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Vastu-shastra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c73: Acknowledgment

Vāstu-śāstra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c73

Language
English

Acknowledgment

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This work Vāstuśāstra Vols. I & II (II being published first) being an extended study of my Ph. D. Thesis—“A study of Bhoja’s Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra Vāstuśāstra, a treatise on the science of architecture, sculpture and painting”—is Lucknow University ‘Approved Research Work for the publication of which (being singled out as a work of outstanding merit) the University Grants Commission has given a grant of Rs. 6,000/-, which the author most gratefully acknowledge.

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In this connection the Uttara Pradesh Rajya must also be remembred for its subsidies enabling the author to contribute more than four volumes in Hindi in his projected plan of 10 to 14 volumes on this branch of Indology.

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| Chapter | Subject | Pages |
| | **Introductory** | |
| | **Foundation of Hindu Iconography—the Institution of warship** | 23–42 |
| Introductory | | 24 |
| I | Worship and its antiquity | 25–29 |
| II | Image-worship—its development, i. e. | |
| | The Pañcāyatana, sectarian cults like Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism, etc. and forms and modes of worship | 30–38 |
| III | Bearing of Devapūjā on Art and Iconography | 39–42 |
| | **Part I Canons of Iconography** | |
| Introductory | Part I and its subject-matter and the method etc. | 45–48 |
| I | Study of Hindu Iconography—the sources: | 49–75 |
| | A. Literary sources like Purāṇas Āgamas, Tantras and Śilpa-śastras | 50–71 |
| | B. Sculptural sources | 71–75 |
| II | Classification of Images in general on different bases | 76–80 |
| III | Icono-planning and Iconometry in relation to a perfect iconography | 81–93 |
| | (*i*) Icono-planning | 81–83 |
| | (*ii*) Iconometry | 83–92 |
| | (*iii*) The merits and demerits of the images | 92–93 |
| IV | Iconoplastic Art | 94–116 |
| | Different classifications of materials | 94–99 |
| | (*i*) The Clay | 99–101 |
| | (*ii*) The Wood | 101–103 |
| | (*iii*) The Stone | 103–108 |
| | (*iv*) The Metals | 108–112 |
| | (*v*) Precious stones and Ivory | 112–113 |
| | (*vi*) Mixed substances and other substances | 113–115 |
| | (*vii*) Factors developing this art | 115–16 |
| V | Mudrās—Poses and Postures | 117–132 |
| | Doctrine of Mudras reoriented | 117–119 |
| | Classification into three broad divisions and their significance and role in iconography | 119–122 |
| I | **Hasta-Mudrās** | |
| | (*i*) 24 Asaṁyuta Hastas | 120 |

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(ii) the 12 Samyuta-Hastas (iii) the 21 Nṛtta-Hastas 120-21

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Representation in art:

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Abhaya, Varada, Dhyāna-yoga, Samādhi, Jñāna, Cin, Dharamacakra, Kaṭyavalambita or Kaṭisam-hasta, Kaṭaka or Simha-karṇa, Daṇḍa or Gaja-hasta, Sūci, Tarjanī etc. and Vismaya, Kāyotsarga and Bhūsparśa 122-27

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II Poses of the Body—nine attitudes 127-30

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III Postures of the legs—Vaiṣṇavam, Samapādam, Vaiśākham, Maṇḍalam, Ālīdham, Pratyālīdham along with Ābhaṅga, Tribhaṅga and Atibhaṅga 130-32

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IV Mudrās (continued) 133-54

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Reoriented doctrine of Mudrās taking objects, seats, Drapery, and Decorations etc. also as Mudrās 133-34

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I. Objects—weapons and implements 134-42

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A. (*i*) Weapons—25 āyudhas tabulated; 36 āyudhas of the Aparājita-pracchā 135-41

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(*ii*) Implements and other symbols—enumeration and association 141-42

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B. Musical instruments (as improvised weapons) 142

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II. Seats (*i*) Āsana 143-44 & (*ii*) Vāhana 144-45

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III. Ābhūṣaṇa—Drapery and Decorations 145-54

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A. Costumes—Drapery 146-149

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B. Ornaments of various limbs; ṣoḍaśābhūṣaṇas of the Aparājita-pracchā 149-51 151

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C. Headgear *i. e.* Mauli (Mānasāra) 151-54

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The ideology under-lying these mudrās 154

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VII Iconographical astheticism and the Installation of the images—Prāsāda and Pratimā 155-65

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A. Iconographical alstheticism 155-157

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B. Installation (*i*) Ritualistic: its different varieties, Punah-pratiṣṭhā and Jīrṇoddhāra etc. 157-58 158-64

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(*ii*) Architectural—sculptural and iconometrical 164-65

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Appendix A 166-68

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Part II—Exposition of Pratimā-lakṣaṇas .

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Introductory 170-71

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Appendix to page 24, Pt. II, Ch. VIII—D. Buddhas 172

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I. Trimūrti etc. Brāhma-pratimā-lakṣaṇa 173-88

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| Trimūrti | 172-76 | Caturmūrti | 176 |
| Pañca-mūrti | 176-77 | Dvimūrtis | 177-79 |

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Brahmā 179-88

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(*i*) Historical resume—Vedic etc. 180-81

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(*ii*) Iconographical accounts 181-84

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(*iii*) Iconological implications 184-85

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| (*iv*) Illustrations (*a*) Independent images 185 (*b*) Reliefs 186 | | |
| (*v*) Brahmā's shrine and parivāra-devatās | | 186–88 |
| Vaiṣṇava-pratimā-lakṣaṇa | | 189–231 |
| Introduction 189–90 | History : | |
| Vedic 190–91 ; Epic and Purāṇic 191–93; Pañcarātric | 193–95 |
| Pratimā-lakṣaṇas—seven-fold icons | | 195 |
| 1. The ordinary Viṣṇu-images | | 195–97 |
| 2. Extraordinary forms of Viṣṇu | | 197–206 |
| Anantaśayī 197–99 | Vāsudevas D. & M. | 199–203 |
| Trailokya-mohana 203 | Viśvarūps | 203–4 |
| Vaikuṇṭha 204–5 | Ananta | 205 |
| Yogeśvara 205 | Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa | 205–6 |
| 3. Dhruva Beras | | 206–11 |
| Introduction 206–8 | 6. Bhogāsana | 210 |
| (*a*) *Standing attitude* 208–9 | 7. Vīrāsana | ” |
| 1. Yagasthānaka 208 | 8. Abhicārikāsana | ” |
| 2. Bhogasthānaka 208–9 | (*c*) *Reclining attitude* | 210–11 |
| 3. Vīrasthānaka 209 | 9. Yogaśayana | 210 |
| 4. Abhicārikasthānaka „ | 10. Bhogaśayana | 211 |
| (*b*) *Sitting attitude* 209–10 | 11. Vīraśayana | ” |
| 5. Yogāsana 209 | 12. Abhicārikaśayana | ” |
| 4. Daśāvatāras—The Ten Incarnations | | 211–21 |
| Introduction & | | |
| Defferent lists of Avatāras | | 212–14 |
| 1. Matsya 214 | 4. Narasimha | 216 |
| 2. Kūrma 215 | (*i*) Girija | 216 |
| 3. Varāha ” | (*ii*) Sthāṇu | 216–17 |
| (*i*) Nṛvarāha 215–16 | (*iii*) Yānaka | 217 |
| (*ii*) Yajña and (*iii*) Pralaya 216 | (*iv*) Lakṣmī-Narasimha | 217 |
| 5. Vāmana and Trivikrama | | 217–18 |
| 6–8. Three Rāmas | (*i*) Paraśurāma | 218 |
| | (*ii*) Rāghava | 219 |
| | (*iii*) Balarāma | 219 |
| 9. Kṛṣṇa 219–20 | 10. Buddha (See Buddhist Iconography) | |
| 11. Kalkim | | 220–21 |
| 5. Caturviṁśati-mūrtayah | | 221–23 |
| Introductory | | 221 |
| The twenty four Mūrtis tabulated and commented | | 222–23 |
| 6. Minor Forms of Viṣṇu | | 223–27 |
| Rao's classification and comment on it | | 223–24 |

