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Vastu-shastra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v1.c10: Chapter II: The Scope & the Subject Matter of Architecture

Vāstu-śāstra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v1.c10

Language
English

Contents

Chapter II: The Scope & the Subject Matter of Architecture

(1) Scope

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Samarāṅgaṇa reads like a Purāṇa of Vāstu-śāstra. The first seven chapters, the preliminary chapters which deal with the advent of the Earth; the dialogue between Viśvakarmā and his sons; the Query (the questions regarding the science and art of architecture in its broadest sense of the term)—the Creation, the earth with its continents, oceans, rivers and countries; the origin of the first house and the division of the society into the Varṇas and Āśramas—all these preliminary chapters though apparently dealing with "entirely non-architectural matters" are really not so. In them we find the term Vāstu not only fully explained but its scope and its relation with sciences like Cosmology, Geology, Astronomy, Geography and Architecture itself is fully indicated as a study of the contents of these chapters will show.

(a) Philosophical and Cosmological

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We are familiar with the philosophy of the Vāstu-Brahma-Vāda. The philosophical or religious background commonly attributed to these treatises, represent their truly Indian character. In India we can not draw a line of demarcation between Science and Philosophy. The truth is, a science without a philosophy or religious background is not a complete science, according to Hindu view of life. It is in keeping with the fundamental background of the Indian science that even such a practical or matter of fact science as the science of architecture is, has such a lofty philosophical theory as ‘Vāstu-Brahma-Vāda’ or ‘Vāstu-Puruṣa-Vāda’ as its background. The growth and evolution of the temple, the chief feature of Indian architecture both in the ancient and medieval periods of Indian History, represents this ideal of the architectural science from the bottom to the top (vide Part V. the Prāsāda-Vāstu). The temple as a divine image according to our Śāstric injunctions, has divine-ness all round, below and above, within and without, all aglow with the divine presence. The architectural motif of the temple super-structure from the bottom to the finial represents the divinity in both its aspects—the one with form and the other formless (Sākāra and Nirākāra).

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What is its implication in relation to the scope of the science? The essence of the Sanskrit word Vāstu is planning. Creation and Planning must go together. Creation of the world and its planning are twin sisters. The author of the Samarāṅgaṇa must be having this fundamental truth in mind when he says (cf. 2nd Chapter, 4th verse) that Brahmā, before creating this world, created Vāstu. Cosmologically, therefore, all this creation is a planned unit. This is a universal aspect and it corroborates the fundamental truths of life and conduct forming the first essence of civilisation, in which the ordered society and lawful, peaceful, beautiful way of life is to be evolved. Hence the planning of such a part of the Universe viz. the Earth, requires concentrated effort of the trinity or triad, i. e. the architect-planner, the patron king and the substratum, the earth. This trio is represented by Viśvakarmā, the heavenly architect, appointed by Brahmā himself, to build places of habitation on earth; the king Pṛthu, the patron king who was primarily entrusted with the work of levelling the earth and making it fit for growth and habitation and the Earth itself also must co-operate in order to accomplish the planning. This is the sum and substance of the first chapter (see Vāstulakṣaṇa also.) This character of the planning—the planning, the essence of architecture, its pre-requisites—indicates that the stand-point from which an architect has to start his work, the unbroken traditional mission of Viśvakarmā, as entrusted by that Primordial Creator Brahmā Himself, can not be a limited one. It is in keeping with the broad principle of life and conduct that some philosophical background has been provided in practically all the so-called material sciences and arts. This cosmological background of the scope of architecture is in keeping with the Indian view of life.

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We know that an ideal planning of a house, of necessity, takes into its account the planning of its surroundings. Similarly the ideal planning of a town or city or a village or fort must, of necessity, take into account the region in which it is located. Again the regional planning in its turn must take into account the character of the country, the Janapada, Rāṣṭra, Deśa, as a whole with its rivers, mountains, seas, forests and the like. But a country, however well-planned, if it remains isolated and does not take care of the well-being of other countries, discord, dispute, unhappy quarrels, fights, wars and all that will be the result and this result is an abiding misery and unhappiness. Hence, for its own happiness, safety and peace a country must, of necessity, take into account the planning of all other countries. Thus the planning of the whole world on earth emerges. The thing does not end here. In the solar system, the relative size of the earth is known to us and there are so many other such systems comprising this vast universe. The life on earth is very much influenced by, and rather dependent on, other planets. In one word the different planets are interdependent. When such are the natural truths showing the interdependence of the planets, should the truths not be brought home to man and should there be no interdependence inter-association and inter-cooperation, in one word inter-planning between nation and nation, man and man? Surely it should be, rather it must be, otherwise the results would be simply bad. This is the import of the cosmological aspect of the scope of architecture as hinted in the preliminary chapters of the S. S. (1 to 7).

