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Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India c5: Chapter I: Ancient Trade Routes

Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India c5

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Chapter I: Ancient Trade Routes

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GEOGRAPHY PLAYS an important part in the evolution of a culture. The changing climate not only affects the life of the people but also influences their character and thought processes. For instance, in the arid regions where man has to stage constant war against nature, he develops a rough character and is prone to raids and robbery which is in direct contrast to the mild character of the peoples living in tropical countries, because nature easily satisfies their demand and therefore their character is mild. The trade routes of a country also depend on certain geographical factors. The routes passing through mountains and deserts are naturally very difficult, but the same routes passing through the open valleys, rivers and vast plains become easier.

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It is difficult to ascertain the time taken in the evolution of trade routes in this country, though ages must have passed in their evolution and innumerable tribes must have participated in giving them their distinctive character. The nomadic tribes in search of fodder for their flocks must have got themselves gradually acquainted with the natural routes of the country, but even before them, the primitive hunters in search of their prey must have treaded on the natural routes which later on assumed the character of highways. This search for natural passages must have continued for ages, and in course of time the whole country got covered with a network of trade routes.

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The Vedic literature constantly remembers these early path-finders. Agni is designated as "*pathi kṛit*" because by burning vast jungle tracks it created routes following which the Vedic culture entered the farther corners of India.

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The pleasures and pains of travel in ancient times depended on the geographical situations of the trade routes and the measures taken to safeguard them against predators and wild animals. When we think of ancient routes of which our conquerors, rulers, pilgrims, wanderers and merchants made use then we will have to forget about our modern roads passing through smiling fields on both sides, villages, towns and cities. Ancient India had no doubt some big cities but the majority of the people lived in villages and most part of the country was covered with dense forests through which the roads passed. These roads were often infested with wild animals; robbers lay in wait for travellers and as the food problem was difficult travellers had to carry their own provision. It was very dangerous to travel alone on these roads and therefore people travelled together in well organised caravans which provided reasonable comfort to their members. Even though organised in caravans, merchants were subject to many dangers. These travellers were not merely traders but were also carriers of Indian culture. Travelling on the Grand Route of the north, Indian merchants entered Central Asia and Syria and then returned back to their country by the same route. From this very route, from time to time, many races and tribes entered India through north-western passes but only after comparatively short durations they became merged with the culture and the people of this country, so that today it is very difficult to analyse the tribal elements in Indian people. The importance of trade routes thus impels us to study them in some detail.

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Before attempting to study the network of trade routes in this country it is necessary to study some of its geographical bases. In north-eastern India there are hills and valleys covered with dense forests which in ancient times at least served as an impregnable barrier for the free ingress of the Tibeto-Burman tribes. For traversing these forests and hills there was a track between Manipur and China from which some trade trickled through China to India and vice versa. In the second century B.C. when the Chinese ambassador Chang-kien reached Bactria, he was surprised to see there bamboos imported from China. In reality the bamboos from Yunnan reached the Middle Country through Assam and from there they were transported to Bactria through the Grand Route. But in spite of this sporadic trade the north-eastern route did not have much importance because it was not easy to traverse it. However the impassable barrier of the Himalayas in north-west weakens a little and here is the trans-Indus country which nature has made very cold and where there are very high peaks and a narrow passage which skirts to the north and the Chinese Turkestan, but this passage is also not an easy one. It is covered with the bones of innumerable beasts of burden and the members of caravans who lost their lives through the sudden vagaries of nature. It is, however, remarkable that in spite of manifold difficulties caravans kept this route open for trade and commerce and the peaceful expansion of Indian culture to far off countries. This trade route also was used by innumerable nomadic tribes of Central Asia for migration to India. In the trade routes of the world perhaps this route is the ugliest. It lacks any trace of vegetation and the accumulation of ice also does not enhance its beauty, because there is scanty snowfall on the Himalayan plateau. But in spite of all these difficulties this route serves as a northern gateway to Indian sub-continent, and from very ancient times to recent years it had some commercial and strategic importance. In this route near Gilgit, is the meeting point of the boundaries of China, Russia and Afghanistan and therefore its political and strategic importance could not be exaggerated.

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However, with the recent expansion of the Chinese sphere of influence and its occupation of Tibet, this route has now lost its insignificance and is now connected with modern roads with China proper and they serve as supply routes of military goods to Pakistan. From these routes China also attacked India. These routes which were with great difficulty traversed by horses and yaks are now crossed by trucks and mechanised vehicles. In the region adjoining Tibet with India the Chinese are also building military roads and the regions of Himalayas which were once considered impregnable have been opened to military roads endangering the safety of this country.

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It would be interesting to inquire what changes had been effected in the northern Grand Route in the last 5,000 years. Geographically there has been almost no change in the countries through which it passes, but with the recent political changes they remain no longer so much isolated as they were before. As we have already noticed some amount of trade was carried on in this route in ancient times, but now it has a network of well built roads not only for the passage of armed forces but also Chinese merchants have increased the volume of trade on it.

