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Elements of South-Indian Palæography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D. c9: Chapter VI. The Formulae of the Different Kinds of South-Indian Inscriptions

Elements of South-Indian Palæography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D. c9

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Contents

Chapter VI. The Formulae of the Different Kinds of South-Indian Inscriptions

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THE South-Indian inscriptions present but very little variety, and are easily reduced to the following classes:

I. Documents Conveying a Right to Property

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It is necessary to carefully distinguish (as is done in the Dharmaçāstra), between documents of this description by reigning sovereigns and those by private persons. The first are of immense importance for history, the last are seldom (as I shall show) of any value in this respect.

A. Royal Grants

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Treatises on gifts form an important branch of the later Sanskrit law and some of them are very extensive digests, *e. g.* Hemādri's Dānakhaṇḍa of the 12th century A.D. But nearly the whole of such treatises consists of matter which is of no direct interest to the palæographist and archæologist, viz., fanciful enumerations of all possible objects that can be given, with elaborate detail of the merit supposed to accrue from each kind of gift, and the different ways in which it may be made¹. But it is certain that these details were followed with scrupulous accuracy, and in the S. Indian inscription-literature gifts take the place of the sacrifices which, according to the epic poems, Indian kings used to have performed in order to attain their objects. The inscriptions of Java are full of astrological details, but those of S. India rarely go beyond the day of the month. These details are of importance, as they will explain, if compared with the nature of the objects given, the aspirations of the donor, and thus throw light on much that must otherwise remain obscure or unknown; possibly, these details will often serve to control the boundless assertions of victory and supremacy which are so common in

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¹ Such verses as the following are common in the Smṛitis:

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“Dānena prāpyate svargo, dānena sukham açnute |
Ihā ’mutra ca dānena pūjyo bhavati mānavaḥ” || (Bṛihatpārāçarasaṁhitā, viii, 2.)

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S. Indian inscriptions, by showing that kings often had in view objects that, according to the inscriptions, they assert themselves to possess already.

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The pedantry of the brahmanical lawyers is not content with directing kings to be liberal to the priests, but also prescribes the exact forms in which this virtue is to be practised. According to the Nītimayūkha (16th century) these are as follows: The king on rising is to perform his usual ablutions and, if the day for it, have his head shaved. He is then to hear the almanac read, and thus know what luck is promised, and what should be done or not. Then he must give a cow with its calf to a Brahman, and having beheld the reflection of his face in ghee placed in a flat dish, he should give that ghee also with some gold to a Brahman. After this, on occasion of the moon's quarters and eclipses, he should make a gift of land or a grant payable in kind, to Brahmans¹ of course. The secondary Dharmaçāstras first mention grants of this description, and (*e. g.* Yājńavalkya Dh. ç.) give the form of the wording, the same as appears in the oldest grants now existing². They were, therefore, drawn up according to rule, and the gradual extension of the original formula appears to correspond exactly with the rise of new dynasties.

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¹ As to what kind of Brahmans, see the lengthy details in Hemādri's Dānakhaṇḍa, ch. ii.

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² In the other Smṛitis now printed the following are the chief passages: Vishṇu, vii.; Vaçishṭha, xvi.; Nārada (tr. by Dr. Jolly) iv., 59-71. These, however, merely show that such documents were early in use in India, for the date of the texts is unknown. For palæography, the only useful material is to be found in the later digests.

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The passage in Yājńavalkya is as follows (i., 317-9)³:

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³ Ed. Stenzler, p. 38.

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Dattvā bhūmim nibandham vā kṛitvā lekhyam tu kārayet | Āgāmibhadranṛipatiparijńānāya pārthivaḥ || Paṭe vā tāmrapaṭe vā svamudroparicihnitam | Abhilekhyā 'tmano vamçyān ātmānam ca mahīpatiḥ || Pratigrahaparimāṇam dānacchedopavarṇanam | Svahastakālasampannam çāsanam kārayet sthiram ||

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As they stand, these lines may be ascribed to the earlier centuries of the Christian era. The Mitāxarā on this runs: "Yathoktavidhinā ‘bhūmim dattvā’ svatvanivṛittim kṛitvā ‘nibandham vā’ ekasya bhāṇḍabharakasye 'yanto rūpakā ekasya parṇabharakasye 'yanti parṇānī 'ti vā nibandham kṛitvā ‘lekhyam kārayet’. Kimartham? ‘āgāminaḥ’ eshyanto ye ‘bhadrāḥ’ sādhavo bhūpatayas teshām anena dattam anena parigṛihītam iti ‘parijńānāya pārthivo’ bhūpatir | anena bhūpater eva bhūmidāne nibandhadāne vā 'dhikāro na bhogapater iti darçitam | ‘lekhyam kārayed’ ity uktam katham kārayed ity āha ‘paṭe’ iti dvābhyām kārpāsike paṭe ‘tāmrapaṭe’ tāmraphalake ‘vā 'tmano vamçyān’ prapitāmahapitāmahapitṛīn bahuvacanasyā 'rthavatvāt svavamçavīryaçrutādigunopavarṇanapūrvakam abhilekhyā 'tmānam ca çabdāt pratigrahītāram pratigrahaparimāṇam dānacchedopavarṇanam cā 'bhilekhya pratigṛihyata iti pratigraho nibandhas tasya rūpakādiparimāṇam dīyata iti ‘dānam’ xetrādi tasya ‘cchedaḥ’ chidyate vicchidyate ’nene ’ti cchedo nadyādau parimāṇam tasyo ’pavarṇanam amukanadyā daxiṇato ’yam grāmaḥ xetram vā pūrvato ’mukagrāmasyai ’tāvannivartanaparimāṇam ca lekhyam evā ’ghāṭasya nadīnagaravartmādeḥ sańcāritvena bhūmer nyūnādhikabhāvāsambhavān nivṛittyartham ‘svahastena’ svahastalikhitena matam ma amukanāmno ’mukuputrasya yad atro ’pari likhitam ity anena sampannam samyuktam kālena ca dvividhena çākanṛipātītasamvatsararūpeṇa ca dānakāle candrasūryoparāgādinā sampannam svamudrayā garuḍavarāhādirūpayo ’pari bahiç cihnitam aṅkitam sthiram dṛiḍham çāsanam çishyante bhavishyanto nṛipatayo ’nena dānāc chreyo ’nupālanam iti çāsanam ‘kārayen’ mahīpatir na bhogapatiḥ sandhivigrahādikāriṇa na yena kenacit | “sandhivigrahakārī tu bhaved yas tasya lekhakaḥ rājñā ’dishṭaḥ sa likhed rājaçāsanam” iti smaraṇāt dānamātreṇai ’va dānaphale siddhe çāsanaskaraṇam tatrai ’va bhogādivṛiddhyā phalātiçayārtham || ”