(b) Meta-physical

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Now as to the metaphysical implication of the scope of architecture, we know that the drawing of the square-plan technically called Vāstu-Puruṣa-Maṇḍala, is imperative before any building-activity can be undertaken. According to the S. S. (45•2) the knowledge of its meaning and execution is the first limb of the Sthāpatya, the first discipline which the architect must master. This physical drawing is symbolic of the metaphysical doctrine of all-pervading cosmic principle, according to Harivaṁśa (chapter 1-7): "The Puruṣa is the Universal Essence, the Principle of all things, the Prime Person whence all originates". Again 'Vāstu' here, is the extent of existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Puruṣa. The image of the Supernal or Cosmic Man, the Puruṣa is congruous and identical to the planned site". This is what the S S. in its very opening benedictory verse unfolds in the conception of Lord Śiva—the architect of all the three worlds.

(c) Astronomical-Astrological

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Architecture really is very intimately related to Astronomy and Mathematics. Āyādi-nirṇaya is an important chapter in the S. S. full of astronomical details. This Āyādi is technically known as Sad-varga, a group of six, six formulas, 'with which the perimeter of structure should conform'. These formulas, however, are treated differently in different texts, nevertheless, all are unanimous to accord an important place to this astronomical chapter in their treatises. These formulas may be taken as six canons of Indian architecture (cf. V. K. R. Menon's pamphlet 'Six Canons of Indian Architecture'). The celebrated astronomer, Varāhamirhira's work Bṛhat-saṁhitā is one of the authoritative manuals on the Vāstu-Śāstra (Architecture & Sculpture both). Vāstu-Śāstra may be called applied-Astronomy.

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Varāhamihira while introducing the chapter on architecture (52nd) in his Bṛhat-Saṁhitā, says "Vāstujñāna, architecture, will be explained by me for the pleasure of the astronomers and astrologers as has been transmitted from Brahmā to our own day through an unbroken line of sages".

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Building operation can commence only under favourable stars. The Āyādiṣaḍvarga, treated here in the book, and invariably treated in every manual is a fact to bear out the testimony of Astronomy. We have already noticed the metaphysical implication of the Vāstu-Puruṣa-Maṇḍala. Its cosmological and magical implications in the field of Astronomy-astrology are derived from the same. This astronomical and astrological implication has been very ably established by Prof. Stella Kramisch (cf. H. T. P. 37). The S. S. devotes a considerable portion to the heavenly bodies as the constellations (vide chapters 5. 85-104; and 11 to 14) who do exercise their influence on the creative activities of mankind.

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The intimate relation between astronomy-astrology (also Mathematics) and architecture is established in more than one ways. While describing the qualifications that go to make an expert architect, the S. S. mentions the knowledge of astronomy-astrology and mathematics as an indispensible equipment of an architect and thereby the essential constituents of the science of architecture (chapter 44-4-4). The work also hints at the ancient tradition of the intimate relation between the science of architecture and the science of stars as handed down from Brahmā (whose abode is the lotus) (10-77). Again a knowledge of form (rūpa), number and proportion was an indispensible equipment (cf. Sthapati-Lakṣaṇa Ch. 44). Mathematics and architecture had their root in the Vedic altar. The Śūlba-Sūtra contained in the Kalpa-sūtras prescribe proportionate measurements for laying out and setting up the Vedic Altar. A learned Mathematician Mahāvīra, of the early medieval period speaks of the use of the science of number (gaṇita) in architecture (cf. his 'Gaṇita-sārasaṁgraha (1. 9-19).

(d) Geographical & Geological

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It is one of the unique features of the work that the Samarāṅgaṇa considers, for the well-ordered planning of a town, a region or a country or a building (Chapter I. 4-5 cf. V. L. p. 4), as an essential pre-requisite, not only a knowledge of the topography of the land and the surroundisngs in which the planning is to be commenced, but also such a knowledge of the whole world—rather the whole universe with all its stars, planets, continents, rivers, mountains, seas, varṣas, etc.