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In order to estimate properly its commercial importance, we should not be surprised why in the thirteenth century the Mongols raided Balkh and Bamyan and why in the nineteenth century, the British forces stopped the advance of the Afghans. No doubt the importance of this route to the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent, though it has not lost completely its importance to India. Its political importance is ever growing and India has to keep constantly a watch on what is happening on that sector of the Grand Route. After the partition of the country a constant fight between India and Pakistan for Kashmir has brought in focus the importance of this route for our country and the anti-Indian policy of China has given it added importance. It was through this route that India was attacked innumerable times, and the British afraid of the Russian Imperialism in the nineteenth century, tried to strengthen its defence constantly. Afraid of some future attacks the British fortified Khyber and Attock and built a series of military cantonments in the Panjab. After the partition of India, the strategic importance in this sector of the Grand Route is the concern of Pakistan, but even then it is important that the Indian people should have their eyes on the movements on North-Western Frontier of the Indian sub-continent, and fashion their foreign policies according to the exigencies of time. This sector has to be safeguarded against Pakistan and its allies. We do not mean, however, that the Grand Route from north-west is the only passage to this country from outside. We, however, want to stress the importance of this route because it connected India to the west. If we study the map of northern India, Afghanistan, Iran and the Middle-East then we will be convinced that the Grand Route skirting the deserts of Iran and Sindh strikes directly to the north towards the valleys of Chitral and Swat. The ancient and modern travellers have constantly pointed out to the difficulties of this route but even then the Vedic Aryans, the soldiers of Cyrus and Darius, Alexander and his successors, the Scythians, the Parthians, the Tukhāras, the Huns and the Turks entered India through this very route via Balkh. Even in very ancient time merchants, Buddhist monks, artists, doctors, astronomers, magicians and adventurers travelled on this route and thus this route served an important cultural link between the east and the west. For a very long time this route was the only means of contact with India and China because the north-eastern route between these countries was almost impassable but it was only open when the Americans during World War II made a road to connect India with China. It was through this route, however, when the army of independence under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose tried to enter the country but failed in its objective. However, after World War II was over, the route was abandoned and has been reclaimed by the jungle. But with the Chinese problem coming large on this frontier its defences have become a difficult problem.

1. The Ancient Trans-Iranian Route

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The Roman history gives us ample information about the great Achaemenian routes. In the early centuries of the Christian era these routes were used for by the Chinese silk trade with the west. In the network of these trade routes there were three chief routes from the Mediterranean to the Far East. These routes at times ran parallel to each other and at times they cut one another and proceeded onwards. In this connection we should also not forget the northern route which skirting north of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and crossing the hill ranges of Central Asia reached China and the sea route via the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. After the discovery by the Hippalos of the monsoon ships did not sail by the coastline but sailed in the open ocean. But the chief route passed between the two routes. It passed Syria, Iraq, and Iran and then crossing the Hindukush entered India and crossing the Pamirs reached China.

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Due to the close commercial relations between the East and the West, the cities of Syria attained great prosperity. Antioch becoming the boundary line of the trade routes from China and India became a very big prosperous city. Some cities in the west as Antioch, Rome and Alexandria mentioned in the *Mahābhārata*,¹ as Antākhi, Romā, and Yavanapurī became very important centres of trade and commerce. The western sector of this route has been described by Isidore of Charax for the information of Augustus.

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The Roman traders following the land or sea route reached Antioch, from where the great trade route reached the Euphrates river and crossing it the route reached Nicephorium via Anthemuseuns. From there following the left bank of the Euphrates either it reached Seleucia or after travelling through the desert for three days from the Euphrates it reached Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, and from there it proceeded to Baghdad. From there turning to the east it proceeded to the Iranian plateau which includes Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan and which was under the control of the Parthians. Passing Behistan the route reached Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) the ancient capital of the Achaemenians and from there it proceeded to Rhagae that is Rayy in the immediate neighbourhood of Teheran. From there leaving the salt desert of Dasht-i-Kavir on the right, it crossed the Caucasus and reached the ports of the Caspian Sea. From there this route continued to the east in the direction of Hekatompylos the ancient Parthian capital of Damghan. Even today this is the recognised route between Meshed and Herat. After Shāhrūd commenced the "four stages of terror" so named by the Turkoman raiders who taking advantage of the terrain of the Elburz attacked pilgrims and merchants alike. Owing to these depredations, the route took to more arduous direction nearly 200 Km. to the west. Thus it traversed the mountains to reach Hyrcania i.e. the basin of the Gurgān. There it was confronted by the desert of Karakum and, therefore, it was diverted to the east to pass the oasis of Askabad, Tegin and Merv and finally reached the grassy lands of Bactria.²

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The fame of Bactria rested on two factors, firstly it was the meeting place of the four great nations, Indians, Iranians, Scythians and Chinese. The merchants of these nations made arrangements for the fodder of their beasts of burden here and also exchanged the products of their countries between themselves. Even today though the importance of Mazār-é-Sharīf in Balkh has considerably diminished merchants assemble here, and secondly though Bactria was noted for its importance as a trade centre it was never a big city because its inhabitants were mostly nomadic who did not like sedentary life.

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From Balkh the Grand Route striking towards the east reached Badakshan, Wakhān and the valleys of Pamirs and finally reached Kashgar and then proceeded to China through either of the two routes in the north and the south which passing through one oasis to another traversed the desert basin of the Tarim. However, more important than these was the route which striking north reached the Oxus and crossing it passing through Sogdiana and Scythia joined the great route of the Euro-Asiatic plain. Finally from the southern gate of the city of Balkh the Grand Route proceeded to India. After crossing the Hindukush and the Indus it joined at Taxila. The great interior route is now known as the Grand Trunk Road. Bifurcating at Mathura its one branch proceeded to Pāṭaliputra-Palibothra-Patna and thence to the port of Tāmralipti (Tamluk) and the other proceeded to Ujjayinī-Ozene-Ujjain and thence to Bharukachchha-Barygaza-Broach on the Gulf of Cambay, thus opening the interior of India for the sea trade.

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The sector of the Grand Route from Balkh to Taxila was known to Kauṭilya as *Haimavatapatha*. It is evident from an inscription at Sanchi that the Buddhist monk Kassapagota used this route for preaching Buddhism in the Himalayas.³ The route passing through the Hindukush to Kandhar has not yet been thoroughly examined. On the contrary we have good information about the route passing from east to west. Formerly Herat situated on this route was regarded as key to the Indian sub-continent but in reality the key to this country has to be searched in Kabul or Jelalabad or Peshawar or Attock.

