Alakshmī or Jyēshṭhadēvī.”

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. . . . “ During the time of creation, she assumes the form of a dark coloured woman under various names, such as Mahāmāyā, Mahākālī, Mahāmārī, Kshudhā, Trishā, Nidrā, Trishṇā, Ēkavīrā, Kālarātri and Duratyayā. In obedience to the command of the supreme goddess Mahālakshmī, she divides herself into two portions, a male portion known by the names of Nīlakaṇṭha, Raktabāhu, Śvētāṅga, Chandraśēkhara, Rudra, Śaṅkara, Sthāṇu, and Trilōchana, and a female portion of white colour known as Vidyā, Bhāshā, Svara, Akshara, and Kāmadhēnu. Similarly, the Sattva form, of moon-like splendour, possessed of akshamālā, aṅkuśa, vīṇā and pustaka, is also generated by Mahālakshmī, the supreme goddess; this aspect of the goddess is known by the names of Mahāvidyā, Mahāvāṇī, Bhāratī, Vāk, Sarasvatī, Āryā, Brāhmī, Kāmadhēnu, Vēdagarbhā, Dhī and Īśvari. She also gives rise to a male and a female form by the command of the supreme Dēvi; the male form produced out of this aspect of the goddess is the black coloured deity known as Viṣṇu, Kṛṣṇa, Hṛṣīkēśa, Vāsudēva and Janārddana; and the female is the fair coloured goddess known as Umā, Gaurī, Satī, Caṇḍī, Sundarī, Subhagā and Śivā. The Rājasa form of the supreme Mahālakshmi is simply called Lakshmi. She carries a mātuluṅga (pomegranate) fruit, the gadā, the pātra (vessel) and the khēṭaka, and has a chihna or mark consisting of the male and female signs (Liṅga). Hers is the colour of molten gold. She has also divided herself into male and female parts; the former is known as Hiraṇyagarbha, Brahman, Vidhi, Viriñcha and Dhātā and the latter is called Śrī, Padmā, Kamalā, and Lakshmi. And the mother of the universe, Mahālakshmi, ordered Brahman to take Sarasvatī as his consort. The great Brahmāṇḍa was born by their union. Rudra, that is, Śiva married Gaurī, and they both broke open the ‘egg of gold’. Lakshmi became herself the consort of Viṣṇu and they both afforded protection to the universe. From Māyā the whole lot of created beings came into existence.” Thus, according to the Dēvimāhātmya,all the gods and goddesses mentioned above are but manifestations of the one single Supreme Being Mahālakshmi and should not be understood to be separate individual deities.”

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The evolution of the various cosmic gods and goddesses from the supreme Goddess Mahālakshmi, as given in the Dēvīmāhātmya of the Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa, is shown below in a tabular form :—

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[Figure: The Supreme Mahalaksmi.

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Sattva-gunatmika = Sarasvati.

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Gauri. Vishnu md. Lakshmi,

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Rajasa-gunatmika = Lakshmi.

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Hiranyagarbha md. Sarasvati.

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Tamasa-gunatmika = Mahakali.

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Rudra. md.]

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It may be seen from the above table that all the manifestations of divine power are here conceived to flow from Mahālakshmi, who is looked upon in the Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa as the Supreme source of all power. This Dēvī is indeed at the basis of the worship of Śakti; and hence, as proceeding out of the supreme Dēvī, all the minor Dēvis are described in this chapter irrespective of whether they belong to the Śaiva or the Vaishṇava cult. They are, however, for the purposes of description, grouped according to the cult to which they belong, as certain convenience is gained by so doing.

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General features of the images of the Devi.

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It was pointed out already that Dēvī is worshipped independently as the Supreme Deity under the name of Śakti in Śāktism, and that she is also worshipped in association with Śiva in Śaivism and Viṣṇu in Vaiṣṇavism. It has to be noted, however, that Śāktism is often considered to be more akin to Śaivism than to Vaiṣṇavism. Hence the characteristics of the Dēvī as an independent goddess and her Purāṇic associations may be noticed to have somewhat marked relations to the cult of Śiva-worship; and the study of Dēvī-icons confirms this view. The ordinary or common form of the image of the Dēvī as the consort of Śiva is given in the Uttara-kāmikāgama. There it is described as having four arms and three eyes and a pacific countenance. It should wear on the head a karaṇḍa-makuṭa and be clad in silk garments. In two of the hands the pāśa and the aṅkuśa should be carried, while the remaining two are to be held in the varada and the abhaya poses.

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If the image of the Dēvī is such as is made to stand by the side of the image of her consort, then it generally has only two hands; one of these is made to hold a lotus or is kept in the kaṭaka pose, evidently to have a fresh natural flower put in every day, instead of having to carry metallic or stone representation of the same; the other hand is allowed to hang down freely by the side. This kind of goddess should have only two eyes and be of golden colour and handsome in appearance. Even when the Dēvī is not made to stand by the side of her consort, she may sometimes be given only two hands, one of which may be made to carry a parrot or a mirror and the other a blue-lily; or, she may be made to hold a śūla and a pāśa, or any other weapons which please the fancy of the artist.