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This is why it has devoted a full-fledged chapter of a hundred lines to the exposition of the physical geography of the world in which the dimensions of the earth, its shape etc., the sevenfold continents beginning with Jambū-Dvīpe, together with their respective peoples, mountians, rivers and seas, lokālokācals and lastly, the movements of the heavenly bodies are described. The survey of the land and the site, the examination of the soil conditions, the testing of the soils—these are the first fundamentals of the architectural planning. Samarāṅgaṇa gives first place to the geological or physiographical survey in any undertaking of architectural planning. Jaya, the spokesman of his brothers, puts the query to his celebrated father, Viśvakarmā regarding these subjects in one of these preliminary chapters of the work ( 3rd Chapter vide V. L. also ). Thus the architecture may also be said to be applied Geology, where the examination of the soils having different varieties of sound, touch, smell, colour and taste and the testing thereof to ascertain whether a soil is fit for building of a town, a village, or a house or not, are prescribed. Both porous and loose soils are avoided and deemed unfit for the construction of a building (S. S. Chapter 8).

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Again the story of Pṛthu and Pṛthivī, as related in the very first chapter of the S. S. and also the 7th Chapter, the last number of the Preliminary Chapters is re-counted with the one aim of giving the stability of the site on the unstable and moving earth. The accounts of Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa and Śāṅkhyāyana-Gṛhya-Sūtra, if examined and related with this story, and the Paurāṇika story found in Purāṇas like Viṣṇu and others, represent the geological implication in the profoundest manner. King Pṛthu whose proto-type is Yama, the Dharamrāja, has not only made the earth yield corn for the benefit of mankind, but has also levelled her in order to establish human habitations. She becomes ther fit for the laying out of the habitations both of mortals and immortals.

(e) Architectural

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Lastly, in unfolding the very broad scope of architecture, the implication of the term Vāstu, as understood by the ancient Acharyas of the Science, is very helpful. According to Mānasāra, the term Vāstu in its broadest sense implies dharā (the earth), harmya (building) Yāna (conveyance) and Paryaṅka (bedstead). Amplifying the four-fold implication of architecture, Dr. Acharya says (vide Encyclo. 456) "The building or Harmya includes Prāsāda, Maṇḍapa, Sabhā, Śālā, Prapā and (a) Raṅga. The conveyance or Yāna includes Ādika, Syandana, Śibikā and Ratha. The bedstead or Paryaṅka includes Pañjara, Mañcali, Mañca Kākaṣṭha, Phalakāsana and Bāla-paryaṅka (ibid 7-12). The term denotes also villages, towns, forts, commercial cities, etc, a dwelling house, a group of houses (cf. Pastyā), a site (R. V. IV, 37, 2 I, 2; A. V. II, 12, I, etc. ). Sculpture is the handmaid of architecture and is secondarily implied by the term 'Vāstu'." Purāṇas like Agni (ch. CVI, V. I) and Garuḍa (Chapter XLVI) corroborate this implication. Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra (chapter LXV. page 166) also corroborates this broad scope of architecture. The S. S. while introducing the need of architecture as an auspicious and benedictory institution illustrates the subject by enumeration of some of these implications in the 4th and 5th verses of the first chapter constituting the scope of architecture—cf. V. L.—Deśa, the country (cf. the different varieties of the deśa and the manifold varieties of deśa-bhūmis, thus is indicated the Regional planning constituting the first step towards any group planning);—Pura, the town (cf. the different varieties of towns ; the capital cities, the commercial towns etc. ) ; Nivāsa—the habitations, like villages and hamlets, scattered in the country side;—Sabhā, the assembly hall or the council chamber (forming one of the accessory structures in a royal palace);—Veśma, the three broad divisions of house architecture, the residential houses, the palaces of kings, and the temples, the abodes of gods and goddesses and the—Āsana, the seats, thrones, the cots and couches, etc. A more detailed presentation of the S. S. 's treatment of the Scope of architecture will follow (vide the Praśna, the Query), ahead.

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According to Mayamata, Bhūmi, Prāsādas, Yāna and Śayan constitute the Vāstu and these form the principal topics of the contents of the S. S. Yāna, in the S. S. is aeroplane (cf. Chapter 31).