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The Mitāxarā was (as has been shown by Dr. Bühler) written in the reign of the Cālukya Vikramāditya V., or at the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century A. D.¹

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¹ *Bombay Journal*, ix., pp. 134-8.

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About a century or so later than the Mitāxarā the Smṛiticandrikā was compiled by Devaṇṇa; this also belongs to Southern India, and the section on documents is, therefore, of interest, especially as it includes all that is of interest in the older texts. It runs:

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Atha lekhyanirūpaṇam | tatra, Vasishṭhaḥ |

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“Laukikam rājakīyam ca lekhyam vidyād dvilaxaṇam” |

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C. ‘Laukikam’ jānapadam || tathā ca Saṅgrahakāraḥ |

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“Rājakīyam jānapadam likhitam dvividham smṛitam” iti |

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Tatra ‘rājakīyam’ çāsanādibhedena caturvidham ity āha Vasishṭhaḥ |

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“Çāsanam prathamam jñeyam jayapatram tathā param |
Ājñāprajñāpanapatre rājakīyam caturvidham” ||

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Tatra çāsanam nirūpayitum āha Yājñavalkyaḥ | (See v. 317 above).

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C. ‘Nibandhaḥ’ bāṇijyādikāribhiḥ prativarsham pratimāsam vā kimcid dhanam asmai brāhmaṇāyā ’syai devatāyai vā deyam ityādiprabhusamayalabhyo ’rthaḥ | atra yady api dhanadātṛitvam bāṇijyādikartus tathā ’pi nibandhakartur eva puṇyam taduddeçenai ’ve ’tarasya pravṛitteḥ | ‘bhūmim’ iti grāmārāmādīnām upalaxaṇārtham | ata eva Bṛihaspatiḥ |

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“Dattvā bhūmyādikam rājā tāmrapaṭṭe tathā paṭe | ²
Çāsanam kārayed dharmyam sthānavamçādisamyutam” ||

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² *v. l.* °paṭṭe ’thavā paṭe.

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C. ‘Kārayet’ sandhivigrahādyadhikāriṇam iti çeshaḥ | tasyai ’vā ’tra lekhane kartṛitvaniyamāt | tathā ca Vyāsaḥ |

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“Rājā tu svayam, ādishtaḥ sandhivigrahalekhakaḥ |
Tāmrapaṭṭe paṭe vā ’pi vilikhed¹) rājaçāsanam |
Kriyākārakasambandham samāsārthakriyānvitam” || iti ||

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¹ *v. l.* prali°

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C. Kriyākārakayoḥ sambandho yasmin çāsane tat tatho ’ktam | samāsārthakriyānvitam samxiptārthopanyāsakriyayā samanvitam ity arthaḥ | tāmrapaṭṭādau lekhanīyam artham āha Yājñavalkyaḥ |

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Abhilekhyā ’tmano vamçyān ātmānam ca mahīpatiḥ |
Pratigrahaparimāṇam dānacchedopavarṇanam || iti ||

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C. Uddhṛitamahīmaṇḍalasya Çrīpateḥ varāhavapusho varadānapratipādakam āçīrvādam²) ādāv ācāraprāptam ‘abhilekhyā’ ’nantaram ‘ātmano vamçyān’ prapitāmahapitāmahapitrākhyāms trīn uktakrameṇa çauryādiguṇavarṇanadvārā ‘ātmānam’ caturtham ‘abhilekhya’ ‘pratigrahaparimāṇādikam’ lekhayed³) ity arthaḥ | pratigṛihyata iti pratigrahaḥ | bhūmyādir nibandhaç ca | tasya parimāṇam iyattā | ‘dānacchedo’ dīyamānabhūmyāder maryādā |

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² *v. l.* āçīrvacanam. This refers, apparently, to the Cālukya invocation.

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³ *v. l.* lekhyam.

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Vyāso ’pi |

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Samāmāsatadardhāharnṛipanāmopalaxitam |
Pratigrahītṛijātyādisagotrabrahmacārikam || iti ||

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C. Sampradānasya ’sādhāraṇatvāvabodhakam jātikulaçākhādikam api lekhanīyam ity uttarārdhasyā ’rthaḥ | tathā ’nyad api⁴) lekhanīyam sa evā ’ha |

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⁴ *v. l.* tad anyad api.