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| Puruṣa | 224 | Vyāsa | 224 | Hayagrīva | 224-25 |
| Kapila | ” | Dhanvantari | ” | Dharma | 225 |
| Yajña-mūrti | ” | Dattātreya | ” | Varadarāja etc. | ” |

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Garuda—art-motif and iconographical description and illustrations thereof 226-27

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7. Āyudhapurusas 227-29

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Introduction 228 Sculptural forms, the underlying theology of the ten Āyudhas 228-29 Vaiṣṇavī Dvārāvatī 229-30 Vaiṣṇava-vividha-pratimā-pūjana-phalam 230 Vaiṣṇava-lāñchana-rahasyam 230-31 Viṣṇu-shrine (the Āyatana) 231 Viṣṇu's eight Pratīthāras 231

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III. Śaiva-pratimā-lakṣaṇa 232-86

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General introduction 232-33 Śaivism—its schools, the sects, etc. 233-37 (*i*) Āgamānta school 234 (*ii*) The Pāśupata and other schools 234-35 (*iii*) The Aghora or the milder forms of Śaivism—the Kasmir and the Liṅgāyata 235-37 History of Śiva 237-39 Pre-Vedic—Śiva-Paśupati 237 Vedic—Rudra-Śiva 237-38 Epic and Paurāṇic 238-39 Liṅga-worship 239 Two broad divisions of Śaiva icons—Liṅgas and Rūpas

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*Liṅgas* 240-48 Its meaning 240 Its divisions and sub-divions—niṣkala, sakala and miśra 240 Niṣkala—Shāvara and Jaṅgama 240 *Cala-linga*—six-fold classification according to substances, they are made of 240-41 *Acala Liṅgas*—the different varieties 241

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| The Svāyambhuva lingas | 241-42 | The Gāṇapa | 242 |
| The Daivika | 242 | The Ārṣa | ” |

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The Mānasāra's classification of liṅgas 242-43 The Samarāṅgaṇa's treatment of the Liṅgas 243-44

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*The Mānuṣa liṅgas*

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| 1. | Aṣṭottaraśata-liṅga | 245 | 3. | Dhārā-Liṅga | 245 |
| 2. | Sahasra-Liṅga | 245 | 4. | Mukha-liṅga | 245 |

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The different criteria of the classification of Mānuṣa-lingas Sarvadeśika 246 Sarvasama 246 Vardhamāna 246 Śaivādhika, etc. 246 *Bāṇa-Liṅgas* 246–47 Liṅga-pīṭhas and kinds of Pīṭhas and Pīṭhanāla 247–48 *Rūpas—anthropomorphic forms* 248–282 Introduction and the treatment of the Samarāṅgaṇa 248–49 The different categories of Śaiva Icons 250 I. Śānta, II. Ugra & III. Miscellaneous—the 18 forms ” The 18 liṅgodbhava rūpas 250–51

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I **Śāntas:**
1. **Sādhāraṇī Mūrti** 251–52
2. **Asādhāraṇīs** 252–54 Sadāśiva 252–53 Mahāsadāśiva 253 Dvādaśakalā-sampūrṇa Sadāśiva ” Pāśupata and Rudra-Pāśupata 253–54
3. **Saumya and Śānta Mūrtis** 254–58 Ardhanārīśvara 254–55 Gaṅgādhara 255–56 Kalyāṇa-Sundara 256–57 Vṛṣavāhana 257 Candraśekhara 257 Sukhāsana, etc. 257–58
4. **Anugraha murtis** 258–60 (*i*) Viṣṇvanugraha 258 (*ii*) Nandīśānugraha 258 (*iii*) Vighneśvarānugraha 259 (*iv*) Arjunānugraha 259 (*v*) Caṇḍeśānugraha ” (*vi*) Rāvaṇānugraha 259–60
5. **Nṛtta Mūrtis** 260–63 Introduction to 108 modes of Śiva’s Dance and its significance in the words of Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy 260–62 Nine Nṛtta Mūrties, Description and illustrations 262–63 Other modes and their representations 263
6. **Dakṣiṇāmūrtis** 263–66 **Introduction** 263–64 (*i*) **Vyākhyāna-dakṣiṇāmūrti** 264 (*ii*) **Jñāna-dakṣiṇā-mūrti** 264–65 (*iii*) **Yoga-dak iṇāmūrti** 265–66 **Vīṇādhara-dakṣiṇā-mūrti** 266

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II. **Aśānta or Ugra Mūrtis** 266–278 **Kāmāntaka** 266–67 **Gajāsurasaṁhāra** 267–68 **Kālāri-mūrti** 268–69 Tripurāntak and its 8 aspects 269–72 Śarabheśa 272–73 Brahma-śiraśchetṛ-mūrti 273 Bhairava, Svacchanda Bhairava and 64 Bhairavas 274–76 other aspects of Saṁhāra—Vīrabhadra, Jālandhara, Mallāri Śiva, Aghora and Mahākāla etc. 276-78

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Kaṅkāla and Bhikṣāṭana Mūrtis 278-79

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III. *Miscellaneous aspects

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Ekādāśa Rudras 279-80 Vidyeśvaras 280 Mūrtyaṣṭakam 280-81 Iśānādayah Pañca-Mūrtis 281 Maheśa or Mahādeva 281-82 Śivagaṇas Nandī 282-83 Kṣetrapāla 284 Caṇḍeśa 283-84 Ārya etc. 284-85 Secrecy of the Śaiva-emblems 285-86 Śivāyatanam 286 The aṣṭa-pratihāras ”

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V. Gāṇapatya-Pratimā-lakṣaṇa 287-300

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Gaṇeśa 287-292 History 287-89 Rise of the Sect and its popularity 289 Iconography and Icons (16 varieties) 289-291 Illustrations (early and early and late medievals) 291-92 Secret and sacred meaning of Gaṇeśa's attributes 292-93 Senāpati Kārtikeya (Skanda) 293-300 Introduction 293

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Early evidence of Skanda's evolutionary iconographical, archaeological and literary traits 293-95

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Iconographical accounts of the three main aspects and the associated meaning of other forms 295-96

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1. Kārtikeya 296-97.