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The modern city of Kandhar is connected to Indian sub-continent by two routes, one route striking to the east reaches the Indus near Dera Ghazi Khan and from there proceeds to Multan. The second route striking south-east reaches the Bolan Pass and from there proceeds to Multan and through Shikarpur reaches Karachi. This is more direct route from Herat to Indian sub-continent which meets the Merv route at Kush.

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The above *Haimavatapatha* could be divided into three sectors, the Bactrian sector, the Hindukush sector and the Indian sector, though due to many geographical difficulties it is difficult to distinguish these routes from one another.

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Balkh has been described in Indian literature since very ancient times. The *Mahābhārata*⁴ tells us that Balkh or Vāhlika produced very good breed of mules and its people did extensive trade in Chinese silk, *pashmīnas*, jewels, perfumes, etc. Almost a century back the English traveller Alexander Burnes visited Balkh. His travel book gives a vivid account of its inhabitants, its climate and its deserts.

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According to Burnes caravans in this land travelled during the night following the stars for their direction. In winter the land became very difficult, but in the spring when it rained, the pastures turned green and the people engaged themselves in agricultural operations. Balkh is famous for its horses and camels. The inhabitants of this region are a mixture of Iranians, Tajiks, Uzbegs, Hazaras and Turkomans. The Grand Route from Balkh to Indian sub-continent at first reaches Patkesar where the route from Samarkand joins it. This route does not divide itself till it crosses the sand dunes on the way to Tashkurghan. In the Hindukush range there are many tracks but from the point of view of the Grand Route the knowledge of the river system of the Oxus and the Indus flowing to the east is necessary. The two rivers Surkhāb in the north and Ghorband in the south, and the two rivers flowing to the west are Andarab in the north and the Panjashir in the south. In this way the eastern route of Balkh passing through the high valleys of the Andarab reaches Khawak and then passing through the high valleys of the Panjashir descends. In the same way the western route, before descending from the valley of the Ghorband route passes from the north of Bamyan.

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As we have observed above the routes in Central Hindukush follow the courses of the rivers. In this part of the Hindukush there are no roads in the proper sense, but in the northern part the routes follow the courses of the rivers Balkh, Khulm and Kunduz.

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As we have observed above the route passing the pass of Khawak is very old. In the *Mahābhārata*⁵ the tribal name of Kāyavya or Kāvakhya is mentioned. Perhaps the pass took its name from the tribe. It is also possible that the Kāvākhyas lived in the valleys of the Panjashir and Ghorband lying at the foot of the Hindukush. These valleys lie to the north of the Khawak pass.

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On the Khawak route journey between Tashkurghan and Balkh is easy in the spring, but in the summer it is difficult to get water in the desert and, therefore, in this season the caravans taking a more circuitous mountainous route along the Khulm river reach Haibak, after this proceeding along the Kunduz river and crossing a saddle the oasis of Robat comes. Perhaps in the *Mahābhārata* times the Kundamānas lived in this region.⁶ Proceeding from here the route passing Narin, Yarm, and Samandan reaches Khawak, after this on the left the route proceeds to Kokacha and the mines of lapis-lazuli. After five stops comes the high valley of the Panjashir. For crossing the Hindukush the route turning from the village of Sangburan passes Andarab, Khinjan and Doshākh. After Doshākh, in Jebel-Serāj and through Bamyan the route joins the Grand Route to India.

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This old route to Bamyan coming out from the southern gate of Balkh reaches Karakotal without any difficulty. From here to the plateau of Kapiśa there are three valleys which have to be crossed before leaving the mountainous road.

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To the north of Bamyan lies the Hindukush and to the south Koh-i-baba. The inhabitants of this region are mostly the Hazaras. The importance of Bamyan lies in the fact that it lies midway between Bactria and Peshawar. The Bamyan route was so difficult that in order to receive the divine help merchants had carved the gigantic statues of the Buddha in the hill side.⁷

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After leaving Bamyan there appears the confluence of two rivers and the meeting point of two routes. One of the routes passing Koh-i-baba proceeds to the high valley of the Helmand. Proceeding along the high bank of the Surkhab river this route turns to the north and passing Ghorband reaches Kāpiśī.

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After passing Bamyan, Salang and Khawak and situated in the mountain ranges of Kafiristan, Hazarat and on the right foot of the Hindukush lies a very fertile area which is irrigated by the Ghorband and the Panjashir rivers in the north and by the Kabulrud and Logar in the south. This plain was very famous for its commerce in ancient times because all the passes of the Hindukush open in it. Passing through Kāpiśī the Central Asian commerce was carried to India.

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According to Hsüan Tsang⁸ in Kāpiśī goods from all countries were available. Babur, at a much later date, observes that here the goods not only from India but from Khorasan, Iraq and Rum were available.⁹ From the excavations at Begram it is evident that at least in the Kushāṇa period, Kāpiśī had close commercial relations with India and Rome. Because of its geographical situation it was bound to become the capital of that region.