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However this is not enough. Architecture is both a science and an art. Therefore, the business of the architecture is not only to lay down the norms for the guidance of architectural creations but also to evolve these creations in such a manner as to give an aesthetic experience, the apperception of which makes an individual forget himself and experience such a blissful state as to plunge himself into another world—the world of Beauty. When we see Kailash at Ellora, the monumental caves, the painting of Ajantā, and the like, the sublime architectural remains in our land, we feel we have seen not the work of man but of an angel. The Creator Brahmā had created this world. It was left to Viśvakarmā, the first architect of the world to plan it, and to plan it beautifully. The story goes that after creation Brahmā entrusted the work of maintenance to Pṛthu, the first king on earth from whom the earth, among other names, is called Pṛthivī. A warrior king could not accomplish the task of an artist. A Bhūpati and Sthāpati are two different men. Naturally Pṛthu failed and so he went to Brahmā to relate his woeful story. The goddess Earth too straight away went to Brahmā. The king and the mother Earth when both approached Brahmā, He called in Viśvakarmā and entrusted the task of this planning to him. Viśvakarmā took counsels from his four sons who were as skilled as the father and narrated his mission and asked them to cooperate in the great mission of the planning of the world. This brings us to the subject matter proper. From high heavens we come down on earth. In the Third Chapter (Praśna, The Query), Jaya, the eldest son of Viśvakarmā, assumes the role of the spokesman of his brothers and put the questions to his father relating to the different subject-matters of the science. This is the traditional way of Pūrva and Uttara Pakṣas, the literary technique of the Śāstras. The whole book is nothing but an exposition of these different questions as architectural canons relating to the different matters, forming the very structure of the whole science. These questions relate to the following subject-matters of the science and art of Architecture and arranged on selfsame procedure of preliminary, town-planning, house-architecture, mechanical construction, temple-architecture and iconography (see also V. L.)

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I Preliminary:

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A. Cosmological (4, 7 & 8):

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(i) Creation—Mahābhūtas, Amarapurī and the luminaries;
(ii) The movements of the planets—solar-system and other constellations and the relative distances among each other, together with their Substratum and the Instrumental cause;
(iii) The existence above the earth, above and below the Mahābhūtas.

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B. Cultural (9):

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The land-marks in the human culture in the different phases of its existence—the Yuga and its Dharma—the first species of creation, the first king, the first planet, the first Varṇa.

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C. Geographical (5 & 9):

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(i) Earth, its shape, size, base, measure—length, breadth, circumference, diametre and area;
(ii) Mountains, their height and length and breadth;

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(iii) Continents and varṣas (countries) with· their rivers, oceans and peoples and other characteristics.

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D. Geological (10, 11 & 38):

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Re-surveying of the land, the Deśa and the examination of the manifold varieties of the Deś bhūmis as well as the different soils having variety in sound, touch, smell, colour and taste and their examinations to ascertain their suitability in planning of the different classes of habitations in accordance to castes and professions.

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E. Architectural (34, 39 and 40 etc).

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Scope, subject-matter and the schools of architecture, the architect and architecture, the preliminaries like offerings and foundations, Sūtraṇa, Adhivāsana, Orientation by means of a gnoman, the Śalyodhāravidhi, the Iṣṭikā-karma, the brick-work and the process of their finish.

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II. Town-planning (11-18 and 29-31).

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(i) The land-survey in connection with plannig of towns in all their categories like capital cities, forts, villages, kheṭas, etc. with approaches, frontiers and boundaries, fortification consisting of the ramparts, parapets, as well as doors (gates and gopuras) together with towers and turests, etc. and other devices to make it look more beautiful;

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(ii) Street-planning;

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(iii) Site-planning;

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iv) The instalation of the Indra's Flag and foundation and dedication of temples and shrines etc;

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(v) The folk-planning, castewise and profession-wise (jātivarṇādhivāsa).

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III. House-Architecture (21-28, 32, 33, 35-37 and 41-59).

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(i) The palace-architecture—the palace with all its appurtenances and other establishments, viz. pleasure-gardens, kitchens, treasury, arsenals, stores, gymnasium, dancing and music halls, bath-rooms with showers and fountains, bed-chambers, theatre, glass-rooms, queens' chambers with swing-rooms and lying-in-chamber, the Aśoka-lines, creeper-sheds, orchards, pavillions, all well decorated; Vāpīs, wooden hills, flower-beds, as well as the residences of princes, priests, prime minister, commander and other royal personages.