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Kumāra and Kārtikeya 297 Symbolic significance .297

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2. Skanda 297-98

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3. Subrahmaṇya—his other 10 aspects 298-99

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Subrahmaṇya's Shrine, his Parivāradevatās and Dvārapālakas 300

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VI. Devī-Pratimā-lakṣaṇa (Śāktism) 301-324

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Introduction 301 Śāktism—as Yāntricism, Tāntricism and Advaitism 301-303 Its history—pre-historic and historical 303-304 Devī-cult: (*i*) Vedic and (*ii*) post-Vedic—Epic, Paurāṇic and Philosophic 304-305 Devī-Pratimā-lakṣaṇam--the Devi Icons 305-6

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The three main aspects 305–6 *Sarasvatī* 306–308 Her Tāntric ritualistic association in the Aparājita-prachhā 306 Her early accounts—Vedic, etc. 306–7 Her iconography and illustrations 307–8 *Lakṣmī* 308–13 Introduction to her different aspects 308 Numerousness of archaeological (Numismatic and Glyptic) data providing for her historical evolution 308–9 Literary data—Vedic and post-Vedic, and coordination between representations and literary descriptions 309–310 Iconographical accounts and illustrations thereof of (i) Mahālakṣmī, (ii) Lakṣmī, and (iii) Śrī or Gaja-lakṣmī 310–313 Bhūdevi and other Vaiṣṇavī Devīs 313 *Durgā* Introduction to her main aspects 313–14 Mahākālī 314–15 Kālī and Bhadrakālī 315 Durgā 315–16 Nava-Durgās 316–17 (Āgamic, Paurāṇic and Āparājitic tabulation & Nava-durgā iconology and its iconographical representa-tions) 316–17 . Mahiṣāsura-mardinī and Kātyāyanī—iconography & illustrations 317–18 Kauśikī—Samarāṅgaṇa's contribution 318–19 Caṇḍikā and her aspects and her aṣṭa-pratihāras 319 Gauri—manifold aspects 319–20 *(i)* Dvādaśa-mūrtis 320–21 *(ii)* Pañca-lalitā-mūrtis 321 Gauri-shrine and her aṣṭa-dvārapālikās 321 Other Śaivi aspects of Devi—a commentary 321–22 Mātṛkās—sapta or aṣṭa 322–23 Jyeṣṭhā 323–24 Śaivi Devis (tabulated) 324 VI. Saura-Pratimā-lakṣaṇa—Sūrya, Ādityas, Navagrahas, Dikpālas and Aśvins 325–41 Sūrya and Ādityas—introductory 325 History—Vedic 325–26 Saurism of the post-Vedic age 326–27 Foreign influence on the Sun-worship in India 327–28 Ḏvādaśādityās 328–29

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Navagrahas 329-30 Sūrya-pratimā-Lakṣaṇa 330-331
(i) Northern tradition 330-331
(ii) Southern tradition 331 Illustrations (general) 331-33 5 types (earlier, early and medieveal, " Southern and Northern types compared 333 Dvadaśādityas illustrated 333-34 Revanta 334 Naragraha-illustrations " Iconogy behind the Sun and Navagraha images 334-35 (Surya and Viṣṇu compared) " Saura-āyatana—the sun-shrine 335 Saura-pratihāras 335-36 Dikpālas—introductory 336 History—Vedic, Buddhist and Jain 336-37 Dikpālas tabulated 337 Indra 337-38 Agni 338-39 Yama 339 Nirṛti 339-40 Varuṇa 340 Vāyu " Kubera 340-41 The Aśvins 341 VII Other miscellaneous images—Yakṣa-Vidyādhara-Vasu-Marudgaṇa-Pitṛgaṇa—Munigaṇa (Ṛṣis) and Bhaktas etc. 342-55 The demi-gods and demons—tabulation and the S. S.'s contribution 342-43 Yakṣas 343-45 Vidyādharas, Gandharvas and Apsarasas 345-47 Gandharvas and Kinnaras re-interpreted—vide the Mānasāra text " Nāgas (i) History 347-49
(ii) Iconography 349-50 Vasus—the eight Vasus 350-51 Asuras 351 Piśācas, Vetālas and Bhūtas " Marudgaṇas 351-52; Sādhyās 352 Pitṛs 352-53; Ṛṣis and Munis 353-55 Bhaktas 355 Some observations on the concretised concepts, like Artha, Kāma, Diśās, Jvara, Vedas, Śāstras, Dharma, Jñāna, Valrāgya, Vyoman and Aiduka 355 *N. B.*—The paging of the VIII Chapter is afresh as it was a later addition. *N. B.* Sections I & B. may be taken as B. & C.

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Jain and Buddhist Iconography 1-38

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Section B. Jain Images 1-14

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Foundation of Jain Iconography 1--2

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Antiquity of image-worship among the Jainas 2-3

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The Arcā of the Jains 3

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The Arcyas of the Jains—the gods and goddesses, two classifications 4-5

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Origin of Jain images 5-6

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Places of Jain pilgrimage 6-7

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1. Tīrthankaras 7-8

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Characteristics of Jain images 8-9

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Jina-iconography 9-10

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24 Tīrthankaras with their lānchanas etc. (tabulation) 10

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Evolution of the Jina-icons 11

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Jain Quadruple 12

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2. Yakṣas and Yakṣiṇīs (tabulated with vāhanas) 12-13

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3. The 16 Śruta-devis or Vidyā-devis 13-14

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4. Dikpālas 14

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5. Other miscellaneous images 14
(i) Harinegmeśa (ii) Kṣetrapāla 14
(iii) Gaṇeśa, Lakṣmī, Sāntidevi and 64 Yoginīs 14 Illustrations 14

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Section C. Buddhist Iconography 15-38

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Religious and philosophical background 15-18

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Buddhist Pantheon—rise and development 18-20

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Buddha images in general—introduction 20-21

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Paurāṇic accounts 21

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Iconographical 21-23

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Vajrayāna Buddhist Images 23-34

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14 categories 23

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1. (*a*) (*i*) Dhyānī (Divine) Buddhas 23-24 (*ii*) Divine Buddha-Śaktis 24 (*iii*) Divine Bodhi-sattvas 24-25 (*b*) Mortal Buddhas 25-26 (*c*) Maitreya, the Future Buddha 26

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2. Mañjuśrī and his 14 forms 26-27

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3. Avalokiteśvara and 15 principal forms 27-28

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4. Emanations of Amitābha 28-29