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Sthānam vamçānupūrvyam ca deçam grāmam upāgatam |
Brāhmaṇāms tu tathā cā ’nyān mānyān adhikṛitān likhet ||
Kuṭumbino ’tha kāyasthadūtavaidyamahattarān |
Mlecchacaṇḍālaparyantān sarvān sambodhayan ||
Mātāpitror ātmanaç ca puṇyāyā ’mukasūnave |
Dattam mayā ’mukāyā ’tha dānam sabrahmacāriṇe || iti ||

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Bṛihaspatir api |

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Anācchedyam anāhāryam sarvabhāvyavivarjitam |
Candrārkasamakālīnam putrapautrānvayānugam ||
Dātuḥ pālayituḥ svargam hartur narakam eva ca |
Shashṭivarshasahasrāṇi dānācchedaphalam likhet || iti ||

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C. Āgāminṛipādibodhanārtham iti çeshaḥ | ata eva Vyāsaḥ |

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Shashṭivarshasahasrāṇi dānācchedaphalam tathā |
Āgāminṛipasāmantabodhanārtham nṛipo likhet ||

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Tathā 'pi çlokāntaram api lekhanīyam¹ tenai 'va paṭhitam |

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¹ *v. l.* çlokāntaralekhanam api.

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Sāmānyo 'yaṁ dharmasetur nṛipāṇāṁ
Kāle kāle pālanīyo bhavadbhiḥ² |
Sarvān etān³ bhāvinaḥ pārthivendrān
Bhūyo bhūyo yācate rāmabhadraḥ || iti ||

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² *v. l.* mahadbhiḥ.

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³ *v. l.* yāṁç cā 'py anyān.

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Tato rājā svayaṁ svahastam likhet | tathā ca sa eva |

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Sanniveçaṁ pramāṇaṁ ca svahastaṁ ca likhet svayam | iti ||

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C. Matam me 'mukaputrasyā 'mukasya mahīpater yad atro 'pari likhitam iti svayaṁ likhed ity arthaḥ | lekhakaç ca svanāma likhet | tathā ca sa eva |

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Sandhivigrahakārī ca bhaved yaç cā 'pi lekhakaḥ |
Svayaṁ rājñā samādiṣṭaḥ sa likhed rājaçāsanam ||
Svanāma tu likhet paçcān mudritaṁ rājamudrayā |
Grāmakṣetragṛihādīnām īdṛik syād rājaçāsanam || iti ||

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C. Etac ca pratigrahītur arpaṇīyaṁ tasyo 'payogitvāt | ata eva Vishṇuḥ |

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Paṭe vā tāmrapaṭṭe vā likhitaṁ svamudrāṅkaṁ cā 'gāminṛipatiparijñānārthaṁ dadyāt | iti ||

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Saṅgrahakāro 'pi |

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Rājasvahastacihnena rājoddeçena saṁyutam |
Yuktaṁ rājābhidhānena mudritaṁ rājamudrayā ||
Svalpyanavaçabdoktisampūrṇāvayavākṣaram |
Çāsanaṁ rājadattaṁ syāt sandhivigrahalekhakaiḥ || iti ||

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C. Sandhivigrahalekhakair likhitam uktavidham anyasmai rājadattaṁ çāsanākhyam lekhyaṁ syād ity arthaḥ | etac ca çāsanam⁴ na dānasiddhyartham tasya pratigraheṇai 'va siddheḥ | *kiṁ tu* dattasya sthairyakaraṇārtham sthiratve 'xayaphalaçruteḥ | tathā hi |

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⁴ *v. l.* çāsanadānaṁ.

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Ruṇaddhi rodasi cā 'sya yāvat kīrtis tarasvinī |
Tāvat kilā 'yam adhyāste sukṛitī vaibudhaṁ padam ||

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Anenai 'vā 'bhiprāyeṇa Yājñavalkyeno 'ktaṁ⁵ |

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⁵ *v. l.* ᵒnā 'py uktam.

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Svahastakālasampannaṁ çāsanaṁ kārayet sthiram | iti ||

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C. 'Kālasampannam' saṁvatsarādiviçeṣhitadānādino 'petam | tathā ca Vyāsaḥ |

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Jñātaṁ maye 'ti likhitaṁ dātrā 'dhyaxāxarair yutam |
Abdamāsatadardhāhorājamudrāṅkitaṁ tathā |
Anena vidhinā lekhyaṁ rājaçāsanakaṁ likhet || iti ||

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Tathā sa eva jayapatram nirūpayitum āha |

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Vyavahārān svayaṃ dṛṣṭvā śrutvā va prāḍvivākataḥ |
Jayapatraṃ tato dadyāt parijñānāya pārthivaḥ ||

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Kasmai dadyād ity apekṣite sa evā 'ha |

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Jaṅgamaṃ sthāvaraṃ yena pramāṇenā 'tmasātkṛtam |
Bhāgābhiśāpasaṃdigdho yaḥ samyag vijayī bhavet |
Tasya rājñā pradātavyaṃ jayapatraṃ suniścitam ||

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Bṛhaspatir api |

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Pūrvottarakriyāyuktaṃ nirṇayāntaṃ yadā nṛpaḥ |
Pradadyāj jāyine lekhyaṃ jayapatraṃ tad ucyate ||

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C. Pūrvottarakriyāyuktam iti vṛttāntopalakṣaṇārtham | yata āha sa eva |

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Yad vṛttaṃ vyavahāre tu pūrvapakṣottarādikam |
Kriyāvadhāraṇopetaṃ jayapatre 'khilaṃ likhet ||