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Pāṇini in his grammar (IV.2.99) has mentioned Kāpiśī. The *Mahābhārata* mentions it and on certain Indo-Greek coins the name Kāpiśī appears. This old city was situated on the confluence of the Ghorband and Panjashir. However, it appears that in the eighth century the influence of the city was declining because the Arab geographers and Mongol historians only speak of Kabul. It may be noted here that there were two Kabuls; one the Kabul of Buddhist period which was situated on the bank of the Logar river and the second the Muslim Kabul which is situated on the Kābul-rūd. King Amān Ullāh Khān wanted to lay the foundation of a third Kabul designating it as Dārul-amān but before his wish was fulfilled he had to flee the country. According to its height the valley of Kabul is divided into two parts; one part extending from Jelalabad to Attock is on geographical basis a part of the Indian sub-continent, while the second part forms a part of the Iranian plateau. The unequal height of these two parts affects their climate, and the character of their people. The routes from Kabul to the Indian sub-continent proceed along the Kabul and the Panjashir rivers, though the ancient route did not follow the Kabul river. Coming out from the ravine of the Ghorband river the route to the Panjab at first turned to the south. The route from Kāpiśī to Lampāka and Nagarahāra (near Jelalabad) left the deep valley of the Panjashir. In the same way the route from Kabul to Jelalabad avoided the deep valley of the Kabul river.

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It is known that in the eighth century Kabul was the capital of Afghanistan, but according to Ptolemy, in the second century A.D., Kabul existed under the name of Karoura or Kaboura (I.18.4) and its remains may be still seen on the right bank of the river Logar. Perhaps the route between Arashosia to Balkh followed by Alexander passed through Kabul crossing the Ghorband river by a bridge. This route reaches Charikar, then passing Khair-Khāneh it reaches the fertile plain where the ancient and modern Kabuls are situated.

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From Kabul, one route reaches Butkhak and from there crossing Tang-e-Ghāru it joins the Grand Route. The second route striking to the east from the right enters the pass of Lataband and then reaches the Tegin river. From there a track passing the Karkacha pass joins the Grand Route above Jagdalik but the Grand Route making a right angle proceeds to Seh-Baba in the north of the Tegin, after that turning to the south-east it crosses the Jagdalik route. Then going up and down it crosses the Surkhab river at Surkhpul and in the end it leaves the mountains at Gandamak. From here the route striking to north-east reaches Jelalabad.

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The route from Kāpiśī to Jelalabad proceeds to the east then turning to south-east it crosses the joint course of the Ghorband and Panjashir rivers then passing through Nijrāo, Tagāo, Doab and Mandrawar and finally crossing the Kabul and Surkhrud rivers it reaches Jelalabad.

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As we have observed above after Jelalabad (which Hsüan Tsang has rightly regarded as the frontier of India) another region begins. Alexander had conquered this territory from the Mauryas, but after twenty years of this incident Seleucus I returned it to its former rulers. After these events, this territory remained in the hands of the foreign invaders for a long time but in the end it came within the sovereignty of the Mughals along Kabul. In the end of the eighteenth century after Nādir Shāh it passed to the control of Ahmad Shāh Durrānī and during the British period of Indian history it became the frontier land between India and Afghanistan.

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Between the Indus and Jelalabad there lies a mountain which separating the valleys of the Kunar and the Swat and forming a circle in the west and assuming the name of Safedkoh, it limits the province of Jelalabad in the south and east. No historical account of the network of the routes in the hilly regions of Gandhāra is available. According to Arrian (Anabasis)¹⁰ Alexander accompanied by part of his army remained in the valleys of the rivers on the left of the Kabul river, till his entire army passed its right bank. Some historians have tried to assign Alexander's route through the Khyber Pass but they did not know that by that time the Khyber Pass route did not exist. It should also be noted that for reaching Peshawar it is not necessary to pass the Khyber Pass. As a matter of fact the foundation of Peshawar was laid 400 years after Alexander. There seems no reason that Alexander for reaching Pushkarāvatī, the capital of Gandhāra in his time, should have avoided the straight route and taken a circuitous one. There is no doubt that passing the Michnı pass which lies between Nagarahāra and Pushkarāvatī he managed to lead his army.

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The Grand Route of the Indian sub-continent leaving the mountainous region crosses the Indus at Attock. It is believed by scholars that in ancient times as well the Grand Route crossed the Indus at Attock though in the *Mahābhārata*¹¹ Vrindāṭaka which could be identified with Attock situated in that region, it is difficult to believe that the Grand Route crossed the river only at Attock, though it is mentioned in the *Mahābhārata* that the wardens of marches were appointed there to safeguard the point of crossing. The acceptance of Attock as the crossing point of the Grand Route is due to the fact that in ancient times Udabhāṇḍa (*Rājtarangiṇī*), Udakabhāṇḍa (Hsüan Tsang), Weyand (Alberunī), Ohind or Und was a suitable crossing. Even to this day it is called Dār-e-Hindī or the gateway to India. The army of Alexander crossed the river at this point by a boat bridge. Hsüan Tsang as well crossed the river here on elephant back and the army of Bābur also followed the same route. However, in the time of Akbar, Attock became the point of crossing.

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The course of the Grand Route which is not so easy to trace has three historical stages: (i) that which Alexander and his successors took to reach Pushkarāvatī, (ii) that which in the time of the Chinese pilgrims passed by Purushapura (Peshawar) but crossed the Indus at Udabhāṇḍa and (iii) the modern route which goes directly to Attock.

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The route from Jelalabad to Pushkarāvatī (Charsada) upto Dakka is sandy and rocky. To its north live the Mohamands (Pāṇinī, Madhumanta) and to its south in the Safedkoh live the Shinvāris. Striking to the east it crosses two *kotals* to reach Michni. After Michni, because of the descent of the rivers, the course of the old route cannot be traced properly, but fortunately the Kabul river turning to the south-east has left traces of the Grand Route. Here following its left bank it reached the confluence of the Kabul and the Swat which lay at a farther point than the modern confluence at Pushkarāvatī, the old capital of Gandhāra. In its place have now sprung up the villages of Prang, Charsada, and Rajar. From here the Grand Route striking directly to the east reached Hoti Mardan which has been called as Po-lu-cha for Hsüan Tsang and on the right is situated the rock inscription of Aśoka at Shahbazgarhi. From here the Grand Route proceeding to south-west reached Und. After crossing the Indus it entered the domain of Taxila and passing Hasan Abdal it reached the city of Taxila.

