Indian Palaeography c17.s8: Burma

Indian Palaeography c17.s8

Language: English

Burma

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The early styles of writing in Burma can be divided into three groups: (A) The writing adopted in the Sanskrit inscriptions found mostly in Arakan. Only one bilingual text, the Sanskrit being in this character, has been found at Hmawza. This style is connected with the proto-regional scripts of Eastern India. (B) The writing adopted in the Pyu inscriptions, the origin of which is discussed below. (C) The characters employed in the Pali or Prakrit inscriptions. These are derived from the Pallava records and resemble the sixth-century writing in South-east Asia. The Kawgun cave inscription has been placed in this last group, though it shows some North Indian letter forms. We have no example of early writing in the Burmese language. The later Burmese script is not derived from these characters.

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A. Pl. XXII. 1 is taken from the Vesali Bell inscription; Pl. XXII. 2 from the Sandoway stone inscription; and Pl. XXII. 3 from the Sanskrit text of the Hmawza bilingual inscription. All these belong to one school of writing, though the first two inscriptions are very badly written. The nearest comparable material comes from Bengal, but it is difficult to connect them with any particular period of writing there. The inscriptions may be compared with Pl. XI. 2, 3, which represent the writing styles of the fifth and sixth centuries in Bengal. But this date cannot hold good for the Burmese inscriptions, which, though preserving the older forms, show acquaintance with tendencies that are hardly known before the seventh century in Bengal. Hence the date of these inscriptions is to be determined by this last factor. Some of the letters, especially *ga*, *dha*, *pa*, *ma*, *ya* and *sa* (very clear in no. 3) exhibit the *kuṭila* forms, while in nos. 1 and 2 we find the left triangle in *sa* with its mouth open. No. 2 also shows a rude copy of *bha* with its triangle opening upwards. Similarly, the form of the initial *u* in nos. 2 and 3 has the curve of the horizontal extended upwards. Again the medial vowels in no. 3 are all of the seventh century. The medial *ā* is given by a *kuṭila* short vertical on the right of the letters; for the medial *o* another top slant is given over the stroke of the medial *ā*; the medial *i* is invariably a left curve extended downwards to the bottom of the letters; the medial *ī* is a right curve but not extended down; the medial *u* is also a long curve to the left, but in the case of *bhu* it is turned upwards; the medial *e* is a top slant; and the medial *ṛi* is a hook turned to the right. The vowelless consonant is shown by a mark below the letter as in *yām*. In the other two inscriptions these medial vowels are not properly given. In no. 2 the medial *i* in *pi* is a short left curve and the medial *o* is shown by two top curved strokes, as in *yo* and *ro*.

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We may also note the older features in these letters. They are all characterized by line, or at best notched, head-marks, instead of the triangular head-marks of the seventh century. The initial *ā*, as seen in no. 3, has preserved the old form with its hook turned to the right. The initial *i* in no. 2 is indicated by two dots on the right and a vertical on the left, though in the correct old form the position of the dots and the vertical is reversed. *E* in no. 2 is triangular with its base downwards. *Ka* has its central bar curved. In no. 3 foot-marks can be seen in *ka*, *ta*, *bha* and *ra*. *Ga* in no. 2 has straight verticals. *Cha* is of the beaked type. *Ja* in no. 3 has three arms slightly bending downwards. In no. 1 the conjunct *jña* shows a developed form of the two-armed *ja*, and *ña* with only three teeth. *Ṇa* is of the open-mouthed type. Its late form is seen only in no. 3, in which the outer right hook is angular. The two lower verticals of *ta* fall from the head-mark. *Tha* is oval with a mid-line. *Da* is of the double-curved type. *Dha* in no. 2 is either a circle or a square, but in no. 3 has a developed *kuṭila* form. *Na* is of the looped type. *Bha* in nos. 1 and 3 has preserved the older angular form of the north. In nos. 1 and 2 the open-mouthed *ma* has a tail on the left. *Ya* is of the tripartite form with a loop at the third left vertical. *La* in no. 3 and *ha* in no. 2 are of the hooked type. *Va* is triangular with its base sloping towards the right. *Śa* has a mid-line, and *sa* in no. 3 has a triangular loop on the left. *Ṅa* in the conjunct *Ṅga* has a slight bend in its vertical. *Tha* in the conjunct *sthi* is laid flat. All these older features survive along with the new tendencies of the seventh century.

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The first two inscriptions are to be dated in the later half of this century, as they show the late forms of *bha* and *sa*.