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Vyāso 'pi |

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Pūrvottarakriyāpādaṃ pramāṇaṃ tatparīkṣaṇaṃ |
Nigadaṃ smṛtivākyaṃ ca yathāsabhyaṃ viniścitam |
Etat sarvaṃ samāsena jayapatre 'bhilekhayet || iti |

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C. ‘Kriyāpādam’ kriyābhimarśanapādaṃ pratyākalitapādam iti yāvat | ‘nigadaḥ’ sāxivacanam | ‘yathāsabhyaṃ’ sabhānaṭikrameṇa | ‘samāsena’ saṃxepena | Kātyāyano 'pi |

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Arthipratyarthivākyāni pratijñā sāxivāk tathā |
Nirṇayaś ca yathā tasya yathā cā 'vadhṛtaṃ svayam |
Etad yathāxaraṃ lekhye yathāpūrvaṃ niveśayet || iti |

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C. ‘Yathāpūrvaṃ’ ity etat tena prapañcitam |

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Abhiyoktrabhiyuktānāṃ vacanaṃ prāṅ vivecayet |
Sabhyānāṃ prāḍvivākasya kulānāṃ vā tataḥ paraṃ |
Niścayaṃ smṛtiśāstrasya mataṃ tatrai 'va lekhayet || iti |

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C. ‘Mataṃ’ nṛpādīnām iti śeṣaḥ | tat lekhanam tu svahastena parahastato matalekhanasya yathā cā 'vadhṛtaṃ ‘svayam’ ity anena pūrvaṃ eva vihitatvāt | ata evo 'ktaṃ tenai 'va ||

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Siddhenā 'rthena saṃyojyo vādī satkārapūrvakam |
Lekhyaṃ svahastasaṃyuktaṃ tasmai dadyāt tu pārthivaḥ ||
Sabhāsadaś ca ye tatra smṛtiśāstravidaḥ sthitāḥ |
Yathālekhyaṃ vidhau tadvat svahastaṃ tatra dāpayet || iti ||

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C. Rājā tān sabhyān jānapadalekhyavaj jayapatre svahastaṃ dāpayed ity arthaḥ | Vṛiddhavasiṣṭho 'pi |

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Prāḍvivākādihastāṅkaṃ mudritaṃ rājamudrayā |
Siddhe 'rthe vādine dādyāj jayine jayapatrakam ||

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C. Evam uktaṃ jayapatraṃ paçcātkāram¹ ity āha Kātyāyanaḥ |

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¹ *v. l.* evaṃ jayapatraṃ paçcātkārākhyam.

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Anena vidhinā lekhyaṃ paçcātkāram vidur budhāḥ | iti |

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C. *Ayam* ca paçcātkāro nirṇayaviçeṣha eva na sarvatre 'ty āha sa eva |

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Nirastā tu kriyā yatra pramāṇenai 'va vādinā |
Paçcātkāro bhavet tatra na sarvāsu vidhīyate ||

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C. Kriyāsādhyam pramāṇenai 've 'ti vadaṃç catuṣhpādvyavahāra eva paçcātkāro na dvipādvyavahāra iti kathayati |

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Spashṭīkṛitam cai 'tad Bṛihaspatinā |

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Sādhayet¹) sādhyam artham tu catuṣhpādanvitam jaye |
Rājamudrānvitam cai 'va jayapatrikam iṣhyate || iti ||

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¹ *v. l.* sādhayan.

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C. Dvipādvyavahāre tu bhāshottarānvitam jayapatram āsyai 'va paçcātkārasyai 'va tatra pratishedāt²) | anyad api jayapatram tenai 'vo 'ktam |

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² *v. l.* 'vā 'sadanuvādakatvena tatra prati°

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Anyapādādihīnebhya itareshām pradīyate |
Vṛittānuvādasamsiddham tac ca syāj jayapatrakam ||

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C. ‘Itareshām’ hīnavādinām ity arthaḥ | ājñāprajñāpanapatre dve Vasishṭhena darçite |

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Sāmanteshv atha bhṛityeshu rāshtrapālādikeshu vā |
Kāryam ādiçyate yena tad ājñāpatram ucyate ||
Ṛitvikpurohitācāryamānyeshv abhyarhiteshu ça |
Kāryam nivedyate yena patram prajñāpanāya tat || iti ||

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Bṛihaspatir anyad api rājakīyam prasādalekhyākhyam³) āha |

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³ *v. l.* °ākhyam patram.

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Deçādikam yatra rājā likhitena prayacchati |
Sevāçauryādinā tushṭaḥ prasādalikhitam hi tat || iti |

c9.s1.t1.98

C. Ato rājakīyam pañcavidham caturvidham iti anāsthayo 'ktam⁴) iti mantavyam | Jānapadam punar Vyāsena nirūpitam |

c9.s1.t1.99

⁴ *v. l.* anādaroktam.

c9.s1.t1.100

Likhej jānapadam lekhyam prasiddhasthānalekhakaḥ |
Rājavaṃçakramayutam varshamāsārdhavāsaraiḥ ||

c9.s1.t1.101

C. ‘Yutam’ ity anushajyate | ‘vāsaram⁵)’ dinam | anyad api lekhayitavyam ity āha sa eva |

c9.s1.t1.102

⁵ *v. l.* vāsaraḥ.

