Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Indian Palaeography c15.s9: D VIII. Andhra and the Neighbouring Areas

Indian Palaeography c15.s9

Language
English

Contents

D VIII. Andhra and the Neighbouring Areas

c15.s9.1

The deltaic region of the Godavari and the Kistna forms another zone where we see the beginnings of a different regional writing. But this region was very disturbed politically, and the effects of political changes are clearly stamped on the styles of writing seen here. This zone was under the Śātavāhanas in the second and the early part of the third century a.d. Later in this century the Ikshvākus developed an ornate style of writing. But this particular style did not leave behind any legacy in the palaeographical field, except that the characteristic long verticals of Ikshvāku writing are seen in some of the inscriptions of the Pallavas and in others its degenerate version is copied. On the other hand, we meet with a sudden corrupt hand in the Mayidavolu plates of Śivaskandavarman and the Kondamudi plates of Jayavarmma, the letters being drawn very crudely, some of them even recalling the inexperienced hand of the Bhattiprolu writing. Obviously the end of Ikshvāku rule was due to a violent outbreak of some local force, probably represented by the Bṛihatphalāyana dynasty, which must have been suppressed by the rise of the Pallavas, after whose ascendancy we meet with a peaceful development for some time. These developments can be studied in the records of the Śālaṅkāyanas and the Vishṇukuṇḍins. But in the fifth century a.d. the square-headed letters of the Vākāṭaka records infiltrated into this region, and in the sixth century the influence of Chālukyan writing is noticeable in the later inscriptions of the Vishṇukuṇḍins (Pl. XVII. 5). At this time the Eastern Chālukyas established themselves in this region and with them the proto-Kannadi forms came in. The Gaṅgas continued the square-headed type in their secluded region north of the Godavari delta, but, towards the close of the 7th century a.d. the proto-Nāgarī writing of the Rāshṭrakūṭas began to exert its influence in this region. The Gaṅgas were the first to adopt some forms from this source. On the other side the Pallavas re-established their authority in Kāñchī and perfected a style of writing peculiar to that region. The influence from this source is seen in the inscriptions of the Ānandas. Thus this region has throughout been influenced by extraneous elements, and hence the development of proto-Telugu was delayed. When later we see its evolution, the influence of proto-Kannadi is very marked. The palaeography is described under the following groups: (*a*) The inscriptions of the Bṛihatphalāyanas. (*b*) The inscriptions of the Śālaṅkāyanas and the Vishṇukuṇḍins. (*c*) The inscriptions of the Gaṅgas. (*d*) The inscriptions of the Eastern Chālukyas. (*e*) The inscriptions of the Ānandas.

(a) The Inscriptions of the Bṛihatphalāyanas

c15.s9.t1.1

Pl. XVII. 1 is taken from the Kondamudi grant of Jayavarmma, which is the only record of this dynasty published so far. A newly discovered inscription¹ gives the name of another king Śrīvarman. The writing in the Kondamudi grant is very corrupt and some of the letters have not been properly formed. No head-mark is seen here. The medial *ā*, *e* and *o* are horizontal lines with short ticks at either end. But *e* in *be*, *ā* in *dhā*, and *o* in *mo* are applied to the middle of the letters. The medial *i* is a short curve to the left, and the medial *u* is a short stroke as in *yu* and *tu*. Śātavāhana influence is noticeable in the curves of the verticals in *a*, *i*, *ka*, *ra*, *la*, and the vertical type of the medial *u*. Again, some of the Śātavāhana forms are preserved, e.g. *i* with a vertical and a dot on either side, as is also seen in the earlier cave inscriptions of the south;² *kha* with the lower end of its vertical bent towards the left; the round-backed *ḍa* and *da*; the Deccani type of *ta* as used in the Śātavāhana inscriptions; and the round-bottomed *pa*, *ya* and *gha*. The most crudely drawn forms are *a* with its right vertical drawn separately from the main left-curved body, and having a hook hanging downwards; *e* with the left arm of the triangle missing; *ka* with its middle bar in *ke* slanting downwards to the left; *cha* being of the beak-form with its upper end open; *ja* having the upper two arms drawn together in a curve; *ma* having its top two strokes drawn in a curve and a lower loop detached from the upper curve, but formed with the same sweep of the hand—a type also seen in the Bhattiprolu inscriptions; *la* with its left-hooked part drawn in a curve; *sa* having its left hook separate from the body; and *ha* optionally dropping the right vertical and attaching the hook to the base line. These crude forms are also noticeable in the conjuncts *nhu* and *mha*. The forms of *ṇa* and *na* are exactly the same and resemble that of the round-backed *da*. The corners of *o* are rounded; *chha* has hardly any stem and its left loop is triangular; *ḍa* and *da* are round-backed; *tha* is also drawn with one sweep like an oval similar to the form of *dha*; *ba* is a rough quadrangle with its upper arm broken; *bha* is of the broad type; and *va* has a loop attached to a short vertical. The corrupt forms of most of the letters suggest that the highly sophisticated style of the Ikshvākus was hardly known to the writer of these plates.

c15.s9.t1.2

¹ *Indian Archaeology, A Review*, 1955–6, p. 23.

c15.s9.t1.3

² See above, p. 73.

c15.s9.t1.4

*(b) The inscriptions of the Śālaṅkāyanas and the Vishṇukuṇḍins*

c15.s9.t1.5

These inscriptions fall into two groups: (i) the earlier inscriptions of the fourth to sixth centuries A.D., showing an evolution of the local forms in Andhra from the late Sātavāhana records; and (ii) the inscriptions of the seventh century A.D., which are clearly influenced by the Chālukyan style of this period.