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5. Emanations of Akṣobhya 29-30 6. Emanations of Vairocana 30
7. Emanations Amoghasiddhi 30
8. Emanations of Ratnasambhava 30-31
9. Emanations of the Five Dhyānī Buddhas 31-32
10. Emanations of the Four D. Buddhas 32
11. Emanations Vajrasattva 32
12. Pañcarakṣā-maṇḍala 32
13. Tārās 32
14. Independent deites (i) Gods and (ii) Goddesses 33-34 Secret Iconology—Vajrayāna-view of the Vajrayāna-Buddhist Images 34-35 A peep into the Buddhist Art 35-37 Stūpas 35 Triśaraṇas 36 Gandhāra Art 36 The Mathurā school of Sculpture 36 Famous monasteries—Odantapuri, Nalanda & Vikrama-śīlā 36-37 Cave temples, Ajanta, Ellora etc. 37 Bengal school of Sculpture 37 Nepal and Tibet 37 Illustration—centre-wise 37-38 Appendix A—Pt. I p. 86 & 92—continued 356-8

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CANONS OF PAINTING

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With an outline history of Indian Painting, Archaeological and Literary 359-500

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(N. B.—"Contents" on page 361 may be deemed redundant—they apply to the first edition of the 3rd part separately published under "Hindu Canons of Painting")

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Introductory 362-64

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I. The Principal Texts on the canons of painting—the Citraśāstra 365-76 The five principal and four subsidiary texts besides other references 365-66

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1. Viṣṇudharmottara 366-68
2. Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra 368-70
3. Aparājita-pracchā 370-71
4. Abhilaṣitrātha-cintāmaṇi or Mānasollāsa 371-72
6. Śilpa-ratna 373-74 N. B.—Subsidiaries being—Citralakṣaṇa of Nagnajit, Śivatattva-ratnākara, Sārasvata-citra-karmā-śāstra and Nārada-śilpa 374-76

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II. Painting, its aim, origin and scope 377-84 General introduction 377-78 Its aim 378-80 Origin 380-83 Scope 383-84

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Elements 385 Constituents 385 Types: 385–89 Various classifications:—
(i) Satya 385 (i) Viddha 386 (i) Rasacitra 387
(ii) Vaiṇika 385–86 (ii) Aviddha ,, (ii) Dhūlīcitra ,,
(iii) Nāgara 386 (iii) Bhāva 387 (iii) Citra ,,
(iv) Miśra ,, (iv) Rasa ,,
(v) Dhūlī ,, Dr. Raghavan’s observations 387–89

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IV The Vartikā and the Canvas 390–96 Vartikā 390–91 Different Backgrounds.— Kudya-bhūmibandhana, paṭṭa-bhūmibandhana and Paṭa-bhūmibandhana 391–92
1. The Mural backgrounds 392–94
2. The Board Canvas 394
3. The Cloth Canvas 394–95 Abb. C.’s technique on the topic 395–96

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V The Aṇḍaka-measurements and Proportionate measurements -397–406 Introduction 397 The S. S.’s prescriptions A. Aṇḍaka-Pramāṇa 398–99 B. Kāya-Pramāṇa 399 C. Different forms i. e. Rūpas 399–400 The V.D.’s prescriptions 400–403 The Mānasollāsa’s Pictorial Iconometry 403–406

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VI Plasters and Ointments 407–410 Introduction 407–8 The Brick plaster and Clay plaster 408–9 Ointment—Mṛttikābandhana & Sudhābandhana 409–10

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VII Colours and Brushes, shades and other delineations 411–420 Colours 411–18 Primary colours 412 Secondary colours 412–14 Colour substances:
(i) Sudhā (ii) Sindūra, (iii) Hiṅgula (iv) Nīla (v) Haritāla 414–15 Use of gold and other metals (Patra-vinyāsa and Rasakriyā) 415–18 Brushes The five types 418–19 Vartanā, the delineations 419–20

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VIII. How to paint—Conventions in Painting 421–29 N. B. See the chapter for details—they are too numerous.

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IX Painting and Aesthetics 430–37 Introductory 430 A. Eleven Rasas 431–32 B. Eighteen Rasadṛṣṭis 432 Commentary 332–33 The art of painting is based on the art of Nāṭya—the V. D. 433–34 Aspects of Poetry in terms of pictures—Dr. Raghavan 434–36 The application of Rasa-theory to Citra (Ibid) 437 The application of Dhvani theory to Citra (Ibid) ,,

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X Styles of painting in relation to Colours, Patras and Kaṇṭakas 438–42

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| | Patras | | | 438-40 |
| | Kaṇṭakas | | | 440-41 |
| | Styles | | | 441-42 |
| XI | Painting & Painter | | | 443-47 |
| | Characteristics of Indian painting with a critical and comparative estimation with the Western Canons | | | 442-45 |
| | Painter—his qualifications | | | 445 |
| | Painters of India | | | 446-47 |
| | (Here end the Canons, we now go to their representation in the monuments) | | | |
| XII | An outline History of Indian Painting | | | 448-92 |
| | Introductory | | | 448-50 |
| | *Section A.* Archaeological evidence of early records of Painting in India | | | 448-74 |
| A. | Pre-Christian (1) Prehistoric | | | 450-451 |
| | (2) Historic | | | 451 |
| B. | Post-Christian—Introduction to Buddhist, Hindu, and Mohammedan | | | 451-53 |
| | The Buddhist period—Ajanta, Sigiriya, & Bagh paintings | | | 453-66 |
| | Ajanta | | | |
| | (i) Situation 454 | Cave | IX | 456-57 |
| | (ii) Groups and Pds. 454-55 | " | X | 457 |
| | (iii) Themes 455 | " | XI | " |
| | Cave I " | " | XVI | " |
| | Cave II 455-56 | " | XVII | 457-59 |
| | Cave VI 456 | " | XXI | 459 |
| | Cave VII " | " | XXII | " |
| | (iv) Patronage | | | 459-60 |
| | (v) Materials & Technique | | | 460-62 |
| | Adherance to the Art Canons and a general estimation | | | 462-65 |
| | Sigiriya | | | 465 |
| | Bagh | | | 465-66 |
| | Hindu Period | | | 466-71 |
| | Introduction | | | 466-67 |
| | Rajput Paintings | | | 467-69 |
| | Character & Characteristics of Rajput Paintings | | | 469-71 |
| | Mughal Paintings | | | 471-73 |
| | Introductory | | | 471 |
| | Mughal Miniatures | | | 471-72 |
| | Portraiture under the Mughals | | | 472-73 |
| | Modern Schools | | | 473-74 |
| | *Section B.* Literary evidence of Early Indian Painting | | | 474-92 |
| | (i) Vedic literature | | | 475 |
| | (ii) Pali Buddhist Canonical literature | | | 475 |
| | (iii) Epics (iv) Purāṇas and (v) Silpaśāstras | | | 475-76 |
| | Kāvyas | | | 476-92 |
| | *Kālidasa* | | | 476-81 |
| | (i) Citra-śālas; (ii) Citrācāryas | | | 477 |
| | (iii) Portrait pictures (iv) Backgrounds | | | 477-78 |
| | (v) Process (vi) Materials (vii) Colours | | | 478-80 |
| | (viii) Bodily poses and postures of legs | | | 480-81 |
| | *Bāṇa-bhaṭṭa* | | | 481-87 |
| | Introductory | | | 481-82 |
| | Types of Pictures | | | 482-83 |
| | Backgrounds | | | 483 |
| | Materials | | | 483 |