c9.s1.t1.103

Pitṛipūrvanāmajātidhanikarṇikayor likhet |
Dravyabhedam pramāṇam ca vṛiddhim co 'bhayasammatām ||

c9.s1.t1.104

C. Ubhayasammatir dravyāder api viçeṣhaṇam | ata eva Yājñavalkyaḥ |

c9.s1.t1.105

Yaḥ kaçcid artho nishṇātaḥ svarucyā tu parasparam |
Lekhyam tu sākshimat kāryam tasmin dhanikapūrvakam ||

c9.s1.t1.106

C. ‘Dhanikapūrvakam’ dhanikanāmalekhanapūrvam | ‘sāximat’ nishṇātārthajñātṛibhūtamadhyasthajananāmānvitam | tathā kāladhanikarṇikasāxyādilekhanīyasya yāvatā viçeshaṇena nishṭhatvasiddhis tāvadviçeshaṇānvitam *lekhyam kāryam ity āha sa eva* |

c9.s1.t1.107

Samāmāsatadardhāharnāmajātisvagotrakaiḥ |
Sabrahmacārikātmīyapitṛīṇāmādicihnitam ||

c9.s1.t1.108

C. ‘Sabrahmacārikam’ bahvṛicaḥ kaṭhā ityādi çākhāprayuktam guṇanāma | ‘ātmīyapitṛiṇāma’ dhanikasāxiṇām api pitṛināma | ‘ādi’-çabdena deçācārāvāptavārādi gṛihyate | ata eva Vyāsaḥ |

c9.s1.t1.109

Deçasthityā kriyādhānapratigrahavicihnitam || iti |

c9.s1.t1.110

C. ‘Deçasthityā’ kriyādeçācārānusāreṇa karaṇam | ‘ādhānam’ ādhiḥ | Nārado ’pi |

c9.s1.t1.111

Lekhyam ca sāximat kāryam aviluptakramāxaram¹) |
Deçācārasthitiyutam²) samagram sarvavastushu ||

c9.s1.t1.112

¹ *v. l.* aviluptakriyānvitam.

c9.s1.t1.113

² *v. l.* kramāxaram deçācāra.

c9.s1.t1.114

Vasishṭho ’pi |

c9.s1.t1.115

Kālam niveçya rājānam sthānam nivasitam³) tathā |
Dāyakam grāhakam cai ’va pitṛināmnā ca samyutam ||
Jātim svagotram çākhām ca dravyam ādhim sasaṅkhyakam |
Vṛiddhim grāhakahastam ca viditārthau ca sāxiṇau || iti ||

c9.s1.t1.116

³ *v. l.* nivasanam.

c9.s1.t1.117

Grāhakahastaniveçanaprakāram⁴) āha Yājñavalkyaḥ |

c9.s1.t1.118

⁴ *v. l.* °nivecapra°

c9.s1.t1.119

Samāpte ’rtha ṛiṇī nāma svahastena niveçayet |
Matam me ’mukaputrasya yad atro ’pari lekhitam ||

c9.s1.t1.120

C. ‘Upari’ iti vadan pūrvalikhitāxarasamsthānād adhastāt svahastāxarasamsthānam iti darçayati | ‘ṛiṇī’ iti sāxiṇām api pradarçanārtham | tathā ca sa eva |

c9.s1.t1.121

Sāxiṇaç ca svahastena pitṛināmakapūrvakam |
Atrā ’ham amukaḥ sāxī likheyur iti te samāḥ ||

c9.s1.t1.122

C. Ye ’tra⁵) lekhye likhitāḥ sāxiṇas te ’py amukaputro ’muko ’trā ’rthe sāxī ’ti pratyekam likheyuḥ | te ca⁶) dvitvādisamasaṅkhyayā viçishṭā bhaveyuḥ | na tritvādivishamasāṅkhyaye ’ty arthaḥ | ‘*sāxiṇaḥ*’ iti bahuvacanam *gurutarakāryalekhyavishayam* |

c9.s1.t1.123

⁵ *v. l.* tatra.

c9.s1.t1.124

⁶ *v. l.* te ’pi.

c9.s1.t1.125

Uttamarṇādhamarṇau ca sāxiṇau lekhakas tathā |
Samavāyena cai ’teshām lekhyam kurvīta nā ’nyathā || iti |

c9.s1.t1.126

C. Hāritena lekhyamātre ‘sāxiṇau’ ity uktatvād na tritvādivishamasāṅkhyaye ’ty arthaḥ | kenacid akārapraçleshakalpanayā sāxisaṅkhyāniyamo vaiparītyena varṇitaḥ | sa yasmin deçe yathai ’vā ’cāras tatrai ’va grāhyaḥ nā ’nyatrā ’svarasārthatvāt | *evam cā* 'nyakṛtalekhyasyo 'ttamarṇādhamarṇasāxidvayalekhakarūpa¹⁾pañcapurushārūḍhatvāt pañcārūḍham patram iti loke vyavahāraḥ | sāxisaṅkhyādhikatve cā 'yam²) vyavahāro gauṇa iti mantavyam | lekhyamātram prakṛtya Vyāsena 'py uktam |

c9.s1.t1.127

¹ *v. l.* ᵒm rūpa.

c9.s1.t1.128

² *v. l.* ᵒsaṅkhyādhikye tv ayam.

c9.s1.t1.129

Ṛṇihastam nāmayutam sāxibhyām pitṛpūrvakam | iti |

c9.s1.t1.130

C. Ato dviprabhṛtibhiḥ samair bhavitavyam iti niyamo deçācārāvirodhānusandheyaḥ³⁾ | yadā tu lipyanabhijñaḥ sāxī ṛṇī vā⁴⁾ tadā Nārada āha |

c9.s1.t1.131

³ *v. l.* ᵒvirodhenā 'nusandheyaḥ.