c15.s9.t1.6

(i) Pl. XVII. 2 is taken from the Narsapur plates of Vijaya Devavarman and the Kollair plates of Nandivarman, both belonging to the second half of the fourth century A.D. Pl. XVII. 3 is derived from the Kanteru plates of Vijaya Skandavarman (fifth century A.D.), and Pl. XVII. 4 is from the Ipur plates of Mādhavavarman I (late sixth century A.D.). Not much evolution is seen in the letters, and the influence of the stylus is not clearly marked. The head-mark is negligible except in no. 4, which has notched lines. The tendency in this region is to have short curves at the verticals, as may be seen in *ka*, *ra*, the vertical type of the medial *u*, and optionally in *a*, though broad round curves as an influence from the Chālukyan writing appear optionally in *a*, but usually in *la* and the medial *ṛi*. The features distinguishing this from the Chālukyan style are seen in the circle type of the medial *i* and *ī*, the Deccani type of *ta* with a loop at the left side, both *ṇa* and *na* with their bases bent, the latter sometimes of the looped variety, *tha* with a dot or a short mark within a rough quadrangular form, the tripartite *ya* with its left vertical never uniformly given, and the triangular form of *va*. Other medial vowels follow the common southern pattern. It is important to note that the medial *ā* is sometimes given in the middle of the letters in *thā*, *dhā*, *bā*, *mā*, and similarly the medials *e*, *o* and *ai* hang down from the middle of the letters in *je*, *ṇe*, *dhai*, *bo*, *me*, *mo*, *yo* and *le*. The initial *e* has a stem. *Ka* has the curved mid-bar. *Kha* bends its vertical sharply to the left. *Ga* and *śa* have equal arms and rounded tops, and the former in nos. 3 and 4 has its left arm slightly curved inwards. *Gha* has a straight base with its left vertical bent in the middle. *Cha* is of the broad type, and *ja* has three arms attached to a vertical. Both *ḍa* and *da* have rounded backs, with the lower horizontal of *ḍa* slightly prolonged. The left sides of *pa*, *pha*, *ba*, and *ha* are slightly bent. *Bha* is of the broad type, and *ma* has its lower loop slightly tilted to the left. *Ṅa* in the conjuncts has its vertical bent. The *upadhmānīya* has a cross within an oval. No cursive forms are seen in the conjuncts. The vowelless *m* is indicated by placing a short *ma* at the right bottom of the letters, as in *rttam*. The main evolution in the letters of the different centuries is seen in the extension of the curves, and the prolongation of the verticals in the medials *ā*, *e*, *o* and *ai*.

c15.s9.t1.7

(ii) Pl. XVII. 5 is taken from the Ramatirtham plates of Indravarman and the Chikkula plates of Vikramendravarman II, both of the seventh century a.d. These show the definite influence of late Chālukyan writing. They have thick head-marks, their curves are extended farther, and some of the typical Chālukyan forms are adopted. Among these last the most notable are the medial *ī* with a broad curve having a curled end, *ka* with its lower vertical doubled, *ṇa* and *na* with angular hooks on the left, the curved type of the Chālukyan *ta*, *ya* with a loop in place of the left vertical, *va* with its quadrangular loop attached to a vertical on the right, and the Chālukyan forms of *ṟa* and *ḷa*. The influence of stylus writing is also seen in the frequency of the notches in the horizontal lines. But along with these Chālukyan features the local forms are also preserved. We have *a* of both the types, with broad and short curves; *ka* also has a short curve along with the double-vertical variety; *kha* optionally has a looped base; and *ta* also is optionally of the looped variety of the Andhra region. Of the other letters the initial *i* has a curved roof, *e* shows a stem, both *ga* and *śa* have their left arms curved inwards, *cha* is of the broad type, and round backs are seen in *ṭa*, *ḍa*, *ḍha* and *da*. A remarkable form among the conjuncts is that of *mme*, in which the lower *ma* lies horizontally.

c15.s9.t1.8

*(c) The inscriptions of the Gaṅgas*

c15.s9.t1.9

Pl. XVII. 6 is taken from the Siddhantam plates of Devendravarman, dated in the (Gaṅga) year 195 (a.d. 694), and the Alamanda plates of Anantavarman, dated in the (Gaṅga) year 304 (a.d. 803). These inscriptions show a fundamental difference from the styles of writing seen in the earlier groups. Their square-headed letters¹ betray some influence from the Northern Deccan, and these inscriptions reveal borrowings from the proto-Nāgarī and proto-Kannadi scripts of the Rāshṭrakūṭas. The proto-Nāgarī influence is seen in the form of the initial *i* with two dots above and a line below, the looped form of *ka*, the open-mouthed *ṇa* or its cursive form, and *ta* with its arms meeting in a top curve. The proto-Kannadi influence is seen in the doubled vertical of *ra* and of the vertical-type of the medial *u*, *la* with its upper curl extended downwards to form an almost complete circle and its left limb reduced to a small hook, and *tha* in the conjunct with a small inner circle. As in the proto-Kannaḍi style the line head-mark is also found here. Influence may also be detected in the peculiar form of *a* which has the lower half of its right vertical double and the left hook of which is optionally assimilated to the loop on this side. The initial *u* is a semi-circle. *Kha* has a broad triangular base. The left arms of both *ga* and *śa* are curved inwards. *Cha* is of the foottype without the stem. *Chha* has a triangular loop on the left. *Ja* optionally loses the third upper arm. *Na* is of the looped variety. The influence of stylus writing is clearly marked in the notches seen in *pa*, *pha*, *bha*, *ma*, *ya*, *va*, *ṣha* and *ha*. *Mā* shows a unique form with its top mouth closed by the horizontal stroke of the medial *ā*.

c15.s9.t1.10

¹ See above, p. 179.

(d) The Inscriptions of the Eastern Chāḷukyas

c15.s9.t2.1

The Eastern Chāḷukyas introduced the Chāḷukyan style of writing in this region. As seen in the earlier inscriptions, the style is a complete adoption except for the form of the letter *kha*, which has here a looped base, and an evolved form of *ṛa*, which in one case has the inner cross but usually shows a horizontal line only. The inscriptions fall into two groups:

c15.s9.t2.2

(i) Pl. XVII. 7 and 8 illustrate the style of the first half of the seventh century A.D., and Pl. XVII. 9 gives the style of the later half of that century. The difference between the two styles is well marked. In the later style the curves are extended farther, the initial *i* develops a tail in its double roof, the medial vowels prolong their vertical ticks downwards, and the lower verticals in *ka* and *ra* are doubled. There is hardly any difference in the form of the letters used in the inscriptions of the Eastern and the Western Chāḷukyas at this time, except in the two letters mentioned above. Hence the description need not be repeated.

c15.s9.t2.3

(ii) Pl. XVII. 10 represents the style of the eighth century A.D. Some of the letters are identical with those seen in the Rāshtrakūṭa inscriptions, e.g. the initial *a* with its emphasis on the round curve of its right vertical and the reduction of the left limb into a simple line, and *ka* with its upper vertical given separately from the lower doubled lines. But one also notices in this style a tendency to straight lines, e.g. in the roof of the initial *i*, which shows a short tail on the right, and has a flat top; the initial *u* is also angular, and this angularity is also emphasized in the forms of *cha*, *ṭa*, *ṇa*, *da*, *na*, *pa* and *bha*. The initial *e* has a short stem, and *o* has a curl at the end of the upper horizontal. The loop of *kha* opens upwards. *Ga* is of the horseshoe type with its left arm curved inwards. *Gha* has a wavy base and its left vertical is bent. *Chha* is very crudely drawn with its two loops hardly touching each other. *Ba* has its left arm deeply curved inwards. The most important distinction from the Rāshṭrakūṭa form is in the case of *la*, which here does not extend its upper curl into a circle and of which the left limb preserves its full hook form. *R̤a* has a mid-line on which rest two upper loops, while *ḷa* shows a variation in the double-looped form.