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| Methods of painting on various surfaces | 483-85 |
| Colours--primary and their varieties | 485-86 |
| Varieties of mixed colours | 486-87 |
| Srīharṣa | 487-90 |
| Letter-painting | 487 |
| Types of Pictures | 487-88 |
| Process and colours | 488 |
| Anatomy-face, nose, chin, ear, eyes, neck, hair nitamba, gulfa, heel, fingers, etc., etc. | 488-90 |
| other poets—Bhavabhūti, Harṣadeva, Daṇḍī, Māgha, Rājaśekhara, Dhanapāla, Someśvarasūri etc. | 490-92 |
| Book Illustrations | 492 |
| Appendix A Quotations from Kāvyas | 1-8 |

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Pratimā lakṣaṇa & Citra-lakṣaṇa

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| (i) Pratima-Vijñāne | 1-67 |
| (ii) Pratimā-Lakṣaṇe | 68-293 |
| (iii) Citra-lakṣaṇe | 294-332 |

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N. B. The detailed contents in Sanskrit may be seen on pages 1-8 of the Pratimā-lakṣaṇa.

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OMISSION

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The author craves the patience of his readers for the III Volume completing this survey of this subject in English which will be entirely devoted to the illustrations of not only the images and paintings but also to those pertaining to the subject-matter of the Volum I Hindu Canons of Architecture (Science of Engineering, Town-planning, Building-houses—residential ones, royal palaces and the abodes of gods, the temples etc.). Hence this omission may be forgiven. Index may be deemed compensated with the exhaustive contents.

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Pulishers

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**Vāstu-Vāṅmaya-Prakāśana-śālā**
Shukla-Kuti Faizabad Road, Lucknow.

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Other Publications of the author

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1. Hindu Canons of Iconography with an anthology of Pratimā-lakṣaṇa | Rs. 27—0—0
2. Hindu Canons cf Iconography without the anthology of Pratimā lakṣṇna | Rs. 18—0—0
3. Hindu Canons of Painting with an outline history of Indian Painting, archaeological and literary. | Rs. 9—0—0
४. भारतीय वास्तु-शास्त्र—वास्तु-विद्या एवं पुर-निवेश | मूल्य ८॥)
५. हिन्दू प्रसाद की चतुर्मुखी पृष्ठ-भूमि | ,, ३)
६. प्रतिमा-विज्ञान | ,, १५)
७. प्रतिमा-लक्षण | ,, १२)
८. चित्र-लक्षण | ,, २)

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**Printers (1) Prem Printing, Press Lucknow** **(2) Shukla Printing, Press Lucknow**

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*N. B.* Nos. 1–3 are seprate editions of this work to suit the students of Archaeology and Iconography also.

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FOUNDATIONS OF ICONOGRAPY

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(The Institution of Worship)

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It has already been remarked that any study of Iconography in India must say something about the purpose of Iconography. We know that the vast varieties of icons as found in the different parts of this land of ours were the objects of worship, hence something about worship, its antiquity, origin and development together with the different forms and different modes has to be dealt with in order to form a complete picture. Again we know that this institution of worship had undergone different transformations with the predominence of the different cults in India. In those days of Vedas and Vedāṅgs in the sacrificial cult, the worship centred round the sacrificial altar and it had become such a mighty institution that the gods, to whom the offerings were made, were made subordinate to the Yajña—the supreme power in the hands of the Aryans of those days. Yajña, itself became the supreme deity—Yajña-Nārāyaṇa. Later on, in the days of the Upaniṣads and Āraṇyakas, the centre of a ttention from an external deity shifted to the internal Ātman—a manifestation of the all-pervading Paramātman, the Supreme Soul.

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Again with the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, the heterodox religious movements in India, antagonistic to this sacrificial cult, made a propound change in the minds of people and they propagated a new way of religion, a new gospel of God and godliness. To undo what the Buddhism had done, the rise of a Brahmanic religion—a neo-religious movement in the shape of Paurāṇic dharma, so powerful and so vigorous that the erection of temples and the installations of the deities in them found the greatest impetus. It is here that the image-making art found a natural atmosphere for development.

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Naturally, therefore, a bird's eye-view on the different religious systems advocating the different modes of worship in their different cults is a necessity for a fuller presentation of the subject-matter in hand. This is only a bare indication of the Pūrva-Pīṭhikā of the Pratimā-vijñāna (the Hindi work) duly incorporated here in this work as well—cf. Pts. Introductory and II of this study. It is the foundation stone on which the edifice of icons is to be built.

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**N. B.**—This theme of 'Foundations of Iconography' has been treated in exhaustive details in my Hindi work 'Pratimā-vijñāna' and here in this work only a bare outline is given; nevertheless it has been compensated to some extent in Pt. II—the Exposition of Pratimā-lakṣaṇas so far as the evolution of the cult as associated with a particular deity is concerned,

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WORSHIP AND ITS ANTIQUITY

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As mentioned in the introduction to this subject, that an exposition of Iconography must have two angles of investigation—image-making as an art and image-worship as an institution. The former presupposes the latter, rather the former is an outcome of the latter. The word Icon derived from Greek word Eikon signifies an object of worship. It is associated with the rituals relating to the cults of different divinities. Similarly the word Image derived from old French and Latin Imago has got the basic connotation of ‘likeness’. This latter word has got a parallel in such Sanskrit words as Pratīkṛti, Pratimā, Bimba, etc. But the denotation of these words was not restricted to the images of divinities alone. The word ‘Pratimā’ in the Pratimā-Nātaka of Bhāsa denotes the statues of the departed royalties. In Mahābhārata (Strīparva), similarly the word Pratimā (cf. Āyasī Pratimā of Bhīma) denotes the figure of a person. But here in this treatment the word Image or Pratimā is restricted to the figures of the divinities—the gods and goddesses together with their accessories Yakṣas, Gandharvas, Piśācas etc. It is from this limited or technical denotation and connotation of the word Pratimā, Pratīkṛti, Bimba etc. that in a systematic investigation into the sculptural traditions behind them, they must presuppose a cultural tradition before them.