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The Dēvī may also be sculptured with six arms; then she should be wielding in four of her hands the pāśa, aṅkuśa, śaṅkha and chakra and the remaining hands should be in the varada and abhaya poses. Sometimes she may be given even as many as ten hands: in this case she should be represented with five faces having terrific look and with side tusks. Her hands should carry the same weapons which Śiva does when he is given ten hands. She should have the same āsana as Śiva.

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Again, the Dēvī is sometimes sculptured as embracing Śiva or as sitting on the same or a different seat near Śiva. In the former case she is seated on the lap of Śiva. In the latter case, one of her legs, either the right or the left, should be folded and made to rest upon the seat, and the other should be left hanging down. Since it is said that either of the two legs might be folded and made to rest upon the seat, it is clear that the goddess may be seated on the right or the left of Śiva.

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Whether the image of the Dēvi happens to be an independent figure or in association with the image of Śiva—in either of these cases, the body of the goddess may have two bends and be of the *dvibhaṅga* variety or it may be perfectly erect and be of the *samabhaṅga* variety. When by the side of her lord Śiva, the Dēvi is known by the names of Manōnmaṇi or Gaurī. If Śiva is conceived as Sadāśiva, the Dēvi associated with him is Manōnmaṇi; and she happens to be Gaurī, when she is associated with Naṭarāja and other *mūrtis* of Śiva. There is, however, not the least difference in the sculpturing of these two differently named forms of the goddess. She might be shown as being black, white or red according to the taste of the artist.

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The *Suprabhēdāgama* says that the image of the Dēvi should have large and prominent breasts, and that it should be adorned with all ornaments. The standing figure of the Dēvi with only one pair of arms is, according to the *Pūrva-kāraṇāgama*, known by the name of Bhavānī also.

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(Fig. 1.) Durgā : Wood : Oṇakkūr.

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Durgā : Stone : Mahābalipuram.

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We may now take into consideration some of the special forms of the Dēvi, as associated directly or indirectly with the cult of Śiva. The Śaiva and the Śākta forms of the Dēvi are in fact the most numerous; and it is the latter of these forms that are indirectly associated with Śaivism largely.

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The goddess Durgā may have four, eight or more hands, should have three eyes and be of dark complexion. She should have a handsome look with a well developed bust, stout thighs and big hip, and be clad in yellow garments. The head should be adorned with a karaṇḍa-makuṭa, and the body decked with all ornaments. The front right hand should be in the abhaya pose, and the back one should carry the chakra. The front left hand should be in the kaṭaka pose and the back one should carry the śaṅkha. The image of Durgā should be made to stand erect upon a padmāsana, (See Pl. C.), or on the head of a buffalo, or be seated on the back of a lion. Her breasts should be bound with a snake, and a red bodice should cover the upper portion of her body. The Supra-bhēdāgama calls her ‘the dear younger sister of Viṣṇu’, and informs us that she came out of the Ādiśakti. According to this work she may have either eight or four hands; and when she has eight hands, they have to carry the śaṅkha, chakra, śūla, dhanus, bāṇa, khaḍga, khēṭaka, and pāśa. (See Pls. XCIX and CI).

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No less than nine different forms of Durgā are mentioned in the Āgamas, namely,

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1. Nilakaṇṭhī.
2. Kṣēmaṅkarī.
3. Harasiddhi.
4. Rudrāṃśa-Durgā.
5. Vana-Durgā.
6. Agni-Durgā.
7. Jaya-Durgā.
8. Vindhyavāsi-Durgā.
9. Ripumārī-Durgā.

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To the above must also be added the group of nine figures of Durgā called the Nava-Durgās.

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Of the nine forms of Durgā mentioned above Nilakaṇṭhi is described as the bestower of wealth and happiness on her devotees and is to be shown as carrying in three out of her four hands the triśūla, the khēṭaka and a drinking vessel, while the remaining hand is required to be kept in the varada pose.

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Kṣēmaṅkari, the goddess capable of giving health, should keep one of her hands in the varada pose and the remaining three should be shown as carrying the triśūla, the padma and a drinking vessel.

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Durgā: Stone; Mahābalipuram.

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Durgā panel in the rock-cut temple of Varākasvāmin in Mahābalipuram.

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Harasiddhi is the goddess who confers attainment of the desired ends to her votaries; she should carry in her hands the *ḍamaru*, the *kamaṇḍalu*, the *khaḍga* and a drinking vessel.