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(ii) The House-Architecture—the varieties of the houses in general, their component parts like śālās and alindas, with their mouldings, the special varieties of houses, the material, the masonry, the decorations as well as other architectural details of the timber-work, brick-work, door-work, pillar-work, the roofing (the canopies etc.), and so on so forth;

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(iii) Measurements, the site-planning of nine plots, sixty four plots, eighty one ones etc. as well as Bhaṅgas and Vedhas etc ;

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IV. Yantras etc. Mechanical construction and the construction of the articles of furniture inferred from (cf. Dārukriyā 55), though not specially mentioned.

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V. Temple Architecture (ibid). Prāsādas, their proportions of measurements, layouts, storeys, śikharas and other elements of structure and superstructure and the finial together with mouldings, etc. etc.

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VI. Iconography (Sculpture) (20) Gods and goddesses in their conveyances, seats, in accompaniment of the Parivāra Devatās, colours, forms, ornaments, drapery, decorations, weapons, the age and other emblems.

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VII. The Painting (55). Chitra-kriyā and Lepya-kriyā.

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Dr. Acharya in his ‘Indian Architecture according to Mānsāra Śilpa-Śāstra’ has very ably and aptly brought out an all-pervading and all-embracing scope of the science of Architecture. We know that many treatises on the science of architecture in India have been titled as Śilpa-śāstras. “The term Śilpa” Dr. Archarya says “means an art, fine and mechanical. It covers some sixty four such arts”. But the Śilpa-śāstra in these treatises is used in the sense of the Vāstu-śāstra and the Vāstu-vidyā is enumerated as one of the sixty four kalās or śilpas. This in my opinion must be an old tradition when Vāstu-vidyā had not come to its own. In the First Century A. D. however (the age of Śukra) the scope of Vāstu-vidyā had assumed such an enormous, all-absorbing and all-embracing character that it became synonymous with all arts. It is why as per Dr. Acharya’s treatment referred to, above, the literal meaning of Vāstu-śāstra would be science of architecture. But a complete Vāstu-śāstra deals with more than what is generally understood by architecture. In the Vāstu-śāstra, as we have seen in the preceding pages of the study together with the broad scope of architecture as just hinted by the Samarāṅgaṇa itself, the term architecture is taken in its broadest sense and implies what is built or constructed. "Thus in the first place it denotes all kinds of buildings, religious, residential, military and auxiliary members and component mouldings. Secondly, it covers town-planning, laying out gardens, constructing market places including ports and harbours; making roads, bridges, gateways, triumphal arches; digging wells, tanks, trenches, drains, towers, moats; building enclosure-walls, embankments, railings, landing places, flight of steps for hill and bathing ghats and ladders. Thirdly it covers articles of furniture such as bedstead, ward-robes, baskets, cages, nests, mats, conveyances, lamps and lamp-posts for streets. It also includes the making of dresses and ornaments, such as chains, crowns, headgear and footwear and arm-wear. Architecture also includes sculpture and deals with carving of phalli, idols of deities, statues of great personages, images of animals and birds. It is also concerned with such preliminary matters as the selection of site, testing of soil, planning, designing, and finding out cardinal points by means of a gnoman, dialling and astronomical and astrological calculations"-(vide "Indian Architecture acc. to Mānasāra Śilpa-śāstra" page 1-2).

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This is a bird's eye-view of the treatment of the scope of Vāstu-Śāstra as given in the two most representative texts of Indian Art, the Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra (Nāgara School) and the Mānasāra (Drāvida School); as regards the treatment by other texts like the Aparājita-pracchā, Mayamata etc., it should be studied in the Vāstulakṣaṇa.