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The story of human civilisation is the story of man’s mode of living, dressing, eating and thinking. Man as a rational animal has been thinking of himself, his Creator, his guardians and his benefactors. Cosmologically and mythologically (cf. ‘Sahadevādhikāra’ the S. S. Chap. VI) man has never forgotten that he was once one with gods—the perfect beings. Humanity in its perfection is nothing but another name of god-hood or godliness. Unavoidable separation of mankind from gods gave an impetus for the cultivation and dedication of a life fit for the attainment of union with them. This has been the fundamental craving of humanity that was responsible in giving rise to such lofty doctrine as Ātman Doctrine or the Doctrine of Brahma-realisation, the attainment of true Knowledge, the realisation of the ultimate Reality etc. of the Upniṣads. What do all these things mean? They mean only one thing—that man was once separated from his ‘self’, the higher self, wants to unite with it. His quest has been on, from times immemorial. The different institutions of ritual and religion, the worship and homage, yogic practices and penances—all have one aim—to propitiate the gods whose anger has brought mankind to such a miserable state. They are forsaken and deserted as it were, and now want to know the path leading to immortality, which is all blissful and where there is no pain and no misery, no death and no birth. The great Religions of the past, the great Teachers of the past, the great Scriptures of the past, have all taught one thing—the Dedication of the life to some higher end, free from the petty cares of paltry life, the life of godliness, the life of devotional fervour and the life of spiritual realisation. But frail as men are—how can such high and lofty principles of advanced metaphysics and philosophy be translated into life, woven into the texture of living? After all, all are not learned, all are not expected to possess the same intellectual acumen, the same discipline of mind and spirit. The Ātman doctrine, and the doctrine of Brahma-realisation may be true to the learned, what about the ignorant?, the mass of humanity, whose only knowledge is the knowledge of eating, drinking and covering their bodies. How to cover their souls?—that was the problem and has been the problem. On this, the ancient seers, the leaders of men and thought, not only in India but also elsewhere have pondered over and have given a code of conduct, best suited to this mass of humanity. This code was the code of worship. The forms and modes of worship have differed in different times and climes; but the fundamental inspiration has been the same.

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To put it in one word—worship as an institution is as old as the civilisation of man itself. It was a life-companion throughout the ages. Hence the scholarly discussions and controversies of this institution may be of an academic interest, but from the broad cultural point of view (the key-note of this book), the worship through some symbol or other, was of a very hoary antiquity.

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The objects of worship or the symbols of worship have been different in different periods of human civilisation. In India, however, the objects of worship other than gods and goddesses are fairly well known and of a very long tradition and even today they are woven into our daily religious life. Even today we pay our homage to certain trees and deem them as sacred. The Asvattha, the Nimba, the Nyagrodha, the Bilva, the Āmalaka are sacred trees and we pay our homage to them some way or other, according to their days in Hindu Calendar. This is tree-worship. The worship of rivers is very common in India. The river Gaṅgā is the sacred-most. The Holy Gaṅgā—a very bath in it, is a sanctity. Before taking a plunge in it, we first pay our homage to it. Every significant family event or social event such as Yajñopavīta or marriage or birth of a child, requires Gaṅgā-pūjā. Similarly other rivers too are our objects of veneration. Every devout Hindu in his daily bath remembers these rivers (cf. the couplet *Gaṅge ca, Yamune caiva,* etc. etc....). Many a mountain has been our object of worship from times immemorial. It is mountains from where we have derived the worship of Śālagrāmas and Bāṇa-liṅgas, later on, deemed representatives of Viṣṇu and Śiva respectively. Animal-worship, the worship of cow, Bird-worship (cf. Garuḍa etc.) are also of hoary antiquity.

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The sum and substance of this symbolism in worship is the fundamental fact of being grateful to an object which some way or the other has been conducive to the well-being of human life and its primary necessities. Man has always found in Nature, his protector and the greatest benefactor. The trêes, the rivers, the mountains, the sun, the moon, the stars and animals like cow, etc. have all been the benefactors and protectors of man and hence objects of veneration and worship. The hymns of the Ṛg-veda are the earliest testimony of paying homage to the natural objects.

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Now granted that worship as an institution has been the very breath of man from the very birth of civilisation, the question which agitates the mind of men these days is: At what period of history in India did the worship of the images of gods and goddesses arise? This is the subject of inquiry and investigation of the present chapter.

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We have already seen the all embracing principle of life—the communion with Nature. This formed the first religion of man in India. The religious life of the early Vedic Aryans, naturally therefore, revolved round the glorification of the natural objects—typified as gods and goddesses and their glorification in prayer and oblations was its out-come. Their anthropomorphism formed the basis of Iconology which in its return gave rise to Iconography. Hence Iconography presupposes Iconology—description of the vedic gods and goddesses as having hands, feet, arms, dress, chariots, vehicles cannot be regarded as mere poetic imageries. They may be viewed as the material images of the divinities. Therefore, they may be considered as the progenitors of the images as described in the early Purāṇas, Āgamās and the Śilp-śāstras.

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In India the cultural chain is never broken. The cardinal truths of life and conduct as incorporated in the Vedas in their characteristic style and symbolism also handed down in the Purāṇas, though the outward appearance seemed different. The Vedic representations of gods were also the Pauranic representations of gods. In the times of the Vedas and the Vedāṅgas, the mode of worship was mostly characteristic of individual worship—a daily performance centring round the Fire, the Agnihōtra etc., among the high class Āryans. Thus even in the prayer-worship of the Vedas as well as the ritualistic worship of the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras, prominent element was the gods to whom offerings were made, and rewards desired. Worship, through the agency of prayer or ritual, was confined to the higher strata of society. What about the masses? In the aboriginal form, the worship may be having any symbolism of a tree or a river, a mountain-slab or the mountain itself, a bird or an animal, but later on, there was an admixture of the peoples, Aryans and non-Aryans, something was taken and something was given. This is always the case in the history of cultural life of mankind. No culture is isolated, or pure; all are composite cultures and admixtures of one another. Hence to my mind in the early Vedic age, image worship *i. e.* the worship of gods in images, could not have been prevalent—here I agree with other scholars. But as time passed and Aryans and non-Aryans—aboriginals, abandnoing their rivalry and animosity became united in more than one ways, religious life of the then India branched off in two equally powerful channels—the ritualism of the upper class and the popular religion, characteristic of image-worship, of the masses. Thus Image-worship formed the very pivot of the popular religion in India. If we accept this synthetic cultural truth, we need not worry ourselves with academic discussions and scholarly controversies centring round the topic of the antiquity of Image-worship in India. I have purposely avoided entering into this controversy. From the dawn of civilisation, the Dvandva has been the fundamental factor of evolution of the world and the humanity at large. The mythological accounts of Devas and Asuras, the historical accounts of Aryans and non-Aryans, the philosophical accounts of Saguṇa and Nirguṇa, geneological accounts of Rājas and Prajās, to mention a few of these, show that there could not have been one universal code of life and conduct. Naturally, therefore, this image-worship must have been running parallel even in such remote ages as the times of Vedas themselves or prior to them, as is evident from the finds at Mohenjo-daro and other ancient sites. This latter surmise has very ably been brought out by the eminent indologists like Marshall (vide his ‘Mohenjo-daro & Indus Valley Civilisation’) and others. Moreover, we should not forget that the costly paraphernalia of a Vedic ritual, as advocated by the Brāhmaṇas and Sūtra works, and the high religion of the Upaniṣads revolving round the Ātman and Parmātman, the Absolute, the Brahman, could not have been a practical acceptance of the masses. The highly idealistic and pantheistic conceptions could not have become of easy comprehension and practical adoption by the man in the street, the ignorant, the Ajñas (cf. quotation a head). Hence image-worship, in my opinion, was a grand religious and philosophical solution of the difficulty of conceiving a limitless Absolute from the practical point of view and the conveniences thereof. A reconciliation of Vedantic or idealistic philosophy of the Upniṣads with the image-worship, representing polytheism, has been strikingly effected in the National Religion of this ancient country.