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The route between Kabul and Peshawar came into existence at a later date. A legend says that a deity in the form of a shepherd pointed to Kanishka a place where to raise the highest stūpa of the world and the city of Peshawar was founded there.¹² Whatever truth there may be in the legend, there is no doubt that to build a city in a low area irrigated by the streams flowing from the Afridi Hills where till the sixteenth century tigers and rhinoceros were hunted could only be attributed to the whim and cynicism of a king.

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In the first century of the Christian era Peshawar became the winter capital of the Kushāṇas and, therefore, it became necessary to join it with Kāpiśī, the summer capital of the Scythians. This route passing through Khyber reached Dakka which was fortified by the British for its safety. The route between Dakka and the fort of Jamrud is full of pitfalls, but on this route lies the boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Ali Masjid is situated below Landi Kotal. In the end the old route joining the modern route reaches Peshawar Cantt.

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For reaching Taxila the Pushkarāvatī route had to cross the joint currents of the Kabul and Swat. However, they could be crossed by taking the Khyber route. The route from Peshawar to Und through Pushkarāvatī and Hoti Mardan covered a greater distance but on this route the river could be crossed in every season. It is evident from a map of the region that the Kabul river opens in the Gandhāra plains. In some former time the river changed its course to a broader level with the result that its modern confluence with the Swat appears below their confluence in the time of the Chinese travellers. The downfall of Pushkarāvatī might have also been due to the shifting of the confluence.

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Babur for reaching the Panjab deliberately chose the point or the river which was fordable. It means that there must have existed some other ford in this river as well. The route from Kāpiśī to Pushkarāvatī and Taxila has many rivers. But after the downfall of Kāpiśī and Pushkarāvatī, when the Grand Route passed between Kabul and Peshawar then it had to avoid many fords. This route follows the southern bank of the Kabul river and, therefore, naturally it strikes towards Attock where the Indus river narrows down thus providing a suitable place for bridging.

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A distinguishing feature of the ancient routes was that they connected ancient capitals with one another. When these capitals changed the routes also changed their directions. The change of capitals was due to reason of commerce, politics, religion, change in the course of the rivers, and also due to the whims of the rulers as is the case of two Bamyans, two Kabuls and three Taxilas the capitals were situated in the same valleys. Sometimes after the decay of old cities, new cities sprang up in their neighbourhoods as Mazār-é-Sharīf took the place of the ancient Balkh, Kabul came into being in place of Kāpiśī, Peshawar sprang up in the place of Pushkarāvatī, Attock came up in the place of Und and Rawalpindi in the place of Taxila. If we inquire about the northern and southern routes of the Hindukush in the different periods of history of the sub-continent, we come to know that the route did not follow the same course in all the periods. There has been very little change in the mountainous regions through which the route passes but that was not the case in the plains. For example the route between Balkh, Bamyan, Kāpiśī, Pushkarāvatī and Udabhāṇḍa with its final goal as Taxila was used by Alexander, his successors and many nomadic tribes. The same route starting from Mazār-é-Sharīf or Khanabad and passing Bamyan or Salang, Kabul, Peshawar and Attock reaches Rawalpindi. The route in medieval times passed in between the modern and ancient routes. After the foundation of Purushapura, the ancient Grand Route changed its direction and gradually the Pushkarāvatī sector became less frequented. In the eighth century after the fall of Kāpiśī and Kabul the course of the Grand Route was also very much affected. In the ninth century when Kabul and Khyber were directly joined then the ancient route to Pushkarāvatī almost came to a stop. The Grand Route was also joined with the rivers flowing towards Sindh. According to Ptolemy the waters of the Kunar came from the heights of Chitral, and, therefore, it was difficult to navigate below Jelalabad. Now the question arises whether Ptolemy's assertion depends on some local legend because even today the people of Peshawar believe that the Swat river is a bigger one and the Kabul is only its tributary. The joint stream of the two is known as Landai which after joining the Panjakora is named as Swat. Whatever truth there may be in the present belief, after Kabul became the capital city and thus gained political importance, the Kabul river began to be regarded as a bigger of the two. No historical account of the source and the course of the Kubhā or Kabul river is available. But there is hardly any doubt that this river followed the ancient route and, therefore, the river and the route became synonymous. If this is true then the Kubhā river did not assume its name below Jelalabad only but it is also true for the main stream which follows the routes to ancient capitals.

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It is also a notable fact that Kāpiśī, Lampāka, Nagarahāra and Pushkarāvatī were situated on the Kabul river flowing from the west to east. On its right bank the combined waters of the Kabul and Logar appear like one stream but above Kāpiśī the importance of the Panjashir diminishes and the Ghorband begins representing the upper parts of the Kabul river. In this way the Ghorband flowing on the heights of Peshawar and assuming the form of a big river joins the Indus.¹³ Very little information is available about the route between Balkh and Taxila from Buddhist and Sanskrit literatures. But fortunately, the *Mahābhārata* mentions the tribes inhabiting that area and Pāṇinī also gives many names of the tribal people residing in that area. In the universal conquest of Arjuna¹⁴ in the east of Bāhalika the route to Kashgar through Badakshān, Wakhan and the valleys of the Pamirs is pointed out. The Dvyakshas of Badakshān were known to Indians.¹⁵ The Kundamānas¹⁶ perhaps lived in the valley of Kunduz, the Kambojas perhaps also followed this route. The *Mahābhārata* also knows the Śakas, Tukhāras, and Kaṅkas who lived in the regions in which crossing the Oxus river the route proceeds to Sugdha and Śakadvīpa. The Grand Route proceeded to the plains of Eurasia and joined the Grand Route there.¹⁷ The Kārpāsikas on the route between Balkh and the Indian sub-continent perhaps indicate the ancient Kāpiśī.¹⁸ On the Central Asian route perhaps the Meru indicated the Karakoram and Mandara the Kuen-lun. Perhaps Śitodā¹⁹ stands for the Khotan river.. The nomadic tribes of this region are addressed as Jyoha, Paśupa, and Khaśa, who perhaps today indicate the Kirghiz people. Beyond Kashgar are mentioned the Chinese, the Hūṇas and Śakas on the Central Asian route.²⁰ Uttarakuru later on perhaps named as Krorain in the Śaka language, is identified with Loulan in Chinese history.