c9.s1.t1.132

⁴ *v. l.* lipyanabhijñaḥ sāxiṇa ṛṇī ca.

c9.s1.t1.133

Alipijña ṛṇī yaḥ syāl lekhayet svamatam ⁵) tu saḥ |
Sāxī vā sāxiṇā 'nyena sarvasāxisamīpataḥ ||
Vijātīyalipijño 'pi svayam eva likhel lipim⁶⁾ |
Sarvajānapadān varṇān lekhye tu viniveçayet ||

c9.s1.t1.134

⁵ *v. l.* sammatam.

c9.s1.t1.135

⁶ *v. l.* lipijñatvāt.

c9.s1.t1.136

Iti Kātyāyanasmaraṇāc ca | sāxisvahastalekhanānantaram Yājñavalkyaḥ |

c9.s1.t1.137

Ubhayābhyarthitenai 'vam mayā hy amukasūnunā |
Likhitam hy amukene 'ti lekhako 'nte tato likhet ||

c9.s1.t1.138

Vyāso 'pi |

c9.s1.t1.139

Mayo 'bhayābhyarthitenā 'mukenā⁷⁾ 'mukasūnunā |
Svahastayuktam svam nāma lekhakas tv antato likhet |
Evam⁸⁾ jānapade lekhye vyāsena 'bhihito vidhiḥ || iti |

c9.s1.t1.140

⁷ *v. l.* yuktenā.

c9.s1.t1.141

⁸ *v. l.* esha.

c9.s1.t1.142

C. Antato lekhyasye 'ti çeshaḥ | evam uktalekhyam ashṭavidham ity āha sa eva |

c9.s1.t1.143

Cirakam ca svahastam ca tatho 'pagatasañjñitam |
Ādhipatram caturtham ca pañcamam krayapatrakam ||
Shashṭham tu sthitipatrākhyam saptamam sandhipatrakam |
Viçuddhipatrakam cai 'vam ashṭadhā laukikam smṛtam || iti ||

c9.s1.t1.144

C. Nā 'tra saṅkhyā vivaxitā vibhāgapatrāder api laukikatvāt | tatra 'cirakasya' laxaṇam āha Saṅgrahakāraḥ |

c9.s1.t1.145

Cirakam nāma likhitam purāṇaiḥ pauralekhakaiḥ |
Arthipratyarthinirdishṭair yathāsambhavasamskṛtaiḥ⁹⁾ ||
Svakīyaiḥ pitṛṇāmādyair arthipratyarthisāxiṇām |
Pratināmabhir ākrāntam arthisāxisvahastavat |
Spashṭāvagatasaṃyuktam yathāsmṛtyuktalaxaṇam || iti ||

c9.s1.t1.146

⁹ *v. l.* samstutaiḥ.

c9.s1.t1.147

C. '*Samstutaiḥ*' praçastair ity arthaḥ | Kātyāyanas tu svahastam āha |

c9.s1.t1.148

Grāhakena svahastena likhitam sāxivarjitam |
Svahastalekhyam vijñeyam pramāṇam tat smṛtam budhaiḥ ||

c9.s1.t1.149

C. Evam eva dāyakena likhitam grāhakenā 'bhyupagatam lekhyam upagatākhyam vijñeyam || ādhipatram āha Nāradaḥ |

c9.s1.t1.150

Ādhim kṛtvā tu yo dravyam prayuṅkte svadhanam dhanī |
Yat tatra kriyate lekhyam ādhipatram tad ucyate ||

c9.s1.t1.151

Anvādhilekhye viçeṣham āha Prajāpatiḥ |

c9.s1.t1.152

Dhanī dhanena tenai 'va param ādhim nayed yadi |
Smṛtvā tad ādhilikhitam pūrvam cā 'sya samarpayet ||

c9.s1.t1.153

Krayaptram Pitāmaheno 'ktam |

c9.s1.t1.154

Krite krayaprakāçārtham dravye yat kriyate kvacit |
Vikretrānumatam kretrā jñeyam tat krayapatrakam ||

c9.s1.t1.155

Sthitipatrādīni punaḥ Kātyāyaneno 'ktāni |

c9.s1.t1.156

Cāturvidyapuraçreṇigaṇapaurādikasthitiḥ |
Tatsiddhyartham tu yal lekhyam tad bhavet sthitipatrakam || [^1) ]
Uttameṣhu samasteṣhv abhiçāpe samāgate |
Vṛttānuvāde lekhyam yat taj jñeyam sandhipatrakam ||
Abhiçāpe samuttīrṇe prāyaçcitte kṛte janaiḥ |
Viçuddhipatrakam jñeyam tebhyaḥ sākṣisamanvitam || iti ||

c9.s1.t1.157

Bṛihaspatir api lekhyavibhāgam āha |

c9.s1.t1.158

Bhāgadānakriyādhānam samvidānam sthirādibhiḥ |
Saptadhā laukikam lekhyam trividham rājaçāsanam ||

c9.s1.t1.159

C. Atrā 'pi na saṅkhyā vivaxitā | adhikānām api lekhyānām etebhyo darçitatvāt | ata evā 'trā 'digrahaṇam kṛitam | anyathā gaṇitair eva saptavidhatvasiddher ādigrahaṇam apārtham[^2) ] syāt | tenai 'va taj jñāyate lekhyasaṅkhyā nā 'vadhāraṇārthe 'ti | ato vividhasaṅkhyāvadvacanānām avirodhaḥ[^3) ] | bhāgalekhyādikam svayam eva vyācashṭe |