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N. B.—As already hinted at, in the introductory Chapter of this part, this topic has been dwelt at length in the writer's Pratimā-vijñāna, from all the three angles namely from the fundamental basis of cultural inter-mixture (already expounded above), the literary sources and historical interpretations from the archaeological data—the Monumental, the Epigraphic & the Numismatic. Those interested in the latter two, are referred to, to read the Pratimā-Vijñāna. Dr. J. N. Bannerjea's masterly dissertation in marshalling the material connected with archaeological data (vide Development of H. I. Chapters II to V) is also referred to, for reference.

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IMAGE-WORSHIP—ITS DEVELOPMENT

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Image-worship—its forms and modes as well as its development in relation to the different and divergent religious trends and beliefs, form the subject-matter of the present chapter.

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Before the rise of Buddhism or more correctly before the Christian Era, the image-worship, the pivot of popular religion, had attained the status of a national religion of Hindus. The dictum “Ajñānām Bhāvanārthāya pratimā parikalptīā” no more held good. Pratimā as an aid to higher meditation and contemplation was fully accepted even among the yogīs and jñānīs. Patañjali’s Yogānuśāsanam is a testimony to this fact. We know that every institution in India for its codification and universal acceptance must have a philosophical background and a mythology in order that it could have a popular appeal among both the classes of men, high and low.

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During the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, a great set-back was experienced, rather a terrible blow was felt, by the adherents of Vedic religion. Not only the common run of men and women, even the kings and princes, nobles, merchants, commanders and craftsmen all alike had their leanings to the New Dharma-chakra of Bhagvān Buddha. The vedic religion with its great super-structure of sacrificial cult, the high and abtruse Upniṣadic doctrines of Yoga, meditation and contemplation etc. also could not have been within the easy reach of ordinary people—the common people with limited knowledge. Naturally, therefore, a revolt was unavoidable. It was a critical juncture in the religious history of India. It is at these moments that men’s minds become alert, hearts are searched, the soul re-discovered. A sense of Pseudo-greatness was prevailing as an outcome of the Aryan supremacy in India among the custodians of the Vedic Dharma. This revolt from the Buddhism and Jainism together with a natural internal revolt from their own kith and kin, the seers of Upniṣads, the great teachers of the Upnisadic lore, denouncing the cult of sacrifice and teaching the Ātman doctrine and focussing their attention more on the self than non-self, simply opened their eyes and gave an extraordinary impetus to a new orientation of Vedic Dharma. The old Testament was to be remodelled, reformed, reorientated to satisfy the urge of the time and was made a popular vehicle of faith in the worlds above. It was at this supreme hour of crisis that a Vyāsa was wanted. If a Buddha could give a new religion—a religion of middle-path to the world, a Vyāsa also could do something to save the old tradition.

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Bādarāyaṇa Veda-Vyāsa rose to his height of intellectual, mental and spiritual power and put all the Vedic lore in a popular language for ready acceptance of the masses. The Purāṇas were written. The Avatār-vāda, the main theme of the Purāṇas was promulgated. The Triad,—Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Maheśa were glorified as great gods. By accepting Buddha as an incarnation of Viṣṇu Himself, the Purāṇas, this way, as it were, completely devoured the hetrodox Buddhism from the land of its inception. This catholocity gave a death-blow to Buddhism. Paurāṇic Dharma was a land-mark in the character of worship also. From individualistic sacrificial performances, the congregation at Tīrthas was a collective worship among the Hindus. The rise of Tīrthas, the construction of the Temples and the installation of Images therein, were some of the broad features of this New Testament. Though the main theme of the Purāṇas was the glorification of the Hindu Trinity—Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Maheśa, the great god Viṣṇu however, captured the imagination most. The religion of Purāṇas gave rise to a principal cult of Vaiṣṇavism. What Purāṇas did mainly on this part of India—the North—the Uttarāpatha, the Āryāvarta proper, the Āgmas did for the glorification of the god Śiva and thus the South became the stronghold of Śaivism. And the Śakti-worship—the greatest living cult in India got its codification from the Tantras. Thus these three branches of religious literature, the Purāṇas and Āgamas and Tantras, gave rise to the three powerful sects of Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism and Śaktism. They had their philosophy, their metaphysics, their mythology and ritual too. It was from these fountain-heads that image-worship as an institution of religion and the image-making as an art got the encouragement for their development.

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The image-worship got such a stronghold in the minds of men that even the great philosophers and monist-yogis and sanyāsīs too took to it. Side by side, with religious advancement, the philosophicai advancement did not lag behind. The rise of six Systems was pre-Christian and their development must have been synchronous with the rise of religious movements. But it is interesting to know that no ancient system of philosophy in India is known to have ever pronounced Iconolatory as unphilosophical. Philosophers among co-religionists of India, strongly advocated this system. Even the hetrodox Mahayanis, the pioneers of introducing philosophy into Buddhism, encouraged image-worship. Śṅkarāchārya, the great monist that India could produce, was an image-worshipper himself. I have already written that the Upāsanā, or the practical side of Hindu religion, has necessitated this form of image-worship from time immemorial. We know the Nirguṇa Brahma, the Absolute beyond all subject and object cannot be easily an object of worship. Hence the Saguṇa Brahma was an outcome through this agency of Upāsanā, mental operation concerning Brahma with attributes :

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सगुण-ब्रह्म-विषयक-मानस-व्यापार उपासनम् (—I. I. p. xvii)

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The following lines of Rāmopaniṣad also set this idea :—

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चिन्मयस्याद्वितीयस्य निष्कलस्याशरीरिणः।
उपासकानां कार्यार्थं ब्रह्मणो रूपकल्पना ॥

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Thus the image-worship embraced practically all strata of society without any reservation and it developed to its fullest stature to envelop the whole religious life of the people from birth to death. The Gaṇapati-pūjana, the Śakti-pūjana, the offerings to the nine planets—Navagrahas and a visit to the temple of the Iṣṭa-Devatā these are all a matter of routine in any rite or performance, social, religious or otherwise. Hence this powerful sway, it exercised in the life of the people in India, is not a matter of dispute.

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With this generalisation we are now better fitted to understand the forms and modes of worship as a consequence of the great development, the image-worship, had attained in the religious life of India. All the leading sects—the Vaiṣṇavism, the Śaivism, and the Śāktism had their different codes of worship and not one but many volumes are needed to describe this great institution of Pūjāpaddhati. As the Sūtra-works codified the institution of Sacrifice, the ritual of image-worship gave rise to many learned Paddhatis. Here I shall be content to speak of those popular forms which were universal in character. The sectarian cults could never become the universal code of conduct in relation to worship.