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Rudrāmśa-Durgā is described as having two eyes and a dark coloured body and is draped in red garments. Her head should be covered with the *kirīṭa-makuṭa* and she must be adorned with golden ornaments set with rubies. She should carry in her hands the *śūla*, the *khaḍga*, the *śaṅkha* and the *chakra*. Her vehicle is said to be the lion; on either side of this goddess should be the sun and the moon.

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Vana-Durgā should have eight hands in seven of which should be held the *śaṅkha*, *chakra*, *khaḍgā*, *khēṭaka*, *bāṇa*, *dhanus* and *śūla*, the remaining hand being held in the *tarjani* pose. The complexion of this aspect of Durgā is grass green.

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Agni-Durgā has also eight hands, six of which hold the *chakra*, *khaḍga*, *khēṭaka*, *bāṇa*, *pāśa*, and *aṅkuśa*; of the remaining two hands one is held in the *varada* pose and the other in the *tarjani* pose. She has three eyes and her complexion is as brilliant as the lightning. On her crown is tied the crescent moon; she is riding a lion and has a terrific look. On the right and left of this goddess there should be standing in a reverential attitude two celestial damsels holding each a sword and a shield.

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Jaya-Durgā should have three eyes and four arms in which she should be shown as carrying the *śaṅkha*, the *chakra*, the *khaḍga* and the *triśūla*. The colour of this form of Durgā is black. The crescent moon adorns the crown of this goddess also; the vehicle of Jaya-Durgā is a lion; her lustre is said to spread throughout the three worlds. This form of Durgā should be worshipped by those who desire to attain *siddhi*.

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Vindhyavāsī-Durgā of complexion bright as the lightning should be seated on a golden lotus, should have three eyes and four arms. Two out of her four hands should carry the *śaṅkha* and the *chakra*, while the remaining two are to be held in the *varada* and the *abhaya* poses respectively. She should be adorned with the crescent moon, the *hāra*, *aṅgadas*, *kuṇḍalas* and other ornaments. Surrounding her should be seen standing Indra and other gods praising her. The lion, her vehicle, should also be standing near her.

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(Fig. 1.) Katyāyanī or Mahishāsuramarddanī : Stone : Madras Museum.

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(Fig. 2.) Durgā : Stone : Conjeevaram.

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Katyāyanī or Mahishāsuramarddanī : Stone : Gangaikondaśolapuram.

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[To face page 345.]

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Ripumāri-Durgā is of red complexion and with a terrific look. In one hand she carries the *triśūla*, while the other is held in the *tarjani* pose. If her mantra is repeated ten thousand times, all the while concentrating the mind on her as being placed in the *Sūrya-bimba* (the disc of the sun), she is believed to effect the destruction of enemies and their followers.

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The goddess Durgā, as Mahishāsura-marddanī, should have ten hands, according to the *Śilparatna*, which describes her further as having three eyes; she should wear on her head a *jaṭā-makuṭa* and in it there should be the *chandra-kalā* or the digit of the moon. The colour of her body should be like that of the *atasī* flower, and the eyes should resemble the *nilōtpala* or the blue lily; she should have high breasts and a thin waist and there should be three bends in her body (of the *tribhaṅga* variety). In her right hands she should carry the *triśūla*, *khaḍga*, *śaktyāyudha*, *chakra*, and a stringed bow; and in the left hands the *pāśa*, *aṅkuśa*, *khēṭaka*, *paraśu*, and a bell. At her feet should lie a buffalo with its head cut off and with blood gushing from its neck. From within this neck should be visible the half emerged real *asura* bound down by the *nāga-pāśa* of the Dēvī. The asura should be made to carry a sword and a shield, although the Dēvī has already plunged her triśūla into his neck and he is bleeding profusely. He should have a terrific look with knitted eye-brows. The right leg of the Dēvī should be placed on the back of her lion and her left leg should touch the buffalo-body of Mahishāsura. (See Pls. CII and CIII.)

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The Vishṇudharmōttara as quoted in the Vāchaspatya, describes Mahishāsura-marddanī under the name of Chaṇḍikā thus:—This Dēvī has the complexion of gold and is a very handsome youthful woman in an angry mood, sitting on the back of a lion. She has twenty hands; the right ones carry respectively the śūla, khaḍga, śaṅkha, chakra, bāṇa, śakti, vajra, abhaya, ḍamaru and an umbrella; while the left ones are seen to hold the nāga-pāśa, khēṭaka, paraśu, aṅkuśa, dhanus, ghaṇṭa, dhvaja, gadā, a mirror and the mudgara. The buffalo-part of the asura is lying decapitated with the real asura proceeding from out of the neck. His eyes, hair and brows are red and he vomits blood from his mouth. The lion of the Dēvī mauls him, and the Dēvī herself thrusts the triśūla into his neck. The asura, who is bound down by the nāga-pāśa, carries a sword and a shield. (See Pls. CIV and CV.)

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Kātyāyanī or Mahishāsuramarddanī : Stone : Ellora.