c9.s1.t1.160

Bhrātaraḥ samvibhaktā ye svarucyā tu parasparam |
Vibhāgapatram kurvanti bhāgalekhyam tad ucyate ||
Bhūmim dattvā tu yat patram kuryāc candrārkakālikam |
Anācchedyam anāhāryam dānalekhyam tu tad viduḥ ||
Gṛihaxetrādikam kṛitvā tulyamūlyāxarānvitam |
Patram kārayate yat tu kāryalekhyam tad ucyate ||
Jaṅgamam sthāvaram bandham dattvā lekhyam karoti yat[^4) ] |
Gopyabhogyakriyāyuktam ādhilekhyam tad ucyate ||
Grāmo deçaç ca yat kuryān matam lekhyam[^5) ] parasparam |
Rājāvirodhi dharmārtham samvitpatram vadanti tat ||
Vastrānnahīnaḥ kāntāre likhitam kurute tu yat[^6) ] |

c9.s1.t1.161

[^1) ]: *v. l.* sthitipatram tad ucyate. [^2) ]: *v. l.* anartham. [^3) ]: *v. l.* ato na vividha° . . . . . virodhaḥ. [^4) ]: *v. l.* yaḥ. [^5) ]: *v. l.* matalekhyam. [^6) ]: *v. l.* yaḥ.

c9.s1.t1.162

Karmāṇi te karishyāmi dāsapatram tad ucyate ||
Dhanam vriddhyā grihītvā svayam kuryāc ca kārayet |
Uddhārapatram tat proktam ṛiṇalekhyam manīshibhiḥ ||

c9.s1.t1.163

Anyad api laukikam lekhyam āha Kātyāyanaḥ |

c9.s1.t1.164

Sīmāvivāde nirṇīte sīmāpatram vidhīyate || iti ||

c9.s1.t1.165

Yājńavalkyo 'pi |

c9.s1.t1.166

Dattva 'rṇam pātayel lekhyam çuddhyai 'vā 'nyat tu kārayet || iti ||

c9.s1.t1.167

Lekhyaprayojanam āha Marīciḥ |

c9.s1.t1.168

Sthāvare vikrayādhāne vibhāge dāna eva ca |
Likhitenā 'pnuyāt siddhim avisaṁvādam eva ca¹⁾ ||

c9.s1.t1.169

¹ *v. l.* sā.

c9.s1.t1.170

C. ‘Ādhānam’ ādhiḥ | ādyaç caçabda ṛiṇādinishṇātārthasaṁgrahārthaḥ | avisaṁvādaḥ kālāntare 'pi nishṇātārthasyā 'nanyathābhāvaḥ | evam ca sthāvarādāv avisaṁvādena siddhim ālocya rājavaṁçāvarshādilekhanīyānām²⁾ avāpodvāpau kāryau teshām dṛishṭārthatvāt | ato na dānādilekhye dhanikarṇikādi lekhanīyam | nā 'pi ṛiṇādānādilekhye pratigrahādikam | evam anyatrā 'pi lekhye lekhanīyasamūhanīyam dṛishṭaprayojanatvāl lekhyasya | ata evā 'kṛitaprayojanasya lekhyasya kāryāxamatvena lekhyāntaram utpādyam | ata evā 'ha Yājńavalkyaḥ |

c9.s1.t1.171

² *v. l.* ° lekhanīyatayā.

c9.s1.t1.172

Deçāntarasthe durlekhyo nashṭonmṛishṭe hṛite tathā |
Bhinne dagdhe tathā chinne lekhyam anyat tu kārayet ||

c9.s1.t1.173

C. ‘Deçāntarasthe’ sarvadhā 'netum açakyasthānasthe | ‘durlekhye’ duravabodhāxare | ‘bhinne’ dvidhā jāte | ‘chinne’ cīrṇe | Kātyāyano 'pi |

c9.s1.t1.174

Malair yad bheditam dagdham chidritam vitam eva vā |
Tad anyat kārayel lekhyam svedeno 'llikhitam tathā ||

c9.s1.t1.175

C. ‘Vitam’ vigatam | ‘ullikhitam’ unmṛishṭam | yat punar Nūradeno 'ktam |

c9.s1.t1.176

Lekhye deçāntaranyaste cīrṇe durlikhite hṛite³⁾ |
Satas tatkālakaraṇam asato drashṭṛidarçanam || iti |

c9.s1.t1.177

³ *v. l.* tathā.

c9.s1.t1.178

C. Tat tathai 'va dhanadānodyatarṇikavishayam | tatra lekhyāntarakaraṇe prayojanābhāvāt | ‘kālakaraṇam’ ānayanārtham tasya patrasyā 'nayanayogyakālakalpanam | ‘drashṭṛidarçanam’ alabhyapatrārthajńātṛijńāpanam dhanapratidāne kāryam ity arthaḥ | etac ca patrapāṭanāsambhave 'pi sāxiṇām sāxitvanivṛittaye kāryam | pratipādanaprakāçanārtham ca pratidattapatram grāhyam | kālāntare tu dhane deye lekhyāntaram kāryam eva | ata evo 'ktam tenā 'pi |

c9.s1.t1.179

Chinnabhinnahṛitonmṛishṭadagdhadurlikhiteshu ca |
Kartavyam anyal lekhyam syād esha lekhyavidhiḥ smṛitaḥ || iti ||

c9.s1.t1.180

Iti lekhyanirūpaṇam¹ |||

c9.s1.t1.181

¹ This passage is from the Tanjore MSS. Nos. 77, 9.253 and 9.254. The last was scarcely of any use. I have not given all the *vv. ll.*, nor have I noticed the numerous errors of the MSS.