(e) The Inscriptions of the Ānandas

c15.s9.t3.1

Two copper plates of the rulers of this dynasty, illustrated here, are in two different styles. Pl. XVII. 11, taken from the Gorantla plates of Attivarman, recalls the style known from the stone inscriptions of the later Pallavas of Kāñchī, datable from the seventh century A.D. onwards. Pl. XVII. 12, taken from the Mattepad plate of Dāmodaravarman, illustrates a local Andhra style as evolved further from the inscriptions of the Vishṇukuṇḍins but not influenced by Chālukya writing. Both inscriptions belong to the seventh century A.D. There is no connexion at all between the writing of these inscriptions and the Ikshvāku style, as has been maintained by several scholars.¹ The medial vowels are all of the seventh century A.D. as seen in the Pallava records (Fig. 16). The double ruled lines in the verticals of *a*, *ka*, *ra*, and the vertical-type of the medial *u*, are clearly inspired by the style of the Pallava stone inscriptions. There are other identical forms in no. 11: the optional type of *ja*, which has a left curl in place of the upper right arm, *ṇa* and *na* with closed loops at their bases, the looped type of *ta*, *la* with a flat top to its extended curl, *śa* with both its arms curved inwards and a short mark within in place of the full length mid-line, and *sha* having its right vertical slightly curved inwards instead of the mid-line. Finally, *ña* used in the conjunct *jña* has a loop on the left. The other inscription, no. 12, exhibits stylistic differences. The curves in the verticals of *a*, *ka*, *ra*, and the vertical type of the medial *u* are no doubt extended but do not show any tendency to being ruled. The foot type of *e*, used here, opens its mouth upwards. *Kha* has no loop at its base. *Ja* has three arms attached to a vertical. *Ṇa* and *na* have their bases bent, and *ta* is of the Deccani style with a curved hook on the right of a vertical. The left arms of *pa*, *pha*, *ba*, *sha* and *ha* are bent. *Ya* has a short curl in place of the third left vertical. *La* does not extend its upper curl too far. Both *śa* and *sha* have full length mid-lines. Notches are seen in the base lines of *e*, *cha*, *da*, *dha*, *pa*, *pha*, *ma*, *ya*, *la*, *va*, *sha* and *ha*.

c15.s9.t3.2

¹ See D. C. Sircar, *Successors of the Sātavāhanas*, Calcutta, 1939, p. 56.

c15.s9.t3.3

On the whole these inscriptions tell a disturbed story of the writing styles in this region. The incursions of the Chālukyas shattered the local developments and enforced their own style. However, it has been possible to trace the link between the inscriptions of the Śālaṅkāyanas, the Vishṇukuṇḍins, and the Ānandas, the last for the first time placed in their true chronological perspective.

c15.s9.t3.4.1

The term ‘South India’ has been used here to denote the area south of the Kistna Valley. It is not a homogeneous region. Sufficient materials are not available from its different parts to give a coherent picture of the styles of writing in use between the fourth and eighth centuries A.D. The main inscriptions are those of the Pallavas, which give neither a continuous genealogy nor a connected development of the palaeography. Various historical factors are responsible for this chaotic development in the region. The coming of the Pallavas itself marks a definite change. It appears that they uprooted the Bṛihatphalāyanas in the Guntur region, as the Mayidavolu plates of Śivaskandavarman are in the same style as the Kondamudi plates of Jayavamma, and traces of this style are also seen in the subsequent record found at Hirahadagalli in the Bellary district. But the style of the first record, as I have already remarked in the case of the Kondamudi plates,¹ is a retrogression from the symmetrical writing of the Ikshvākus. The second record recalls the long verticals of the Ikshvāku writing but the hand is still corrupt. However, the connexion of the Pallavas with the Ikshvākus is established by the newly discovered inscription (discussed below) of the Pallava Siṁhavarman, which copies the degenerate style of the Ikshvāku writing. The next in the series, the British Museum plate, is in the same bad hand, but shows new types of medial vowels and also some new forms.

c15.s9.t3.4.2

Then there is a break. We have only a fragmentary record, the Darsi plate, to fill this gap. Here the writing has faint traces of thick head-marks and the letters are well formed. This tendency is very clear in the first Omgodu grant¹ of Vijaya Skandavarman, but the published lithograph of the plate is so bad that no certain details can be derived from it. Then we come to the inscriptions of Siṁhavarman. We can clearly distinguish three styles in them: (i) the writing seen in the Magdur and Pikira grants, which has thick head-marks and the lower verticals of which have long curves; (ii) the style seen in the Uruvupalli and Vilavati plates, which has hollow or solid square head-marks and shows a preference for angularity, especially noticeable in the lower curves of the verticals; and (iii) the altogether different script of the second Omgodu grant, which is in the proto-Kannadi writing of the seventh to eighth century a.d. The first two styles are easily derivable from the square-headed letters of the Madharas of Guntur region, which have been assigned to the late fourth and early fifth century a.d.² Later still we find two styles persisting in the Pallava records. (iii) is seen in the Chura (sometimes called Narasaraopet) plate of Vijaya Vishṇugopavarman and in the Udayandiram plates of Nandivarman.