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The Indians perhaps also had the knowledge of the route which starting from Herat proceeded to Baluchistan and Sindh. The people of Baluchistan depended on rain for agriculture and their habitations were mostly situated on the sea-coast.

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The people of Herat were perhaps known as the Hārahūras. The trans-Indus region was inhabited by Vaiyāmakas²¹ who lived in Baluchistan and also known to Greek geographers as Rambakia and also the Pāradas, Vaṅgas and Kitavas.²² This route to Baluchistan passed through Kohat and Mūla and reached Sindh. The inhabitants of Mūla are called as Mauleyas in the *Mahābhārata* and to their north lived the Śivis.²³

2. The Trade Routes of Northern India

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In the plains of northern Indian sub-continent the Grand Route from Peshawar proceeds towards east bending slightly towards north. The routes in the plains of Sindh follow the rivers in the Panjab and striking a little towards south proceed to the west. History is a witness to the fact that the Grand Route from Taxila proceeded towards Kāśī and then to Mithilā. The *Jātakas* tell us that the Grand Route between Vārāṇasī and Taxila passed through very dense forests which were infested with highwaymen and wild beasts. Taxila was in those days the meeting point of Indian and foreign commerce. The Buddhist literature informs us that merchants of Vārāṇasī, Śrāvastī and Soreyya (Soron) went to Taxila for trade.²⁴

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From Peshawar to the Gangetic Plain there are two routes. The railway line from Peshawar to Saharanpur and then proceeding to Lucknow is indicative of the northern route and from this route the outer ranges of the Himalayas are not far. For touching Lahore this route bends slightly to the south of Wazirabad but reaching Jullundur it again straightens itself. Parallel to this route is the southern route which from Lahore proceeds to Raiwind, Ferozepur and Bhatinda and then reaches Delhi. At Delhi this route crossing the Yamuna enters the Doab and then following the right bank of the Ganga reaches Allahabad. There it again crosses the Yamuna and skirting to the south of the Ganga proceeds onwards. From Lucknow the northern route proceeding to the north of the Ganga reaches Tirhut and from there via Katihar and Parvatipur it reaches Assam. The southern route reaches Varanasi from Allahabad and then following the right bank of the Ganga reaches Bhagalpur and then Calcutta or via Patna also reaches Calcutta.

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These two routes have many branches which connect both. The Varanasi-Lucknow branch line via Ayodhya is unable to join the northern and southern routes because beyond Banaras the Ganga becomes very broad and only steam boats are able to join the northern and southern routes. Because of the dearth of bridges the routes to Tirhut, Bengal and Assam have only their local importance though this drawback is being constantly remedied by building a large number of bridges. Therefore, though these routes could not be counted as very important routes of India their military importance is now beyond question. After China attacked India through these unimportant routes it has been proved that even the most difficult routes are unable to stop the advance of a modern army.

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Beyond Banaras the Ganga and Brahmaputra have great commercial importance. From Gwalando, where the Ganga and Brahmaputra meet, steamers sail to Assam upto Dibrugarh. After the partition of the country this means of transport was greatly disrupted though with the independence of Bangla Desh things have much improved. The new railway line in north Bihar joins northern India with Assam though its natural direction is eastern Bengal which under Pakistan had completely stopped the traffic. With the establishment of independent Bangla Desh the direct railway traffic is bound to start between India and Assam.

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From the Peshawar-Parvatipur sector of the Grand Route many smaller roads proceed to the Himalayas. These smaller roads are indicated by Nawshera-Dargai below Malakand pass, Sialkot-Jammu, Amritsar-Pathankot, Ambala-Simla Laksar-Dehradun, Bareilly-Kathgodam, Hajipur-Raxaul, Katihar-Jogbani and Gitaldah-Jayantia railway branch lines. In the same way from the southern sector of the Grand Route many passages proceed towards the Deccan but these are not merely branch routes but assume the character of the Grand Route; they will be described later on.

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As we have observed above the routes from the Panjab to Sindh follow the rivers. One route branching from Bhatinda proceeds along the Sutlej. In the same way another route branching from Attock proceeds along the Sindh. In between these two routes there are five routes which like the five rivers of the Panjab meet at a point. The Sindh routes follow both sides of the rivers and are joined by the bridges at Rohri and Kotri. On the north western hills of the Kachchhi-Gandav plain were inhabited by the Śivis in ancient times. In this plain from Sukkur the railway line proceeds to the passes of Baluchistan.