c9.s1.t1.182

These two passages give all the real information respecting royal grants and documents transferring property, that I have been able to find in Sanskrit treatises belonging to the Dharmaçāstra. The Mādhavīya treatise on vyavahāra merely copies the Smṛiticandrikā, and the Sarasvatīvilāsa contains nothing worth quoting here². Of the numerous kinds of deed, described in the passage I have given from the Smṛiticandrikā, we have, apparently, only royal grants, private transfers of land, and inscriptions recording endowments, which are of any considerable antiquity and, therefore, of interest. Of all these the royal grants are the most important.

c9.s1.t1.183

² The corresponding section in the Vyavahāramāyūkha (16th cent.) is given in Stokes's "Hindu Lawbooks", pp. 26-30.

c9.s1.t1.184

Public documents of this description being generally in Sanskrit, and being, always, even if in a vernacular language, intelligible to a few persons only, the growth of a kind of symbolical language which served at once to explain the object of the grant, and also to ornament it, is easily intelligible. This symbolism is in accordance with the practice of Sanskrit law³, and is obviously necessary in conditions of society such as have always existed in India, where the literary and intelligent classes have been, and are still, separated by almost insurmountable barriers from the lower ignorant masses. But the practice grew up in historical times, and seems to have been more developed in S. India than elsewhere⁴. The utility of this hieroglyphic or symbolical language will be evident, if it be kept in mind that the stone stelae on which grants were written were usually put in conspicuous public places, such as under the sacred figtree which forms the place of assembly in a village, or by the boundary of fields, or inside a temple enclosure.

c9.s1.t1.185

³ For example: *a*) A co-parcener who gives up his share is presented with a betel-leaf or some worthless object (Yājñ. ii., 118), and his partition is thus effected. *b*) Land is conveyed by a bit of gold and by pouring out water ('sahiraṇyapayodhārāpūrvaka', Colebrooke's "Essays" ii., p. 265). *c*) Its possession is established by even a partial enjoyment of produce (Mit. ii., 27). *d*) When a girl is married a bit of gold is given with her. *e*) A son is given (in adoption) with water (Manu, ix., 168). *f*) So also the remarkable custom of the widow or heir taking a bit of gold etc. from the hand of the deceased, and thus assuming his place. *g*) Again, the breaking of a jar of water (ghaṭasphoṭana) on expelling a person from caste is a similar practice. Many other instances might be mentioned.

c9.s1.t1.186

⁴ It was, apparently, unknown in Java.

c9.s1.t1.187

The earliest symbol found on grants by Indian kings is the sacred royal emblem (dhvaja), a mark of authenticity, and which, by its sacred character, would preserve the document from destruction. This mark is generally a representation of the animal, a figure which formed the standard of the donor; thus the use of 'totems' was undoubtedly common in very early times in India. The ones used by the earliest S. Indian dynasties appear to be such as primitive tribes would select in such situations as these kingdoms occupied, viz., the inland mountain districts—elephant, the plains—tiger, and the sea-coast—fish; but it is useless to speculate on matters like these respecting which we can never get any real information. Combined with the distinctive emblem of the sovereign, other insignia of royalty such as the cāmarī¹ and goad (aṅkuça) are found.

c9.s1.t1.188

¹ The yak's tail used to drive away flies.

c9.s1.t1.189

To the royal emblem was soon added a representation of the moon, or sun and moon. This is taken from the usual phrase in grants in India—"as long as the sun and moon" or "moon and stars endure"—which is intended to express perpetuity.

c9.s1.t1.190

Up to the 14th century the symbolical part of grants by kings of S. India does not go beyond what has just been described; but under the Vijayanagara kings religious emblems became common. Such consist of a representation of the deity worshipped, and for whom the grant is made, often with a worshipper adoring; in the 17th century, this part becomes a very considerable picture², and is often executed with skill. The practice was common both to Hindus and to Jains.

c9.s1.t1.191

² See, *e. g.*, *Indian Antiquary*, vi., p. 138.

c9.s1.t1.192

The Emblem or Seal

c9.s1.t1.193

I shall here give the information that I have been able to gather on this subject; unfortunately, authentic specimens of seals are very uncommon, and it is impossible to give anything like a series. The practice of using seals seems also of comparatively recent date; they are not a legal requisite to grants according to the earliest law-books, and are, apparently, first mentioned in the Yājñavalkyasmṛiti, though in use from at least the 4th century A. D. as examples in existence prove.

c9.s1.t1.194

*a. Cera.* Two or three examples occur, and in all these is simply the figure of an elephant.

c9.s1.t1.195

*b. Pallava.* One example occurs³; it represents a tiger⁴.

c9.s1.t1.196

³ *Indian Antiquary*, v., plate opposite p. 50.

c9.s1.t1.197

⁴ At first sight one would take this to be the figure of a dog or jackal, but a Coḷa inscription of the 11th century at Tiruvidaimaruđūr (in the Tanjore district) mentions the 'tiger-banner of Vĕṅgai', and there can be little doubt that the Pallavas belonged to this dynasty. In the 11th century the S. Pallavas (feudatories of the Coḷas) used a figure of a reclining cow (?).

c9.s1.t1.198

*c. Cālukya.* Of the Kalyāṇa branch I am not able to give an example. Of the Eastern (Kaliṅga) branch I have found five: two of the seventh, one of the 10th and two of the Coḷa successors of the Cālukyas, of the 12th century. These are remarkable in having a device like those of the Valabhī dynasty of Gujarat⁵. That of the earlier

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