c15.s9.t3.4.3

(ii) henceforward drops its square head-marks, but its other features are continued and further developed in the stone inscriptions of Kāñchī, Mamallapuram and Trichinopoly, and also in the copper plates of later Pallava kings. The proto-Kannadi script is an extraneous writing and its presence here is inexplicable. (ii) also leads on to the development of the Grantha and Tamil characters. This palaeographical analysis does not fit in with the genealogical tables built up by the historians who have tried to reconcile the long genealogies given in the later records of the Pallavas with the fragmentary information contained in the earlier plates. The main difficulty is raised by the plates in proto-Kannadi script. Krishnasastri was the first to suggest a solution. He believed that the Omgodu grant no. 2 ‘must have been a copy of a grant of the 5th–6th century a.d., put into writing in the 7th century’.³ D. C. Sircar followed in his footsteps and similarly asked: ‘What is the objection if we think that the Narasaraopet grant was also an early inscription likewise copied about the same time?'¹ If we follow this argument, we have to say the same thing about the Udayandiram plates of Nandivarman, but this question has somehow been missed by D. C. Sircar.² It must be pointed out that the theory of the official adoption of the proto-Kannaḍi style in this region in the early eighth century a.d.

c15.s9.t3.4.4

seems rather doubtful, especially when we know that this region had its own style of writing well perfected by this time. One cannot escape the suspicion that the plates are the forgeries of persons unacquainted with the official script of the region. The same remark applies to the Chendlur plates,³ though this last record tries to copy the local style in a very bad hand. If this suspicion is true, the genealogy given in these plates need not be accepted. However, it is not my purpose to try to build up any genealogical table. I shall only describe the palaeography in the chronological groups as analysed above.

c15.s9.t3.5

¹ See above, p. 187.

c15.s9.t3.6

¹ *Epigraphia Indica*, xv. 251–2.

c15.s9.t3.7

² See above, p. 177.

c15.s9.t3.8

³ *Epigraphia Indica*, xv. 252.

c15.s9.t3.9

¹ Sircar, *Successors of the Sātavāhanas*, Calcutta, 1939, p. 173.

c15.s9.t3.10

² Ibid., pp. 177-9.

c15.s9.t3.11

³ *Epigraphia Indica*, viii. 234-5.

c15.s9.t3.12

(*a*) The earliest inscription⁴ of the Pallava dynasty belongs to Siṁhavarman (not illustrated). The writing seen here does not agree with the styles known from the other inscriptions of the Pallavas. As pointed out by D. C. Sircar, it resembles the Ikshvāku writing. But one marked difference is that the present inscription does not show the symmetrical writing of the Ikshvākus. It is possible to point to its counterpart in the second series of the Ikshvāku records,⁵ where the symmetry is not observed. But other differences are also marked. The head-mark in this inscription is more developed than in the Ikshvāku records. Though the lower verticals of *a*, *ka* and *ra* are prolonged, the medial *i* and *ī* do not have the tall signs. On the other hand, the medial *ī*, as applied to *sī*, is turned to the right with an initial prominence. The loop in the forms of *ṇa* and *na* is optionally omitted. *Ya* optionally has a flat base. However, the style is definitely derived from the degenerate writing of the Ikshvākus. It may be dated in the first half of the fourth century a.d.

c15.s9.t3.13

⁴ Ibid. xxxii, no. 8, pp. 89-90.

c15.s9.t3.14

⁵ See above, p. 99.

c15.s9.t3.15.1

(*b*) Pl. XVIII. 1 is taken from the Siroda (Goa) plates of Devarāja, dated in his 12th regnal year, and Pl. XVIII. 2 is derived from the Mayidavolu plates of Śivaskandavarman. Both these plates are described here for the sake of comparison, as the Siroda plates have been referred to the same date as that of Mayidavolu on the ground that they are written in the same style. But a comparison of the writings as given in the plates will show that there is hardly any similarity between the two. Of the medial vowels the Siroda plates have the circle type of *i* and *ī*, but in the Mayidavolu plates both are left curves, the medial *ī* having an initial prominence in addition; the medial *o* and *ā* in the former have sometimes long verticals on the right, e.g. in *chā*, *thā*, *bhā*, *mo*, *yo* and *yā*, but not in the latter plates. In the Mayidavolu plates the curved tips are very important and the long verticals are seen in *a*, *ka*, *ra*, and the vertical type of the medial *u*. But in the Siroda plates the tendency is to reduce the curves, and no long verticals are seen—features which compare well with the Gurjara records. Only two initial vowels are used in the Siroda plates: in the initial *ā* the hook at the left limb is not prominent, and *u* is almost an arc of a circle. In the Mayidavolu plates the left hook of the initial *a* hangs separately, the initial *u* has a stem with its lower part curved, and the initial *e* is of the same type as in the Kondamudi plates.

c15.s9.t3.15.2

In the Siroda plates *ka* has a short vertical with a cross-bar; *ga* optionally curves its left limb upwards; *gha* is tripartite, with no bending at the verticals; *cha* is of the foot type; *ja* has either three arms or two curves joined together, as in the Gurjara records; *ṇa* has its base bent, but *na* is looped; *ta* has its two arms meeting upwards in a curve; *tha* and *dha* have notches at their lower sides, while the first in the conjunct *sthā* has a circle within it; *da* is round-backed; *pa* has lost its base line; *ba* is almost rectangular; *bha* is angular but without the stem; *ma* has a peculiar form resembling the number 8; *ya* is tripartite; *ra* is vertical; *la* in one case is of the Chālukyan type, with its upper curl rounded, and in the other has a short right vertical; *va* is either circular or triangular; *sha* is angular, with a midline; *sa* has a hook on the left; and the base of *ha* is rounded. Conjuncts show cursive forms as in *ṇṇi* and *shpa*. The *upadhmānīya* is a rough oval with a short mid-line. These forms do not show a single resemblance to those of the Mayidavolu plates. On the other hand, there is some connexion with the Gurjara and Chālukyan characters. The writing may be regarded as a regional script of Goa, derived mainly from the Gurjara style with influence from that of the Chālukyas. However, it may be pointed out that it bears close resemblance to the sixth century style of writing in Ceylon¹ (Pl. XIX. 11).