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Kātyāyanī or Mahishāsuramarddanī : Stone : Mahābalipuram.

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Kātyāyani is described as a goddess having ten arms and partaking of the nature of the three gods Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. She wears on her head the jaṭā-bhāra, in which is tucked up the crescent moon. Her face resembles in splendour the full moon and the colour of her body is that of the atasī flower. She has very pretty eyes and an appearance disclosing the freshness of the youth which has just come upon her, and is decked with all ornaments. Her breasts are large and prominent and she stands with three bends in her body (tribhaṅga). She is represented as killing Mahiṣāsura, bearing in her right hands the triśūla, khaḍga, bāṇa, chakra, śaktyāyudha ; and in the left ones, kheṭaka, pāśa, aṅkuśa, ghaṇṭā and paraśu.∗ Below is the headless trunk of the buffalo-bodied asura from whose neck his human form is made to emerge with a sword and a shield in his hands. His chest is pierced by the triśūla of the Dēvī. The rest of the description of this asura here agrees closely with that of Mahiṣāsura-marddani.

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∗ In another description two more articles, the pūrṇa-pātra and chāmara are mentioned as held in the hands in addition to those already mentioned ; but the number of hands are, however, said to be only ten.

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The following account of the destruction of Mahishāsura is given in the Varāha-purāṇa: — Vaishṇavī, the Śakti of Vishṇu, was making tapas on the Mandara mountain. On one occasion, her mind lost its concentration, and in consequence several handsome looking females were born out of her. They began to attend upon the Dēvī; and thus, looked after by these damsels, she began to continue her austerities. Nārada, who happened to go that way, saw her resplendent beauty, and told Mahishāsura of the existence of a real paragon of beauty on the Mandara mountain. Seized by the madness of possessing her, the asura prepared himself to capture her and marry her. As a preliminary step he sent a messenger to the Dēvī to relate to her his greatness and prowess and to ask her to accept him as her consort. This messenger narrated to her the origin and history of Mahishāsura thus: — When the ṛishi Sindhu-dvīpa, son of Supārśva, was practising penance in Mahishmati, a girl named Mahishmati, a daughter of Viprachitti, came with her friends to the Mandara-parvata on a pleasure excursion. There they came upon a beautiful abode of a ṛishi, which she wanted to take possession of. To drive away the then occupant of the āśrama, they all took the shape of she-buffaloes and threatened to gore the ṛiṣi, who was doing penance. The ṛiṣi perceived by means of his mental vision the truth of the situation and cursed that these girls should all become real *mahishis* or she-buffaloes. As soon as they heard the curse, they began to realise the formidable nature of the offence they had committed and began to repent. The ṛiṣi also became cooled down somewhat, and promised them that their buffalo nature would disappear from them as soon as a buffalo-son was born to Mahishmati. After some years had passed by, Mahishmati was grazing on the banks of the Narmadā. The ṛiṣi Sindhudvīpa, who had also gone there, met a celestial nymph named Indumati and fell in love with her. As he was not able to approach her, his seed fell in the river Narmadā, and it was swallowed with the water of the river by Mahishmati who took then her drink from the Narmadā. This seed grew in the womb of Mahishmati, and in time Mahishāsura was born. In addition to giving this description of the origin of Mahishāsura, his messenger praised also the intelligence and valour of his master. On hearing this, Jayā, one of the attendants of the Dēvī, replied by saying that none of the women on the Mandara mountain was going to get married, and that therefore he might depart in peace. He left accordingly. After the departure of the messenger Nārada appeared before the Dēvī, and informed her that Mahishāsura, having defeated all the gods, was going to her to carry her away by force. Very soon, the asura, as stated by Nārada, came with a large army to attack the Dēvī; she with her female attendants met him and his army in battle and completely destroyed all of them.

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A different version of the destruction of Mahishāsura is given in the Vāmana-purāṇa. Pulastya addressing Nārada says—"The gods, having been defeated by Mahishāsura, forsook their abodes and hastened, with Brahmā at their head, to implore the protection of Vishnu. Śaṅkara was also present there; and, when the gods finished relating their grievances, Vishnu, and at his command, Brahmā, Śaṅkara and all the gods so emitted flames of anger from their eyes and countenances that a mountain of effulgence was formed. From this mountain came forth Kātyāyanī, resplendent as a thousand suns, with three eyes, with hair black as night and with eighteen arms. To her Śiva gave a trident, Vishnu a disc, Varuṇa a conch, Agni a dart, Yama an iron rod, Vāyu a bow, Sūrya a quiver and arrows, Indra a thunderbolt, Kubēra a mace, Brahmā a rosary and a water-pot, Kāla a sword and shield, Viśvakarma a