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In ancient times the rivers of Sindh and the Panjab were navigable. Darius I in the beginning of his reign had decided to reach the Arabian Sea through the lower Sindh, but before doing so he ordered the exploration of that area. Skylax was appointed the leader of the exploration party and his flotilla reached Kaśyapapura (Kaspapyros) which is identified with Multan.²⁵

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The second invasion of the Iranians started from here. A little below Multan on the left bank of the river Chenab in 519 B.C. the flotilla of Darius reached, and after two and a half years when this flotilla presented itself to Darius in Egypt then it opened a channel between the Nile river and the Red Sea. According to Foucher this voyage was necessary to join the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. As soon as the ports of the Red Sea and the lower Sindh came under the control of Darius the Indian Ocean became secure and Persian ships began sailing safely from the ports of Egypt to the ports of Sindh. When the followers of Alexander reached the lower Sindh then they had to face the stiff opposition of the Brāhmaṇa republics. It may be suggested that perhaps the Iranians also had to face a similar opposition. As soon as the armies of Alexander left the Brāhmaṇa republics again came to themselves. The Macedonian Nearchus, Admiral of Alexander, admits that because of the stiff opposition of the population he was forced to leave Sindh very soon. In his expeditions to India Mahmūd of Ghaznī also followed the same route. After the sack of Somanātha, when Mahmūd was returning to Ghaznī he was very much harassed by the Jats living in the valleys of the Panjab. To teach them a lesson Mahmūd returned to India the following year and assembled a flotilla of 1400 boats at Multan.²⁶ In modern times the navigation in the Panjab rivers has very much diminished. Only a limited number of boats ply on the Indus for transporting goods.

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Here we can conveniently compare the northern Sindh-Ganga routes with the southern route. The northern route passes through the fertile plain of the Panjab against the southern route which passes through the dry regions. In future when the railway line from Jhang and Dera-Ismail-Khan proceeds to Ghazni and Gomal then its importance will be much enhanced. But from Delhi to Varanasi both the routes pass through very fertile regions and, therefore, their importance is the same. Even then the northern route carries on the trade of the Himalayan region and the southern route takes care of the trade and commerce of the Vindhyan region. Beyond Varanasi the southern route is of greater importance than the northern route because, while the northern route looks in the direction of Assam, the southern route proceeds to Calcutta and thus to the sea. However, with the threat of Chinese Communism and its hegemony over Tibet and their growing influence on Burma this route as well is becoming militarily more important.

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On the route between Peshawar and Bengal, besides the rivers there are three important strategic points namely, the Salt Range between Attock and Jhelum, the plain of Kurukshetra and the hills of Rajmahal between Bengal and Bihar. In the plains the rivers specially in rainy season create impediments in navigation and, therefore, the ancient route followed the foothills of the Himalayas in order to facilitate the crossing of the rivers in all seasons. In ancient times these fords were very important for stopping the advance of the enemy. The region between Attock and Jhelum is not of a strategic importance because the Salt Range separates the fertile northern part of the Sindh-Sāgar Doab with the arid southern part. Straight to the north the route proceeds to Hazara and following the Jhelum to Kashmir.

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The Panjab proper ends on the eastern bank of the Sutlej and only the military cantonments of Ferozepur and Bhatinda defend the road to Delhi. Ferozepur, in the war with Pakistan, was defended by the Indian army with all its might. The plain of Kurukshetra is the watershed of the river systems of Sindh and Ganga. History tells us about the great strategic importance of Kurukshetra. To its north lies the desert of Marwar. In between this narrow plain joins the valleys of the Sutlej and the Yamuna. This is a natural route between the Panjab and the Deccan. If the enemy forces proceeding through the Panjab manage to reach the Sutlej then owing to the geographical conditions they will be forced to come to the plain of Kurukshetra. The war between the Kauravas and Pāṇḍavas was fought here. The war between Pṛithvīrāj and Muhammad Ghorī fought at Tarawadi once again decided the fate of India. In the war between Bābur and Ibrāhīm at Panipat the Mughals laid the foundation of their rule. In the eighteenth century Ahmad Shāh Abdālī, after inflicting heavy defeat on the Marathas broke their back-bone. After the partition of the country the refugees fleeing the western Panjab assembled in the plain of Kurukshetra to save their honour and life.

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The fords in the Gangetic plain have the same importance as the crossing points of the Panjab rivers. Delhi, Agra, Kanauj, Ayodhya, Prayag, Varanasi, Patna and Bhagalpur are situated on the banks of the rivers and provide protection for the crossing points of those rivers. Prayag on the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna and Patna on the confluence of the Son and Ganga are cities of strategic importance. But it should be noted that the crossing points of the Yamuna and the crossings on the south bank of the Ganga are of greater importance than the crossing points in the interior areas served by those rivers. Agra, Dholpur, Kalpi, Prayag and Chunar fall in this category. The route to Malwa and Rajasthan crosses the Yamuna at Agra and the route between Bundelkhand and Malwa crosses the same river at Kalpi. In ancient times Kauśāmbī was situated a little above Allahabad. Below Kauśāmbī the Ganga and the Yamuna were navigable, the place of Kauśāmbī has been taken up by Prayag.

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The natural meeting point of the armies proceeding from Bengal and Uttar Pradesh was in the plain of Buxar situated in Bihar because after this point the Ganga becomes so wide that it can be crossed only by steam boats. The foundation of the city of Pāṭaliputra by Udāyībhadra was laid expressly with the purpose to safeguard the crossing point of the Ganga against the expansion of the Lichchhvis. A little further on from Patna the hills of Bihar proceed along the Ganga to Bengal and, therefore, the route from Bengal to Bihar passes through a narrow passage.

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We have drawn a picture of the road system in northern India and tried to point out how the roads are governed by geographical conditions. But the system of the roads pointed above must have taken thousands of years to develop. We are aware that almost in 500 years B.C. the network of routes between northern India and the Deccan had developed. There is every possibility that the Aryan colonisers proceeding from the north-west to other parts of India passed through these roads. We have tried to analyse the sections of the Grand Route from Vāhlīka to Pushkarāvatī, Kabul to Peshawar, Peshawar to Pushkarāvatī and Taxila and how far the *Mahābhārata* throws light on the tribes inhabiting those sections. The Buddhist Pāli literature hardly gives any account of the Grand Route from Balkh to Taxila and from Taxila to Mathura.