c15.s9.t3.15.3

It may be dated to the sixth century A.D. On the other hand, the letter-forms of the Mayidavolu plates agree with those of the Kondamudi plates with only this difference, that the forms of the latter do not emphasize the curved tips or show the long verticals. Exact correspondence is seen in the forms of *ke*, *kha*, *ga*, *chha*, the corrupt *ja* (optional in the Mayidavolu plates), *ṭha*, *ḍa*, *da*, *na*, *ṇa*, the Deccani form of *ta* (though the Mayidavolu plates have also the looped *ta*), *ma*, *la*, *sa* and *ha*. Similarly, conjuncts are rare in both, the only one of frequent occurrence being *mha* and *nha*. Of the different forms the Mayidavolu plates have a better type of the initial *a*, the foot type of *cha*, the three-armed type of *ja* (optional), the rare *ña* with its curved tip, *ṭa* with a straight back, *tha* with an inner dot, *pa* and *ba* with their left limbs bent, *bha* of the broad type, the tripartite *ya* with a straight base and its left arm slightly curled, and the triangular type of *va*. This difference is mainly because the Mayidavolu plates exhibit a slightly better hand than the Kondamudi plates.

c15.s9.t3.16

¹ See below, p. 223.

c15.s9.t3.17.1

(*c*) Pl. XVIII. 3 is taken from the Hirahadagalli inscription of Śivaskandavarman. The writing shows the same bad hand as in the Mayidavolu inscription, though the corrupt forms of *ja*, *ma* and *sa* are not found here. On the other hand, we find here some new forms. The long verticals, the curved tips, and the same type of the medial vowels, as seen in the Mayidavolu plates, are found here. Of special interest are the following features: the left stroke in *jo* is marked at the middle of the letter; the stroke of medial *ā* in *ṇā* is attached to the right bottom; the medial *e* in *be* and the medial *o* in *mo* are given in the middle of the letters; and in *lo* the medial *o* shows the cursive type of the south. The curve of the medial *u* is turned to the left in *khu*, *ḍu*, *du*, *nu* and *pu*, but it is turned to the right in *gu*, *tu* and *bhu*, and optionally in *ku*. The form of *ke* with its mid-bar slanting downwards to the left is the same in the Kondamudi, Mayidavolu, and Hirahadagalli plates. The initial *a* has two types—one with the hook on the left, while the second has on this side a loop with its mouth open. This second type appears later in the Grantha writing, as seen in the inscriptions of Annamalai and Mamallapuram. *I* is of the three-dot type with one dot above. *U* is of the late Śātavāhana form with its base gently turned upwards. *E* is of the triangular form with its two lower corners rounded. It has no upper stem.

c15.s9.t3.17.2

The cross-bar of *ka* has curled ends, as also in the Mayidavolu plates—a feature which persisted in this region and was widely adopted in the later Grantha writing. *Kha* has a quadrangular looped base. *Ga* has equal arms and a rounded top, and one optional form has the lower ends of the arms curved inwards. The left arms of *ga*, *pa*, *pha*, *ba*, *va* and *ha* are bent. *Cha* is of the foot type. *Ja* has three arms on the right. *Ṭa* has a pointed back. *Ṭha* has its lower side straight. Both *ḍa* and *da* have rounded backs, as in the Mayidavolu plates. *Ṇa* is of the open-mouthed type and shows the same method of applying the medial *ā* as is seen in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta and the Susunia rock inscription of Chandravarman.¹ This is the earliest appearance of this type in the whole of the south and the only example of its use in this region. Its adoption is explained by the fact that in the Kondamudi and Mayidavolu plates we do not find a separate sign for *ṇa* and *na* distinct from that of *da* and *ḍa*. If this letter is crucial, the date of this inscription cannot be earlier than that of the Allahabad pillar inscription. *Ta* is of the Deccani type. *Tha* has a dot within an oblong form. *Dha* is a rough quadrangle, but also has the late Śātavāhana form with an arc added to the sides of a triangle. The base of *na* is bent. The optional form of *ba* has its left arm deeply curved inwards. *Bha* is of the broad type.

c15.s9.t3.17.3

The loop of *ma* is slightly tilted to the left. *Ya* is of the tripartite form, with its third left arm sometimes curled inwards and sometimes almost dropped. *Ra* optionally has the serpentine vertical. *La* has its right vertical curved to the left. *Va* is either triangular or round. *Sa* has a hook on the left. The vowelless consonant, as *m* in *ddham*, is placed at the right bottom. In the conjuncts the tendency is to write the second letters with a cursive hand, but no cursive forms are developed, except the optional form of *tha* which draws the end of the circle inwards instead of giving the dot separately within the circle. This inscription has been placed by most palaeographers in the first quarter of the fourth century a.d. But the forms of the open-mouthed *a*, the foot type of *e*, the quadrangular looped base of *kha*, the open-mouthed *ṇa* with the medial *ā* attached to its right bottom, the deeply curved left arm of *ba*, and the cursive medial *o* in *lo* raise doubts as to the validity of this dating. If these forms are at all indicative, its date should be in the second half of the fourth century a.d.—a view which was expressed long ago by Fleet.²

c15.s9.t3.18

¹ See above, p. 101.

c15.s9.t3.19

² *Bombay Gazetteer*, vol. I. II, p. 319.

c15.s9.t3.20

(*d*) Pl. XVIII. 4 is taken from the British Museum plate of Vijaya Skandavarman. The writing in this inscription is still poor, but remarkable developments are seen in the forms of the letters. No trace of the special forms of letters used in the two earlier plates of the Pallavas is found here. The characteristic long verticals of the old records are also absent. On the other hand, we find a definite change in the use of the new type of medial vowels. The circle type of the medial *i* and *ī* is seen for the first time, though the old form of the medial *ī* persists in *vī*. The medial *e*, as applied to *chhe*, *ṭe* and *de*, has a curled end, the vertical of the medial *ā* in *chā* is extended, and the left stroke of the medial *ū* in *lū* also curves downwards. We may also note the new forms of the letters—the additional stroke of the initial *ā* is given with the same sweep of the hand as the curving of the right vertical; both *ṇa* and *na* have their bases bent, while the two upper horizontal curves of *ṇa* have curled ends. The Deccani type of *ta* is rarely used; we find either the looped *ta* or the form in which the two arms meet upwards in a curve. The dot of *tha* is now replaced by drawing in the end of the circle, as is the practice in Central India. Most unusual is the occurrence of the bipartite *ya* (only once), and this may be a chance development from the tripartite form with a loop at the left arm generally used in this inscription. Hence the single occurrence of the bipartite *ya* should not be taken as of great chronological significance. Two other letters adopted from Northern Deccan are *ḷa* with a form like that of double *ṭṭa*, and *la* with its upper curl extended around the bottom of the letter. Of the remaining forms *kha* does not have a loop at the base but a horizontal line, the lower ends of *ga* are slightly curved inwards, *cha* is of the broad type with a stem, but *chha* has no stem at all, and *ja* optionally shows the double curve of the Gujarat region. There is no change in the remaining letters. These changes suggest the arrival of new traditions from Central India, and if this is the case the dating of this inscription should fall in the beginning of the fifth century A.D. Some of these forms are also seen in the Kadamba inscriptions of the fifth century A.D.