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battle-axe and other weapons, Himavān a lion, and other gods various arms and ornaments. Being thus armed and adorned by all the gods, Kātyāyanī proceeded to the Vindhya mountain. There two *asuras*, Caṇḍa and Muṇḍa, saw her, and immediately hastened to their king, and informed him that a most lovely goddess had singly fixed her abode on the Vindhya mountain. On hearing the high encomiums which Caṇḍa and Muṇḍa bestowed on the beauty of this goddess, Mahiṣāsura determined to obtain possession of her and ordered, his army to be collected and marched to the vicinity of the mountain. He himself entered into a lofty pavilion, and then sent the son of Maya to summon the goddess to his presence. Dundubhi, the son of Maya, accordingly proceeded to her, and standing respectfully at a short distance addressed her—"I am, O virgin lady, a messenger sent by the chief of the *asuras*". Kātyāyanī replied—"Approach! Approach! and dismiss thy fear, and truly deliver the message which thou bringest." Encouraged by these words, Dundubhi answered,—"thus says Mahisha, the king of the *asuras*,—'The gods wander upon the earth, helpless and powerless, as the three worlds have been conquered by me. It is I who am Indra and Rudra and Sūrya; I am the sole lord of the Universe, and there is no other god than me. In battle am I unconquerable; and by my victorious arms have I acquired possession of every desirable thing that the world contains. But on thy account, O lovely virgin! have I now come to this mountain; hasten, therefore, to pay due obeisance to the lord of the universe, for thou art worthy of becoming his spouse" Kātyāyani replied,—"It is true that the mighty asura Mahisha has subdued the three worlds, and I also am ready to obey him; but there is a custom, long established in my family, which requires that each daughter of our house should be conquered in battle by her wooer before she can be united to him in marriage. From this custom I cannot deviate. Before, therefore, I can become the spouse of thy king, he must vanquish me in combat." Dundubhi, on hearing these words, returned to Mahisha, and acquainted him with the determination of the goddess; and he immediately ordered his army to advance, on observing which the gods exclaimed to Durgā,—"Put on thy armour". But she said,—"I will not, for what necessity is there for an armour, when none but these vile asuras stand before me?". Vishnu, however, presented her with an armour, and entreated her to protect herself with it against the weapons of her enemies, especially as in consequence of a boon granted by Śiva to him Mahisha had been rendered almost invulnerable.

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When Dēvi perceived the elephants, the horse, the foot soldiers and chariots composing the army of the asuras approach her, she at once strung her bow and rained on them a ceaseless shower of arrows. Many of the enemies of the gods she slew with her shafts; others with her sword; and with her various other weapons she caused havoc in their ranks, as her lion brandishing its mane bore her along. . . . . . Thus Kātyāyanī destroyed countless hosts of the bold asuras; and on beholding the battle-field covered with their corpses, she seized a vīṇā and a ḍamaru in joy and laughingly began to play. Wherever she moved, drawing out music from her instruments, ghosts and goblins shouted out in response and danced; and her lion tossed about in sport the lifeless bodies of the slain. But Mahisha, on viewing the destruction of his army, hastened to engage, the goddess in personal combat; and Kātyāyanī, equally eager for the combat, urged on her lion. Then commenced a terrible duel in consequence of which the summits of the mountain were rent beneath their feet, the earth and the ocean trembled, and the very clouds up above became scattered. In vain did the goddess employ her various weapons again and again; the wily art of Mahisha rendered them all innocuous; even when she succeeded in binding him with the noose given her by Varuṇa, carrying the rope round his horns, his muzzle and hoofs, he escaped from the bond; and when she hurled a thunder-bolt at him, he shrank into such a diminutive size that it went past him leaving him uninjured. At length Durgā dismounted from her lion and sprang upon the back of Mahisha, and with her own tender feet so smote his head that he fell senseless on the ground; and then she immediately cut off his head with her sword; and all the hosts of asuras exclaimed, Ah! Ah!".

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In other works also similar stories are given of the killing of Mahishāsura by the Dēvi. The destruction of Mahishāsura is considered to be allegorical; the Padma-purāṇa says that in the Svāyambhava-manvantara, Mahishāsura was killed by Vaishṇavi on the Mandaragiri, that he was once again destroyed by Nandā in the Vaivasvata-manvantara on the Vindhya mountain, and that thus personified ignorance was killed by Jñāna-śakti which is the same as personified wisdom. It may also be that this story indicates the substitution of the buffalo-totem worship by a form of goddess-worship among certain early primitive tribes in the country.

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In the *Viṣṇudharmōttara* it is stated that Nandā was born ‘from the pleasure of Bhāradvāja’. She has four arms; one of her hands is in the *varada* pose, another in the *abhaya* pose; the third and the fourth hands carry a lotus and an *aṅkuśa* respectively. Or, she may in these hands hold the *khaḍga* and the *khēṭaka*. Her complexion is white and she is seated on an elephant.