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Fortunately the *Rāmāyaṇa* and the *Vinaya* of the *Mūlasarāstivādins* preserve an account of the route between Taxila and Mathura.²⁷ The *Vinaya* informs us that Jīvakakumārabhṛitya, the great physician and a contemporary of the Buddha, proceeding from Taxila passed Bhadramkara, Udumbara, and Rohitaka to reach Mathura. Przyluski has identified Bhadramkara with the Sialkot region, Udumbara with the region of Pathankot and Rohītaka with modern Rohtak in the Haryana State. The Chinese traveller Tche-Mang also mentions Agrodaka on this route which could be identified with Agroha in the Rohtak district.²⁸

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It seems that the Udumbaras exercised great influence on this route which may be due to its geographical situation. Because the Udumbaras living in the Pathankot region shared the commerce between Magadha and Kashmir and they had also a share in the trade with Kangra, because even today all roads to Chamba, Nurpur, and Kangra meet at Pathankot. After the partition of the country the new road between Pathankot and Jammu is the only route for joining India proper with Kashmir. Jammu is now connected with Pathankot by rail-road. In ancient times fine woollen material woven in this region was designated as *Oṭumbara*.

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Sākala, the modern Sialkot, in ancient time was the capital of the Madras.²⁹ In the *Milinda Praśna* this city is called *puṭabhedana* which means that the sealed bales of goods were brought to and unloaded here, and after removing the seals the goods were sold to the retailers.

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In Pathankot-Rohtak sector, the *Mahābhārata* places Bahudhānyaka (Ludhiana), Śairīshaka (Sirsa) and Rohitaka.³⁰ The *Mahābhārata* also knows of the desert region situated in the south of Rohtak. From Rohtak the route proceeded to Mathura which in ancient times was a great emporium.

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As we have indicated above the *Rāmāyaṇa*³¹ mentions the route from western Panjab to Ayodhya. The messengers sent to bring back Bharata from Kekaya to Ayodhya at first reached the Ganga at Hastināpura in the Meerut district and from there they came to Kurukshetra. After visiting Vāruṇītīrtha they crossed the Saraswatī river then proceeding to the north they crossed the Śaradaṇḍā river (modern Sirhind river). Going forward they reached the country of Bhuliṅgas, then traversing the foothills of the Siwaliks they crossed the rivers Sutlej and Beas. Proceeding further in their journey they reached the river Ajakūlā (modern Aji) on which the city of Sakala was situated, and on their final stage to Kekaya they reached Giribraja identified with Giryak near Jalalpur.

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The Buddhist literature gives a good account of the route from Mathura to Rājagṛiha in Bihar. From Mathura this route proceeded to Berañjā, Soreyya, Saṅkissa, Kannakujja and finally reached Payāgatittha. Here crossing the Ganga it reached Varanasi, on the same route were situated Varaṇā (Baran—Bulundshahar) and Aḷavī (Arwal).³² Berañjā has not been properly identified but this place was probably situated in the district of Dhaulpur near Bari, the starting point of a sector of the Grand Route. It is mentioned in the *Aṅguttarnikāya* that the Buddha on the roadside near Berañjā preached to the crowds.³³ Soreyya is identified with Soron in the Etah district which is still an important place of pilgrimage. This city had commercial relations with Taxila.³⁴ Saṅkissa is identified with the village Sankisa in the Farrukhabad district, U.P. According to the Buddhist sources this city was situated at a distance of thirty *yojanas* from Śrāvastī. The monk Revata started from Soreyya on his way to Sahajāti (Bhīṭā—Allahabad district) passed Saṅkissa, Kannakujja, Udumbara and Aggalapura. Āḷavaka was situated at a distance of thirty *yojanas* from Śrāvastī and at a distance of ten *yojanas* on the route between Rājagṛiha to Vārāṇasī.³⁵ It is mentioned that once upon a time the Buddha starting from Śrāvastī reached Kīṭagiri (Kerakat, district Jaunpur, U.P.) from there proceeding to Āḷavī he reached Rājagṛiha in the end.³⁶ Kauśāmbī was the chief encampment of caravans and the routes from here to Kosala and Magadha were largely frequented by merchants and travellers.³⁷ From Kauśāmbī to Vārāṇasī by river was thirty *yojanas*. The route to the Deccan from here passed through Mahishmati.³⁸ On the Grand Route between the east and west Vārāṇasī was a great commercial city.³⁹ Commercially the city was connected with Gandhāra and Taxila.⁴⁰ It received horses and donkeys from the route proceeding to Sovīra.⁴¹ Many caravans arrived here from Uttarāpatha.⁴² It had also commercial relations with Chedi (Bundelkhand) and Ujjain through Kauśāmbī.⁴³ From here one route proceeded to Rājagṛiha⁴⁴ and the second to Śrāvastī. The route to Śrāvastī proceeded via Kiṭagiri. There were two routes to Berañjā from Banaras. The route through Soreyya was circuitous, but the second route crossing the Ganga at Prayag reached Banaras straight. From Banaras the Grand Route also reached Ukkachela (Sonpur, Bihar) and from there it proceeded to Vaiśālī (Basarh, district Muzaffarpur, Bihar), where it joined the route from Śrāvastī to Rājagṛiha.⁴⁵ There was also a direct route between Banaras and Uruvelā (district Gaya). However, much of the commerce of Banaras was carried by boats plying in the Ganga. From Banaras boats sailed to Prayag and there sailing in the Yamuna they reached Indraprastha.⁴⁶

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Cites (19)