c15.s9.t3.21

(*e*) Pl. XVIII. 5 is derived from the fragmentary Darsi plate issued by a great grandson of Virakūrcha. The change in the writing of this inscription again is remarkable. For the first time we see faint traces of thick head-marks, recalling the square head-marks of the Northern Deccan. The curvature in the lower ends of the verticals of *ka*, *ra*, the vertical type of the medial *u*, and the subscript *ya* is extended upwards in such a way that the lines are almost doubled, recalling a similar practice in the early Chālukyan inscriptions. The medial vowels also show some changes. The circle type of the medial *i* is used as in (*d*) above; the medial *ī* has a broad curve to the left with a curled end, as is known only from the Chālukyan inscriptions. From the same source we can derive the curved type of the medial *au* as applied to *pau*. The features which bear close similarity to early Chālukyan forms are: *ga* with its left arm curved inwards; *ja* with its upper and lower arms waved; both *ṇa* and *na* having an angular hook attached to the left bottom of a sloping vertical; *dha* with its upper end narrowed and its base having a notch; the frequency of notches seen in the forms of *pa*, *ba*, *ma*, *va* and *ha*; *ba* with a break in the curved left arm; *ma* with its loop tilted to the left; *la* with its upper curl extended downwards; *va* with a quadrangular loop attached to the right vertical (optionally); and *śa* with its left arm curved inwards. But there are three forms different from the Chālukyan—here we have a local form of the looped *ta*, and *śa* and *sha* similarly are of local forms with a short mid-bar. With so many similarities to the early Chālukyan forms, this inscription should be dated in the early sixth century a.d.

c15.s9.t3.22

(*f*) To the same century belongs the style of writing seen in the inscriptions of Siṁhavarman: (i) Pl. XVIII. 6 is derived from the Magdur and Pikira plates of this ruler, and (ii) Pl. XV. 10 is taken mainly from his Vilavati plates, but his Uruvupalli grant has also been consulted. Both these groups of inscriptions come after (*e*) above, and we shall see some links between the forms of these groups and those of (*e*). But there is one fundamental difference between (*e*) and (*f*): while the forms of (*e*) are derivable from those of the early Chālukyan records, those of (*f*) can be traced to the inscriptions of the Madharas which have been assigned above to the fifth century a.d.; but these Pallava inscriptions are later developments from those of the Madharas, as many new tendencies suggest. However, in general the forms are connected with those seen in the Andhra region, though here the local features are much more clear. These local features mark a gradual development through the British Museum plate, the Darsi record, and the inscriptions of the present group. There is one more distinction between (*e*) and (*f*): the former has very faint traces of thick headlines, but in the latter the head-marks are very prominent. (i) has thick head-lines, and (ii) has square head-marks—both solid and hollow varieties indiscriminately used. There is a stylistic difference between (i) and (ii), the former having rounded curves, and the latter preferring angular features, the lines being almost doubled in *a*, *ka*, *ra*, and the vertical-type of the medial *u*. It seems that the square shape of the head-marks had an important influence on the angular forms of the letters, and the result was the development of a distinct local variety, as is clearly evident from the writing in the Vilavati plates. These angular features are not the same as those observed in the later Vākāṭaka records or in the inscriptions of the Śarabhapura kings.¹ It is this angular variety which becomes distinctive of the area, and is easily distinguishable from the broad curves of the proto-Kannadi script or those of the Andhra region. This variety persists in the stone inscriptions and the later copper plates.

c15.s9.t3.23

¹ See above, p. 176.

c15.s9.t3.24

The medial vowels used in these inscriptions suggest a borrowing from the Andhra region. The most important are the circle type of the medial *i* and *ī*, though the broad curve with a curly end for the medial *ī* is also used optionally. For the first time in this region we see the broad curve to the right for the medial *u* and *ū*, as applied in *gu*, *bhu* and *bhū*. *Au* in *pau* is the curved type of the south. The medials *ā*, *e* and *o* sometimes have long verticals as in *ye* and *shā*. The lower stroke of the medial *ai* is generally given at the left bottom as in *thai*. The initial *a* has a hook on the left. *U* has a short stem above the curved form. *E* roughly corresponds with the foot type, in one case its mouth opening upwards. The corners of *o* are rounded, while *au* has an additional curved stroke added to the form of *o*. The cross-bar of *ka* has its ends curved inwards. *Kha* has a looped base, but the arms of *ga* do not curve in. *Gha* has a straight base. *Cha* is of the broad type and has a stem. The left loop of *chha* is bigger and angular. *Ja* has three arms on the right. Both *ḍa* and *da* have rounded backs in (i). *Ṇa* and *na* have their bases bent in one type. The other type of *ṇa* shows the angular hook on the left as in (*e*) above. We have also looped varieties of *na* and *ta*. Only in the Magdur plate do we find optionally used the curved type of the Chālukyan *ta*. *Tha* has a short mark within a quadrangular form. Another variety is heart-shaped, both in *tha* and *dha*. A short mid-stroke is given to *śa* and *sha*. The left arms of *pa*, *sha*, *pha*, *ba* and *ha* are bent, and notches can be seen in their lower arms. *Bha* is of the broad type. The lower loop of *ma* is generally not tilted to the left. *Va* is either triangular, or has a broad loop attached to the right vertical. A new type of *ḷa* seen in (ii) resembles the form of *pha* with a tail hanging down. The *upa-dhmānīya* in (ii) shows a cross within an oval. No cursive forms are seen in the conjuncts. These forms suggest that the inscriptions should be dated in the middle of the sixth century A.D. (iii) There is another series of inscriptions which are unmistakably derived from the proto-Kannadi forms of the later Chālukya and early Rāshtrakūṭa records. Pl. XVIII. 7 is taken from Omgodu no. 2 grant of Siṁhavarman (sometimes spelt Siṅghavarman) and the Chura plates of Vijaya Vishṇugopavarman. Pl. XVIII. 8 is taken from the Udayandiram plates of Nandivarman. Both these groups exhibit similar features and they should be dated in the end of the seventh or the beginning of the eighth century A.D. The forms in these inscriptions are closely comparable with Pl. XVI. 11, 12, which are from the inscriptions of the Rāshtrakūṭas, and Pl. XVII. 10 from the inscriptions of the Eastern Chālukyas. The form of the letter *kha* with a small end loop suggests that this type has been taken from the western source rather than from the eastern. It is needless to describe the details once again.