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CHAPTER III

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THE ARCHITECT AND ARCHITECTURE

The Sthapati

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Much has been written on the Indian Architect both in the critical contemporary literature and the Śāstric compendiums, but the account which we get in the Samarāṅgaṇa (vide Chapters 44 & 45 Sthapati-Lakṣaṇa and Aṣṭāṅga-lakṣaṇa) is unique in the respect that it is not only more detailed but is more systematic and scientific from the modern point of view. We know that in India the science of architecture by the time of the S. S. had reached its fullest development. Some of the noblest and largest Prāsādas were set up about the tenth Century A. D. Naturally, therefore, in a building construction like the large Prāsādas where hundred thousands of men, masons, labourers, artisans, and artists were working in complete cooperation and uniformity of purpose with devotion and dedicated life, the water-tight divisions of the builders, the traditional fourfold division of the artists into Sthapati, Sūtragrāhin, Vardhaki and Takṣaka had lost its importance. According to the S. S. there were only two broad classifications of these servants of God and humanity at large—the Sthapati, the master-architect and the Sthāpaka, the architect-priest, the Guru, the Āchārya. This latter personality had importance only in the planning and setting up of religious structures namely the Prāsādas, the temples; otherwise the master architect, the Sthapati was the sole authority in any building activity—civil or royal.

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We know that it is the architect who makes what the Architecture is (Sthāpatya — स्थपतेः कर्म स्थापत्यम् ). All the Śāstric rules, all the materials, rich and varied, are useless, unless the architect so combines them, so moulds and shapes them—in one word—so reorientates them that quite a new thing emerges, a new creation springs up. Like a poet, the weaver of dreams, he weaves the poetry of buildings, like a musician he produces the rhythm of the structure, and like a creator, he creates a new creation. It was the genius or the superb artistic craftmanship which has been responsible in producing monumental buildings like Kailash at Ellora. Mr. Percy Brown (Indian Architecture page 90) speaking of Kailash at Ellora pays a glowing tribute to the master-mason whose dream had taken a concrete manifestation. The specimens of architectural achievements in monuments, our great heritage and pride, are equally aglow with the glowing tribute Mr. P. Brown has paid to Kailash.

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The architect (the Sthapati) and architecture (Sthāpatya), from the point of view of pure art, are an integrated whole. The S. S. in the very opening lines of the Chapter 44th—Sthāpati-lakṣaṇa—Qualifications that go to make a Sthapati—says, "I am now going to describe the Sthāpatya as handed down to us from generation to generation, by the knowing of which the values and defects of the architects are known". The Sthāpatya is fourfold—the traditional lore (Śāstra), the practical experience (Karma), intuitive insight (Prajñā) and the righteous conduct and character, (Śīla) (ibid 2). These four elements comprised of the science of architecture are to be taken from the standpoint of an architect. These are really the qualities, the qualifications constituting the fundamental equipment which goes to make a Sthapati, an architect.

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A Sthapati is not only adept in the Śāstra, i. e. the science of architecture, the traditional lore as handed down from generation to generation and expounded by the ancient Achāryas like Viśvakarmā, Maya, Garga, Agastya, Kāśyapa, Mānasāra, etc. etc. ; he should also have the practical knowledge of the Śāstra. He should be an adept builder—a skilled artcraftsman. Again only the knowledge of the practical experience and the artistic perfection thereof will not do, if he lacks the personal insight, the genius of an architect (cf. the example of Kailash at Ellora). This is very important, because at times the Śāstric canons and the practical experience are all of no avail and it is his personal intuition, the immediate perception which comes to his rescue. Apart from these three qualifications, an architect must be a man of character above reproach both in the precepts and in example. Only such an equipped person can be a real Sthapati.

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This is the general exposition of the equipment of a Sthapati. Let us go on with the text (vide Chapter 44) and take these one by one in detail (see V. L. also).

1. The Knowledge of the Science—Vāstu Śāstra

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It is the first qualification which an architect must possess to start with. This Vāstu-śāstra, it may be pointed out, consists of the knowledge of the canons of the site-planning and its layout, the planning of the buildings, the laying out of gardens, parks, town-planning and regional planning and all that constitutes the traditional subject-matter of architecture (as already expounded). All this comes under Śilpa. Apart from Śilpa, his intellectual equipment should be broadened with the knowledge of carpentery, engineering, machine-making (Yantra-karma-vidhi) etc. Not only this, he should be a skilled mathematician, an astronomer and astrologer and proficient in the knowledge of the Śiras, the conditions of different places (in order to avoid the Marma-vedha or any Vedha so meticulously enjoined by the Śāstra). The mental make-up needs not only the balance of mind and body, a subjective attitude in the architect, but this balancing should be mirrored in his art too. This is what is meant by the knowledge of the Chandas—the rhythm spoken of, by the text in combination with the knowledge of astronomy, astrology and mathematics (chapter 44—verses 3 and 4).