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The *Varāha-purāṇa*, however, has the following version of the origin of Nandā :—The king named Sindhudvīpa, the son in a previous birth of Tvaṣṭā, knowing that in that birth he was killed by Indra, practised penance with a view to beget a son who would kill Indra. The river Vētravatī assuming the form of a young woman approached Sindhudvīpa; and through their union was born a child named Vētrāsura. The child of theirs in due time became the king of Prāgjōtiṣa. He vanquished all rival kings, and then began to give trouble to Indra and the other gods. The gods with Indra at their head, and having Śiva also with them, went to Brahmā to complain to him of the annoyance caused by Vētrāsura to them. On hearing their complaint, Brahmā suspected that the trouble was due to Māyā created by Viṣṇu; and then at once a damsel, clad in white robes, wearing a kirīṭa on her head, and having eight hands carrying in them the śaṅkha, chakra, gadā, pāśa, khaḍga, ghaṇṭā, dhanus and bāṇa, appeared before him and undertook to kill the troublesome Vētrāsura. She then transformed herself into innumerable heroic damsels, and fought with the asura and put an end to his life. Brahmā and other gods, while complimenting her on her success, prophesied that she would be called upon on a future occasion to destroy another troublesome asura of the name of Mahiṣāsura. The gods then retired to the Himalayas, where they set up the goddess Nandā as an object of worship and were feeling happy. Because they were so happy, they named this goddess Nandā.

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Durgā is often worshipped in the form of nine figures, one of them being set up in the middle and the remaining eight in positions corresponding to the eight points of the compass. They are all seated figures having a lotus as their seat. Instead of actual figures, we may introduce in their respective places their tatvāksharas, in the yantra. The image in the middle has eighteen hands, big breasts and thighs, and is adorned with various ornaments. This goddess, who is capable of granting all powers, has in eight of her left hands the tuft of hair of the

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Navadurgas.

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Standing figure of Bhadrakālī: Bronze: Tiruppālatturai.

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asura, the khēṭaka, ghaṇṭā, mirror, dhanus, dhvaja, ḍamaru, pāśa, the remaining left hand being held in the tarjani pose. The right hands carry the śakti, ṭaṅka, śūla, vajra, śaṅkha, aṅkuśa, cane, bāṇa and chakra. Each of the eight other figures of Durgā has only sixteen hands. The names of these goddesses are Rudra-chaṇḍā, Prachaṇḍā, Chaṇḍōgrā, Chaṇḍa-nāyikā, Chaṇḍā, Chaṇḍavatī, Chaṇḍarūpā, Atichaṇḍikā, and Ugrachaṇḍikā. The colour of the centrally situated Durgā is that of fire. The other Durgās are yellow of the gōrōchana, red, black, blue, white, grey, turmeric-yellow and pink. The central Durgā is in the āḷiḍhāsana posture riding on a lion and holds in one of the hands the tuft of hair, as already stated, of the asura emerging from the cut-end of the neck of the buffalo-form of the asura. The other Durgās are seated upon rathas shaped like lotuses. Such is the description of Navadurgās as given in the Skandayāmaḷa.

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**Bhadrakali.** The conception of the goddess Dēvi as Bhadrakāḷi has eighteen hands and a handsome appearance. She has three eyes. The following things are found held in her hands, namely, the akshamālā, triśūla, khaḍga, chandra, bāṇa, dhanus, śaṅkha, padma, sruk, sruva, kamaṇḍalu, daṇḍa, śakti, agni, kṛṣṇājina, water, one in each hand : of the remaining two hands one is in the śānti pose (abhaya ?), and the other carries a jewelled vessel. She is seated in a chariot drawn by four lions, her posture being what is generally described as the āḷiḍhāsana.

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Mahākālī is jet black in colour and has tusks in her mouth. Her eyes are distended and the waist is thin. She carries in her four hands the khaḍga, kheṭaka, pātra and kapāla. She wears on her head a garland of skulls. Or, she is black in colour resembling the rain-cloud and has a stout body and eight arms. In her hands are held the chakra, śaṅkha, gadā, a pitcher, a pestle, aṅkuśa, pāśa and vajra.

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This goddess is said to be of the colour of the water-lily, carrying in three out of her four hands the pāśa, padma, and pātra the fourth hand being in the abhaya pose.

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Ambikā is seated upon a lion and has three eyes; she is adorned with various ornaments, and has in one of her left hands a mirror; one of the right hands is held in the varada pose. In the other two hands she holds the sword and the shield.

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(Fig. 1.) Mahākālī : Bronze : Mādeyūr.

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(Fig. 2.) Mahākālī : Bronze : Madras Museum.

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*Mangala.* Mangalā is seated upon a simhāsana, and wears on her head a jaṭā-makuṭa. She carries in eight out of her ten hands the śūla, akshamālā, dhanus, a mirror, the bāṇa, kheṭaka, khaḍga, and chandra; and the remaining two hands are held in the varada and abhaya poses. She has a lovely appearance with pretty breasts and a playful smile on her countenance. She is adorned with various ornaments.