c15.s9.t3.25.1

(*g*) In this group we have the last series of the stone inscriptions as developed from the writing seen in (*f*) (ii) above. One fundamental difference is that the square head-marks are no longer given, but the same type of angularity in the long curves is to be noticed. The vertical lines appear to have been ruled. Another great change is seen in the evolution of a large number of local forms. These inscriptions should be dated in the seventh to eighth century A.D. Pl. XVIII. 9 is taken from Panamalai inscription; Pl. XVIII. 10 is derived from Annamalai inscriptions of the time of Parāntaka, dated in the Kali year 3871 (A.D. 770); Pl. XVIII. 11 is taken from Trichinopoly cave inscriptions; and Pl. XVIII. 12 is taken from stone inscriptions at Mamallapuram. Some of these inscriptions show much influence of stylus writing. Though some extraneous forms, such as the open-mouthed *bha* and *sa* and the extended curl of *la*, are obviously taken from the Rāshtrakūṭa records, the importance of these inscriptions lies not in these forms, but in the development of the local varieties which directly pave the way for the later Tamil. The medial vowels are here fully developed. The medial *ā* is a long vertical on the right, but the medial *e* gently curves its vertical on the left and has its end slightly curled. In the case of *jā* the medial stroke is curved upwards. The medial *o* combines the strokes of *ā* and *e*.

c15.s9.t3.25.2

The medial *ai* has an additional curved stroke attached to the bottom of the medial *e*. The medial *au*, as seen in *pau*, combines the strokes of *ā* and *ai*. The medial *i* is of the circle type, but the medial *ī* has the broad curve with a curled end. The medial *u* and *ū* in *gu*, *bhu* and *bhū* are always broad curves to the right, but in other letters the medial *u* is of the vertical type. The medial *ṛi* is a curve to the left as in *nṛi*, or to the right as in *kṛi*. The initial *a* has a double vertical on the right, and on the left either a loop or a triangle with its mouth open. The roof of the initial *i* is notched and a tail drops from its right end to join the dot on the right. The foot type of the initial *e* now opens its mouth on the right, has a loop at the base, and curves the right arm downwards. *Ka* has a double vertical and its cross-bar has curled ends, but in the Mamallapuram inscriptions this form of the cross-bar is replaced by a loop on the left and an angular hook on the right, recalling the looped type of the proto-Nāgarī *ka*. The left arm of *ga* curls upwards in the inscriptions of Panamalai and Annamalai. The left arm of *gha* is bent, but the base is straight. *Cha* is of the foot type with its mouth optionally open at the top. The three arms of *ja* are very rarely seen.

c15.s9.t3.25.3

Generally its uppermost arm is turned to the left with a notch in the middle and a curled end, while the vertical gently bends and absorbs the middle arm, and the lowest arm optionally has a loop. *Ña*, as used in the conjuncts, maintains its proper form. *Ṇa* shows double loops at the base with its vertical divided into two lines, but the other variety with the base curved is also seen. *Ta* is of the looped type. *Tha*, *sa* and *sha* have inner short strokes. The forms of *tha* and *dha* are the same—a rough quadrangle with a notch in the lower arm. Very rarely *dha* narrows its upper end. *Da* has a rounded back. The base of *na* is curved but optionally is of a looped variety. *Pa* has rounded corners with notches at the arms. The rectangular *ba* has its upper side turned to the left with a notch in the middle and a curled end, as in *ja*, and the middle left arm slopes to the left. As a result we have a form resembling ‘z’ with an additional vertical standing at the end of the lower horizontal. Along with the open-mouthed *bha* of the north here we also find the broad type of the south. *Ma* has the usual loop at the bottom. *Ya* is of the tripartite type with its left arm sometimes curled, looped, or joined with the middle arm. *Ra* has a double vertical. *La* extends its upper curl downwards but optionally has a flat top. *Ḷa* either adopts the Rāshtrakūṭa form which replaces the lower curve by a short line, or shows a broad curve added to the form of *ṭa*.

c15.s9.t3.25.4

*Va* is triangular with its lower corners rounded and base notched. *Śa*, like *ga*, optionally curls the left arm upwards, but in other cases both the arms are curled inwards. *Sa* is either of the open-mouthed variety of the north or of the hooked type. *Ha* optionally extends its right hook downwards. In the Trichinopoly cave inscriptions *ja* in the conjunct *jña* recalls the corrupt form used in the Mayidavolu plates. *Kha*, as seen in the conjunct *khya*, opens the mouth of its looped base and its upper curve has a curled end. The other conjuncts use the full forms of the letters. These inscriptions have introduced many new forms, but at the same time maintain the link with the earlier inscriptions of this region. The northern forms, mentioned in some cases, should be traced to the proto-Nāgarī letters of the Rāshtrakūṭa inscriptions.

c15.s9.t3.26

The following list follows the arrangement of the plates illustrated.

c15.s9.t3.27

¹ \
(i) Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta, Fleet, *C.I.I.* iii. 6–10. \
(ii) Udayagiri cave inscription of Chandra Gupta II, ibid., p. 35. \
(iii) Gadhwa stone inscription of Chandra Gupta II, dated (Gupta) year 88, ibid., pp. 37–38. \
(iv) Bhita clay seal, *An. Rep. A.S.I.*, 1911–12, pl. XVII. 20. \
(v) Basarh clay seal of Dhruvasvāminī, ibid., 1903–4, p. 107. \
(vi) Sahet-Mahet seals and sealings, ibid., 1910–11, pl. XI*b*.
2. \
(i) Karamdanda inscription of Kumāra Gupta I, *Epigraphia Indica*, x. 71. \
(ii) Bhitari pillar inscription of Skanda Gupta, Fleet, *C.I.I.* iii. 53–54.
3. \
(i) Gadhwa stone inscription of Kumāra Gupta I, ibid., p. 40. \
(ii) Gadhwa stone inscription of Kumāra Gupta I, dated (Gupta) year 98, ibid., p. 41. \
(iii) Mankuwar stone image inscription of Kumāra Gupta I, dated (Gupta) year 129, ibid., pp. 46–47. \
(iv) Bihar stone pillar inscription of Skanda Gupta, ibid., pp. 49–50. \
(v) Kahaum stone pillar inscription of Skanda Gupta, dated (Gupta) year 141, ibid., p. 67.