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On this Śāstric equipment of an architect the text is very explicit. It says (ibid 6-8) if an architect is ignorant of the śāstras and, not having done any labour in their acquisition, adopts the profession of an architect, and is proud of his false knowledge, he must be done to death by the king himself. Such a self-conceited fellow is Rāja-hiṁsaka. He is bound to bring death in this world if allowed to practice his false knowledge. In India, an architectural action, regarded as a religious action, a ritual, like a Vedic sacrifice, pre-supposes cent per cent perfection. Any imperfection was beset with evil consequences so much elaborated in these texts.

2. Practical Experience

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An architect, howsoever well-versed in the traditional science, if he is not a master builder, unskilled in the work, must become nervous in actual operations. Like a timid man on the battle-field he must faint at the time of action. Conversely, an architect skilled in action but ignorant of the Śāstra is also not a happy type. He is like a helpless blind fellow to be helped by others in his movements (walking and building). Such a helpless fellow must always be an apprentice to others and can never assume the role of a master-builder. He is compelled to rely on others. Hence adeptness in action is one of the essential constituents in making up an architect (ibid 8-10). What is the Karma? The text gives the first priority to site-planning, then come the measurements, proportions in all respects—māna, unmāna, etc. After this follows the soil-examination with practical prescribed tests to ascertain whether a site is fit for an architectural undertaking. All this is related to the ground-plan. There is masonry, there are the component parts of building, their mouldings and roofings, etc. They require an expert hand in their delineation with profusion of architectural devices like 14 Lumālekhās, four-fold Gaṇḍikā-chedas and the seven-fold Vṛtta-chedas together with the correct joinery in the wooden beams and other wooden material used in the house-construction (ibid 10-12). Besides this practical experience, the mastery of another eight-fold skill beginning with Ālekhya (painting), Lepyajāta (clay-moulding etc.), Dāru-karma (timber-work), Caya, the masonry and the art of sculpture and metallurgy are also enjoined by the text (idid 20-21).

3. The Personal Insight, Prajñā

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Again whatever degree of mastery and perfection an architect has attained both in the science and art, he is not yet a perfect architect, if he lacks the personal insight, the immediate intuition, readiness of judgment in contingencies, he is like an ichorless (nirmada) elephant who has lost his worth (ibid 13 & 14). Therefore, personal insight equipped with immediate intuition and the ability to proceed with the work even in dire contingencies is like an anchor in the fathomless ocean of the science of architecture. "This ocean of the science of architecture is very vast, difficult to fathom, devoid of light and pervaded with darkness allround, and having many regions still unexplored, can be crossed only when a wise man has an intuitive knowledge as his vessel. Only a wise captain can steer the ship of architecture (ibid 15)." This Prajñā equipment is really a great distinction of a true Sthapati (cf. the builder of the Kailash at Ellora who himself was struck with wonder saying, 'Oh ! How was it that I built it'—Dr. R. G. Bhandarker—Indian Anti-quary Vol: XII page 228).

4. The Character

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Over and above all these qualifications, the cream of the qualifications is the character above reproach which an architect must possess (ibid 16-18). The sacred task of architecture can be entrusted only to an architect of high moral character. In its absence he is susceptible to anger, envy, jealousy and greed, attachment and confusion which are great hurdles in the evolution of a true and auspicious art, the only aim of the science of architecture (S. S. 44). Therefore, the S. S. is very vocal on this essential qualification of a Sthapati and says, "an architect must strive at all cost to maintain his character and conduct. It is only then that the actions bear fruit and they in their turn become the harbingers of goodness on earch" (ibid).

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This is the Samarāṅgaṇa's treatment of the Sthapati. The treatment of Sthapati, Śilpin, Āchārya, Sūtradhāra, etc. by other works may be purviewed in the Vāstulakṣaṇa Other details regarding the traditional origin of the architect-guilds, etc. may not be repeated here and they can be seen in works like Dr. Acharya's Encylopaedia of Hindu Architecture, Incidently a few words may be added on the fall of architects and architecture which coathed in legendary accounts of the Purāṇas neverthelss betoken an implied truth that the sacred lore must not be possessed of and cultivated by those who have committed a blasphemy either social or religious.