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*Sarvamangala.* This goddess is seated on a lion and has four arms; in her hands she carries the akshasūtra, padma, śūla and kamaṇḍalu.

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*Kalaratri.* This goddess is a representation of the śakti as a destructive power. She has a single braid of hair and her ears are ornamented with red shoe-flowers in addition to the kuṇḍalas. She is naked and seated on an ass. She is sometimes specially associated with Bengal. Her body is smeared with oil and her left foot wears a kind of anklet made of iron spikes. Kālarātri is rightly of a terrific appearance.

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*Lalita.* Lalitā has in her two left hands a mirror and a śankha, and in her right hands a fruit and a small box containing collirium for the eyes. Hers is a standing figure, and it must be decorated with various ornaments.

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Gaurī is the goddess looked upon as an unmarried girl, with either two hands held in the varada and abhaya poses, or with four hands, three of which carry the akshamālā, padma and kamaṇḍalu, the fourth one being in the abhaya pose. This is understood to be the aspect in which the devas contemplate upon her; and she is held to be capable of bestowing much benefit and great merit.

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Gaurī is worshipped under different aspects, such as Umā, Pārvatī etc. Of these Umā is the goddess who is worshipped even by the devas; she has in her hands the akshamālā, a mirror, the kamaṇḍalu and a lotus.

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The figure of this goddess has four arms; in her hands are seen the akshamālā, an image of Śiva, an image of the lord of the Dēvagaṇās (Gaṇēśa) and the kamaṇḍalu; and her abode is between agni-kuṇḍas.

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Another aspect of Gaurī is represented as a female figure standing upon the back of an alligator; she is required to be worshipped at home in the houses of her votaries who desire wealth and prosperity. She has four arms; in two of her hands are held the akshasūtra and the padma, while the other two are kept in the varada and abhaya poses respectively. (See fig. 1, Pl. CVIII.)

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(Fig. 1.) Pārvatī : Stone : Ellora.

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(Fig. 2.) Annapūrṇādēvī : Ivory : Trivandrum.

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Rambhā is an aspect of the Dēvi said to be able to grant all the desires of her votaries; she is seated on an elephant. She is handsome and has four hands, which carry respectively the *kamaṇḍalu*, *aksha-mālā*, *vajra* and *aṅkuśa*.

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Tōtalā is another aspect of Gauri who carries the *śūla*, *akshamālā*, *daṇḍa* and a white *chauri*. She is said to be able to destroy all sins.

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Tripurā another aspect of Gauri carries in two out of four of her hands the *aṅkuśa* and the *pāśa*, while the remaining ones are held in the *varada* and *abhaya* poses.

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In a temple dedicated to Gauri the central figure should naturally be that of Gauri. On the left of the image of the central Gauri should be that of Siddhi, while on the right that of Śri. There should also be the images of Bhagavati and Sarasvati in places which are called the *priṣṭha-karṇa bhāga*, Gaṇēśa in the north-east corner and Kumāra in the south-east corner of the temple. The door-keepers of the temple of Gauri are eight in number. They all keep one of their hands in the *abhaya* pose and carry in another a *daṇḍa* while the two other hands of Jayā and Vijayā, two of the gate-keepers, are seen carrying *aṅkuśa* and *pāśa*; of Ajitā and Aparājitā, the *padma* and *pāśa*; of Vibhaktā and Maṅgalā, the *vajra*, and *aṅkuśa*; and of Mōhinī and Stambhinī, the *śaṅkha* and the *padma*.

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Bhutamata. The general appearance of this goddess is black, and she has long eyes. The colour of her face is either white or red. She wears a *liṅga* on her person, and has only two hands in which she holds the *khaḍga* and *khēṭaka* respectively. She is seated on a *siṁhāsana*. Her head is decorated with ornaments made of pearls. Bhūtamātā is worshipped by *bhūtas*, *prētas*, *piśāchas*, by Indra, Yakshas, Gandharvas, etc., and her abode is under an *aśvattha* tree (ficus religiosa).

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Yoganidra. The figure representing this goddess is required to be sculptured as lying down on a bed with the eyes closed. It must be shaped very beautifully. The goddess keeps a drinking vessel near her, and has only two hands.

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Vama. Vāmā is represented as a female figure with one head and two arms, and is of terrific look possessing three eyes. She holds in one hand a *kapāla* and the other is in the *abhaya* pose. She wears a *jaṭā-makuṭa* on her head. This goddess is supposed to confer all the desired good upon her votaries.

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Jyeshtha. The goddess Jyēṣṭhā is terrific and powerful, is of red complexion and is said to confer fortune upon her votaries and also destroy their enemies. She is described as the eldest of the group of eight goddesses beginning with Jyēṣṭhā and ending with Manōnmani. She has two hands in which she carries the kapāla and the bāṇa.