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THE PAÑCĀYATANA

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The five principal gods formed the nucleus of the image-worship in India. This is called Pañcāyatana. It was in vogue in the time of the great Śankara. The Pancāyatana-gods are :—

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1. Viṣṇu & His different or ten Avatāras.
2. Śiva & His manifold forms.

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3. Durgā and the various Śakti-forms.
4. Gaṇeśa &
5. Sūrya.

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The Smṛti-muktā-phala corroborates this institution and says :—

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आदित्यमम्बिकां विष्णुं गणनाथं महेश्वरम् ।
पञ्चयज्ञपरो नित्यं गृहस्थः पञ्च पूजयेत् ॥

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It is also a fact that all these gods could not have equal homage from every one. Some one of them became a focus of greater attention, and naturally it gave rise to sectarianism, centering round a particular deity like Viṣṇu or Śiva, Durgā or Gaṇeśa. Dr. Bhandarkar has brought out a learned exposition of all these religious sects in his eminent work cf. ‘Vaisnavism, Saivism and minor religious systems’. But even when a particular god is deemed supreme in a particular sect, this institution of Pañcāyatana can be moulded in accordance with the five principal deities into five Pañcāyatanas. Dr. Kane in his History of Dharma-Sāstra has given the following chart of all the possible five Pancāyatanas :—

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| Visnu Pancayatana | Siva Pancayatana | Surya Pancayatana | Devi Pancayatana | Ganesa Pancayatana |
| sankara 2 | Visnu 2 | Sankara 2 | Visnu 2 | Visnu 2 |
| Ganesa 3 | Surya 3 | Ganesa 3 | Sankara 3 | Ganesa 3 |
| Visnu I | Sankara I | Surya I | Devi I | Ganesa I |
| Devi 5 | Devi 5 | Devi 5 | Surya 5 | Devi 5 |
| Surya 4 | Ganesa 4 | Visnu 4 | Ganesa 4 | Surya 4 |

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VISNU-PŪJĀ OR VAISNAVISM

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The God Viṣṇu in order to save world from the abyss of Adharma and to uphold the integrity of Dharma has assumed ten principal incarnations (cf. Bhagvad-Gita—Yada yada hi dharmasya etc........). The Daśāvatāras of Visṇu are: Matsya, kūrma, Varāha, Nṛsiṁgha, Vāmana, Paraśurāma, Rāma, Kṛsṇa, Buddha and Kalki. Again the rise and development of Vaiṣṇavism gave rise to so many further manifestations of Viṣṇu, a detailed notice of which has been taken ahead in connection with Vaiṣṇava Images.

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Vaiṣṇavism as a religious cult was Ekāntika Dharma or the religion of a single-minded love and devotion to One. In its background stood the Bhagavad-gītā. It soon assumed a sectarian form and was called the Pancarātra or Bhāgavata religion in which some of the teachings of the Upniṣads and a few general doctrines of two kinds of philosophy, the Sāmkhya and Yoga were also embodied.

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It may be noted here that this cult of Vaisnavism had exercised a powerful sway over the minds of people right from the 5th Century B. C. to the 17th Century A. D., through a great line of Vaisnava teachers, philosophers and saints, among whom, names of Rāmānuja, Mādhava or Ānandatīrtha, Nimbārka, Rāmānanda, Kabira, Tulsīdāsa, Vallabha, Caitanya Nāmadeo and Tukārāma are a popular knowledge. All these teachers taught Vaisnavism in their respective ways and formulated their own systems. "The points of contact between these various Vaisnava systems are that their spiritual elements are essentially derived from the Bhagavad-gita, that Vasudeva as the name of the Supreme Being stands in the background of all, and that spiritual monism and world-illusion are denounced by them equally. The differences arise from the varied importance that they attach to different spiritual doctrines; the prominence that they give to one or other of the three elements that were mingled with Vāsudevism; the meta-physical theory that they set up; and the ceremonial which they impose upon their followers. The Bhagvadgita was supplanted in later times by the Pancaratra Samhitas and the Puranas such as the Visnu and the Bhagavata and other later works of that description. These occasionally elucidated some of the essential doctrines, laid down the ceremonial and brought together a vast mass of legendary matter to magnify the importance of their special teachings and render them attractive" Dr. Bhandarkar Vaisnavism etc. p. 101.

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N. B. For fuller details the reader is referred to read writer's Pratīmā-Vijnāna, where in the outline history of Vaisnavism, some innovations have been put forward for the first time in the estimation of this great and powerful religious upsurge affecting and ennobling the life and deeds of millions of people in India.

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ŚIVA-PŪJĀ OR ŚAIVISM

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No Deva-pūjā is so old and so famous in India as that of Śiva. Historically it is as old as the Indus Valley Civilisation. It has undergone different modifications and manifold adaptations in the different times and climes in the different sectarian sects of Śaivism itself. The Agamas and Tantras made the Śiva-pūjā a very complicated scheme.

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Śiva-pūjā from the point of view of iconographical interest, as we shall see, is of two kinds—one is symbolic—the phallus as an emblem *i. e.*

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the Linga-pujā and the other is anthropomorphic as of others. Śiva in sculpture is Pancatuṇḍa (five-faced) and these five mouths are; Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva, Aghora, Tatpuruṣa and Īśāna.

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The great Śiva-devotee Bāṇa, it is said, founded as many as fourteen crores of Śiva-lingas which later became famous as Bāṇa-lingas. They are still found in the sacred rivers like Gaṅgā and Narmadā. Kūrma-purāṇa has an elaborate account of Linga-pujā, its origin and development. The Vāmana-purāṇa has given the glorious descriptions of the famous ancient sites where the Śiva-lingas were founded. The famous Dvādaśa-Jyotir-lingas (the Twelve Ever-shining Lingas) are:—

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| Name | Place | Name | Place |
| 1. Oṁkāra | Māndhātā | 7. Kedārnatha | Garhwal |
| 2. Mahākāla | Ujjain | 8. Viśveśvara | Kāśi |
| 3. Tryambaka | Nāsika | 9. Somanātha | Kāṭhiyawāḍa |
| 4. Dhṛsṇeśvara | Illora | 10. Vaidyanātha | Newparli |
| 5. Nāganāth | Ahmadnagar | 11. Mallikārjuna | Śrīśaila |
| 6. Bhīmaśaṅkara | Sahyādri Mt. The Bhīmā river. | 12. Rāmeśvara | Deccan. |

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**N. B.**—Now the paucity of space and the digressive nature of the scheme forbids me to elaborate any further on the remaining schools of worship—Śaivism, Śaktism, Gāṇapatyism, and Saurism. I better, therefore, give Dr. Bhandarkar's brief Resume on these as the material is simply too bewildering and too exhaustive to be done full justice in a limited space here. The reader is referred to, to a read the writer's Pratīmā-Vijñāna for sufficient details and estimation thereof, of not only all the schools of Śaivism like Pāśupatas, Kāpālikas—Kālamukhaas, Lingāyatas, Pratyabhijñāvādins, etc., but also an outline history of this great religion, its rise and development, as well as the ritualism of the sects and worship of liṅga together with a formidable analysis of all other sects in separate chapters devoted to them.

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