c15.s9.t3.28

PLATE X

c15.s9.t3.29

(vi) Sarnath inscriptions of Kumāra Gupta II, *An. Rep. A.S.I.*, 1914–15, pl. LXIX.
(vii) Banaras stone pillar inscription of Budha Gupta, *J.A.S.B.*, 1949, p. 6.

c15.s9.t3.30

4. *The Maukharis of Magadha*
(i) Barabar Hill cave inscription of Anantavarman, Fleet, *C.I.I.* iii. 222–3.
(ii) Nagarjuni Hill cave inscription of Anantavarman, ibid., pp. 224–5.
(iii) Nagarjuni Hill cave inscription of Anantavarman, ibid., p. 227.

c15.s9.t3.31

5. (i) Amauna (Gaya district) plate of Mahārāja Nandana, dated (Gupta) year 232, *Epigraphia Indica*, x. 50–51.

c15.s9.t3.32

6. *The Maukharis of Kanauj*
(i) Haraha stone inscription of Īśānavarman, dated (Vikrama) year 611, *Epigraphia Indica*, xiv. 115–18.
(ii) Asirgadh copper seal of Śarvavarman, Fleet, *C.I.I.* iii. 220.
(iii) Jaunpur stone inscription of Īśvaravarman, ibid., pp. 229–30.
(iv) Two Maukhari seals from Nalanda, *Epigraphia Indica*, xxiv. 285.
(v) Sohnag terracotta seal of Avantivarman, ibid. xxvii. 64–65.

c15.s9.t3.33

7. (i) Bodhgaya inscription of Mahānāman, dated (Gupta) year 269, Fleet, *C.I.I.* iii. 276–7.
(ii) Bodhgaya image inscription of Mahānāman, ibid., p. 279.

c15.s9.t3.34

8. (i) Madhuban plate of Harshavardhana, dated (Harsha) year 25, *Epigraphia Indica*, vii. 157–8.
(ii) Banskhera plate of Harshavardhana, ibid. iv. 210–11.

c15.s9.t3.35

9. (i) Spurious Gaya copper plate of Samudra Gupta, dated (Gupta) year 9, Fleet, *C.I.I.* iii. 256–7.

c15.s9.t3.36

10. (i) Aphsad stone inscription of Ādityasena, ibid., pp. 202–5.
(ii) Shahpur stone inscription of Ādityasena, ibid., p. 210.

c15.s9.t3.37

11. (i) Deobarnark inscription of Jīvitagupta II, ibid., pp. 215–17.

c15.s9.t3.38

12. (i) Nalanda stone inscription of Yaśovarman, *Epigraphia Indica*, xx. 43–44.

c15.s9.t3.39

PLATE XI

c15.s9.t3.40

1. (i) Susunia rock inscription of Chandravarman, *Epigraphia Indica*, xiii. 133.

c15.s9.t3.41

² (i) Dhanaidaha copper plate of (Gupta) year 113, *ibid.* xvii. 347–8.
(ii) Kalaikhuri copper plate of (Gupta) year 120, *I.H.Q.*, 1943, pp. 21–24.
(iii) Damodarpur copper plate of (Gupta) year 124, *Ep. Ind.* xv. 130 ff.

c15.s9.t3.42

(iv) Damodarpur copper plate of (Gupta) year 128, *Ep. Ind.* xv. 133 ff.
(v) Baigram copper plate of (Gupta) year 128, ibid. xxi. 81 ff.
(vi) Paharpur copper plate of (Gupta) year 159, ibid. xx. 61 ff.
(vii) Damodarpur copper plate of (Gupta) year 163, ibid., xv. 135 ff. (viii) Damodarpur copper plate of the time of Budha Gupta, ibid., pp. 138 ff.

c15.s9.t3.43

3. (i) Gunaighar copper plate of Vainya Gupta, dated (Gupta) year 188, *I.H.Q.*, 1930, pp. 53–56.
(ii) Damodarpur copper plate of (Gupta) year 224, *Ep. Ind.* xv. 142–3.
(iii) Faridpur copper plate of Dharmāditya, *Indian Antiquary*, xxxix. 195 ff.
(iv) Faridpur copper plate of Dharmāditya, ibid. xxxix. 200–1.
(v) Mallasarul copper plate of Gopachandra, *Ep. Ind.* xxiii. 159–61.
(vi) Faridpur copper plate of Gopachandra, year 18, *Ind. Ant.* xxxix. 204 ff.
(vii) Ghughrahati copper plate of Samāchāradeva, *J.A.S.B.*, 1910, pp. 435–6.

c15.s9.t3.44

4. (i) Nidhanpur copper plates of Bhāskaravarman, *Ep. Ind.* xii. 73–76.
(ii) Tippera copper plate of Lokanātha, ibid. xv. 306–9.
(iii) Kailan copper plate of Śrī Dhāraṇa Rāta, *I.H.Q.*, 1947, pp. 237–41.

c15.s9.t3.45

5. (i) Ashrafpur copper plates of Devakhaḍga, *M.A.S.B.* i, no. 6, pp. 89–91.
(ii) Deulbari Image inscription of Mahādevī, *Ep. Ind.* xvii. 359.

c15.s9.t3.46

6. (i) Bodhgaya inscription of Dharmapāla, year 26, *J.A.S.B.*, 1908, p. 102.
(ii) Khalimpur copper plate of Dharmapāla, ibid., 1894, pp. 53–58.
(iii) Mungir copper plate of Devapāla, year 33, *Ep. Ind.* xviii. 304–7.
(iv) Two newly discovered copper plates of Bhavadeva from the Salban Vihāra, Mainamati, unpublished.

First 70 of 187 passages. Read on

Linked texts (24)