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Raudri. Raudri has a black face, is of a terrific look and is draped in red clothes. She is older than the other six goddesses whose descriptions follow.

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Kali. Kālī is a goddess of dark colour, her face alone being red. She carries in her two hands a lotus and the kapāla. She is the destroyer of fear.

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Kalavikarnika. Kalavikarnikā is of a bluish colour and carries in her two hands the kapāla and the śakti. She is also understood to be capable of removing fear and giving rise to happiness.

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Balavikarnika. Balavikarnikā is of grey colour, has long eyes and holds in her two hands the kapāla and the japamālā. She is the giver of peace to her worshippers.

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Balapramathani is of a reddish or white complexion and has two hands in which she carries the kapāla and the pāśa. She is the destroyer of all enemies.

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Sarvabhūtadamanī is of deep red colour resembling that of the shoe-flower, and has tusks in her mouth; her belly is big and large. She carries the kapāla and the vajra in her two hands.

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Manōnmanī is to be either of blue or of black complexion, should have a large face and should carry the kapāla and the khaḍga. She is also said to bestow wealth upon her votaries and to terrify their enemies.

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This is a twin goddess of whom Vāruṇī has pendulous breasts and a flabby belly and is clad in red garments and carries in her hands the śūla and bāṇa. Otherwise she must be sculptured as a handsome woman. Chāmuṇḍā has large and long nails and several hands. This Chāmuṇḍā is said to be capable of attracting all to herself by means of her power.

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Rakta-Chāmuṇḍā, also known as Yōgēśvari, is believed to be permeating throughout the moveable and immoveable objects of the universe; her worshippers are, supposed to attain this extraordinary power of permeating the whole universe. This goddess carries in her hands the khaḍga, musala, halā and a pātra.

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Sivaduti. Śivadūti has a faded look and a face suggesting that of a jackal. Her body is emaciated, thin and wiry. It is ornamented with snakes; and she wears a garland of skulls. Her look is terrific. In her four hands she carries the rakta-pātra (a vessel to hold blood), khaḍga, śūla and māmsa (flesh). She is seated in the āliḍhāsana attitude; near her is seen a khaṭvāṅga. According to another authority, the complexion of Śivadūti is said to be that of the midday sun; she has three eyes and hands, in the left ones of which are held a pātra (vessel) for holding blood, the gadā, kheṭaka, pāśa and in the right ones the padma, kuṭhāra, khaḍga and aṅkuśa; she is adorned with ornaments set with all the nine gems and is worshipped by the gods, ṛishis and others.

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Yogesvari. Yōgēśvari should have ten hands, three eyes, and should carry the śakti, khaḍga and ḍamaru in three of her right hands and ghaṇṭā, kheṭaka, khaṭvāṅga, and triśūla, in the four left ones. Nothing is mentioned about the remaining hands.

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Bhairavi. Bhairavi holds in her hands the *pāśa* and the *aṅkuśa*, and is of red complexion. If the worshipper so desires, he may endow her figure with twelve arms.

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Tripurabhairavi. This goddess is of the complexion of the rising sun and has three eyes. Her head is surrounded with a garland of skulls; a *ratna-mākuṭa* in which is inserted a crescent moon adorns the crown of her head and her chest is daubed with blood. In two of her hands are held the *akshamālā* and *vidyā* (is it *jñāna-mudrā* or a book?), while the others are held in the *varada* and *abhaya* poses.

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Siva. Śivā is seated upon a bull and has three eyes; one of her hands is in the *varada* pose, another carries a *ḍamaru* bound with a snake, the third hand carries the *triśūla* and the fourth is in the *abhaya* pose.

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Kirti. Kirti is adorned with costly ornaments set with superior gems. She has a very pretty waist and is seated on a blue lily, and also holds the same flower in one of her hands. In another hand she carries a *kalaśa* (vessel). She smells of rice mixed with toddy.

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Siddhi is another goddess who is capable of bestowing all desired objects on her worshippers; she has her body covered with white sandal paste, is seated upon a white seat, and is decorated with white lotuses. She has a door-keeper attending upon her.

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Riddhi is a goddess represented like a handsome woman seated in the *vīrāsana* posture. She is fondly looking into a mirror. Her forehead is marked with a very pretty *tilaka* and the hair of her head is done up neatly and beautifully.[*] *Chāmaras* and garlands are held on either side by attendant women. She is also fond of playing on the flute and the *vīṇā*.

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This goddess is seated upon a *padmāsana* and is engaged in the practice of *yōga*. Hers is a pacific and beautiful countenance; she wears a flat waist-zone and has also the *yōga-paṭṭa* going round the back and the two crossed legs. One of her hands is in the *varada* pose and the other holds the *triśūla*.

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∗ If we take तिलकালক of the Sanskrit text as a single word the description of this goddess ought to be changed as follows :—on her body is a black mole (something like the Śrīvatsa mark on chest of Viṣṇu).

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