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Sthapati is Viśvakarmā and is described as a desciple (anuśiṣya) of the Sthāpaka, while the other three Sūtragrāhin, Vardhaki and Takṣaka also are said to be desciples of themselves in turn. In the Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa (I-X. 20-23) is told the descent and fall of the Hindu architect and the craftsmen, from their celestial origin (see for details H.T. p. 9).

Sthāpatya

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The subject matter of the science of architecture from the standpoint of an architect, Sthapati has already been elucidated in the previous pages, but in continuation of the chapter, 44 of the S.S. chapter 45th entitled ‘Aṣṭāṅga-lakṣaṇa’ (see also V.L.) gives the following constitution of the Vāstu-śārtra from the standpoint of an art of Sthapati, the Sthāpatya (स्थपतेः इदं स्थापत्यम्), and the Sthāpatya is synonymous with the science of architecture. Architecture is what the architect makes:

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“This four-fold Sthāpatya—(as described in the previous chapter)—Śāstra, Karma, Prajñā and Śīla—is now being described with its eightfold limbs” (45-1). Among them the first and foremost is the settling and forming (Vikalpanā) of the Vāstu-puruṣa. This is the first limb of the body of Hindu Architecture. It is pre-requisite of all architectural work, sacred and domestic, religious and civil. The second limb consists of the planning of town, door-work, laying out of the roads, the planning of fortification, the enclosure, the Prākāra, etc., the aṭṭālaka together with the layout of the lanes, bylanes and the plotting out the whole area of the habitation of men and dedication to gods. The third limb is represented by only one subject—the architecture of Hindu-temple—the Prāsāda, being the foremost planning of Hindu Architecture. The 4th, 5th and 6th are the raising of the Indra’s flag, the Royal palace with its paraphernalia of kingly establishments, the planning of the residential houses castewise and professionwise respectively. The seventh limb, spoken of, is the measurement of a sacrificer’s shed, the sacrificial altar and the procedure of the Koṭihoma. The eighth, the last one, represents the planning of the forts and camps of kings, the encampments (ibid 2-9).

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This is the S.S.’s conception of a Sthapati and the Sthāpatya, his art. It is in keeping with the etymological meaning of the word sthapati—master of what stands or abides. This again is the implication as to why the science of architecture—Vāstu-śāstra is also called the Sthāpatya-śāstra. Both are complementary to each other.

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In the end, I may just make a few remarks regarding its place in the ancient sacred lore of India. Vāstu-śāstra, the science of architecture, does not find a place in the traditional list of sacred lore, the Vidyā-sthānāni. It does not, therefore, mean that it was not a Vidyā in the traditionally accepted sense of the term. It was part of the Veda, the primordial knowledge. We are all familiar that the Vedas had their Upavedas too. Sthāpatya-śāstra is one of the Upavedas, the auxiliary parts of the Veda. It was recounted as an applied knowledge subordinated to Atharva Veda just as Āyur-Veda is attached to Ṛg-Veda, Dhanur-Veda attached to Yajur-Veda and Gāndharva-Veda attached to Sāma-veda. Prof. Stella Kramrisch has very aptly brought out this ancient character of the science (see H. Temple p. 11): “Vastu-śāstra in its fullest exposition belongs to Tantra which is the applied knowledge of the Atharva-veda. As a ritual, architecture is moreover doubly linked with the primordial knowledge, i. e. the Veda and is included in two of the six Vedāṅgas. These are appendices which are auxiliary to Veda. The fifth Vedāṅga—astronomy-astrology, Jyotiṣa and the sixth Vedāṅga, Kalpa, in which are laid down the rules of the sacrificial acts, the ritual, are both in parts, essential constituents of the science of Indian architecture. The Śulba-sūtras contained in the Kalpa-sūtras, represent the rules and give proportionate measurements for laying out and piling up the Vedic altar. On them basically rests the building of the Hindu Temple”. The Samarāṅgaṇa was fully conscious of this traditional character of the Sthāpatya. Accordingly it, in its chapter tenth entitled, ‘Puraniveśa’, (cf. 77th verse), enumerates the fourfold Sthāpatya by the side of the other Upavedas like eightfold medicine—the Āyurveda; seven-fold Military Science—the Dhanur-veda and the science of luminaries—the Jyotiṣa Upaveda (the astronomy-astrology), and it also hints at the common founder of all these—the Creator Brahmā, the lotus-housed one.

Cites (13)