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B. Blagden was the first person to decipher the Pyu inscriptions and comment on their palaeography.¹ Later, in *Epigraphia Birmanica*, vol. i, he edited the Pyu face of the Myazedi inscription, dated A.D. 1112–13 (Pl. XXII. no. 7). In *Epigraphia Indica*, vol. xii, he published the urn inscriptions from Payaggyi Pagoda near Prome (Pl. XXII. 5), which, according to his interpretation, is dated in the seventh century A.D. The one record which is definitely of the seventh century is a bilingual inscription from Hmawza, which is fairly well dated by the characters used for writing the Sanskrit words (Pl. XXII. 4). We have included one more inscription from Halingyi (Pl. XXII. 6), which appears to be slightly earlier in date. But in these inscriptions, which range from at least the seventh to the twelfth century, hardly any development in the letters is to be seen. It seems that very early a particular type of writing became associated with the Pyu language. This assumption is confirmed by the bilingual text from Hmawza, where the Pyu script shows no influence at all from the *kuṭila* character of the Sanskrit words. When was this writing derived? Blagden answered the question on the basis of the tripartite (which he calls ‘anchor-shaped’) form of the subscript *ya*, which he compared with the similar form in the Vo-Canh inscription. Accordingly, he maintained that the origin of the Pyu script cannot be dated later than the fourth century A.D. But it is hardly necessary to rely on the evidence of a single letter. We have to consider the general character of the writing and reduce it to a particular system. The other point which is relevant in this connexion is the use of different letter-forms in some inscriptions. This question will be discussed below.

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¹ *J.R.A.S.*, 1912, pp. 365–88.

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The Pyu letters are characterized by line head-marks; very rarely do we notice the notched type. The verticals of *a*, *ka*, *ra*, and the vertical type of the medial *u* are extended downwards, ending in a loop—a feature which is hardly known in India but most probably developed from the lower curves of the verticals known in the southern scripts. Though this writing does not favour waves in the lines, acquaintance with them can be inferred from the form of *ṅa*, which has its vertical waved, *ba*, which has its left side notched, and *ha* with a bend in its left arm. The medial vowels are further instructive. What has been read as medial *i* is used profusely. It is of two types: the Halingyi inscription shows a long twisted stroke turned to the left, which recalls the stroke for *e* used in the sixth- to seventh-century inscriptions of North India; the other inscriptions uniformly have a right curve, which actually stands for long *ī* in North India. This second type of stroke occurs only once in the Halingyi inscription with the consonant *va*, which has been doubtfully read as *vī*. The medial *o* is two top curves, a form common in North India. The only other medial vowel known is *u*, which in the cases of *bhu* and *gu* is a sloping stroke added to the right vertical. In the late Myazedi inscription we find the curved type of the southern *au*, which is hardly known in India before the end of the fourth century A.D. Only two initial vowels are known. The most commonly used is the South Indian *o*-type, but, as the evidence from the Hmawza bilingual text suggests, here it stands for the initial *u*. One form of *kra* was read by Blagden as *o*, but this is hardly justified. From the late Myazedi inscription we find the form of the initial *a*, which has an upper angular hook with a line below attached to the right vertical—a form known from the Kushāṇa inscriptions (Pl. VIII. 5) and the manuscript of *Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā* (Pl. XII. 10). The following consonants are known from these inscriptions:

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*ka*, *kha*, *ga*, *gha*, *ṅa*
*cha*, *chha*, *ja* . .
. . *ḍa*, *ḍha* (?) .
*ta*, *tha*, *da*, *dha*, *na*
*pa*, *pha*, *ba*, *ḅa*, *bha*, *ma*
*ya*, *ra*, *ḷa*, *va*, *sa* and *ha*

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*Kha* is of the southern type, resembling a fish-hook with a horizontal line attached to its lower right vertical. Only no. 4 has a small triangular loop in place of the horizontal line. This form is known from the Kadamba and early Western Chālukyan inscriptions. *Ga* is of the northern type with a foot-mark at the left limb and the right limb longer. *Gha* shows the simple form with three uprights. The loop of *cha* below a stem is slightly tilted to the left. *Chha* has the double loop below a stem. *Ja* has three arms to the right of a vertical, the lowest one sloping down as in the North Indian forms after the fifth century A.D. *Ḍa* is round-backed, with its tip falling downwards. There is hardly any difference between the forms of *pa* and *ḍha*, and hence one is inclined to read the latter letter as *pa*. *Ta* shows a development from the Deccani form and agrees fully with what I have called the Chālukyan *ta*. *Tha* is a dot within a circle. *Da* is either of the double-curved type of the north or of the simple form with a longer stem and short lower curve to the right. *Dha* also is of the northern oblong form. *Na* has its left loop closed. The left sides of *pa*, *pha*, *ba*, *ḅa* and *ha* are bent. The new letter *ḅa* is formed from *ba* by the addition of a mid-line. *Bha* is of the broad type. *Ma* has a looped base, but the letter is drawn in outline by first forming the outer bend of the arms and then inserting the mid-line. The lower portion of the bend is slightly tilted to the left. *Ya* is of the tripartite form but its third left arm is replaced by a loop—a form known in Malwa in the fifth century A.D. In the late Myazedi inscription we find the third left arm of *ya* with an outer curl—a form which was known in Rajasthan and Eastern India in the sixth century A.D. What has been read as *ḷa* actually adopts the hooked form of the northern *la* known between the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. Only in the late Myazedi inscription do we find the true form of *ḷa*, with a curve below the shape of *ṭa*. *Va* is an elongated loop. *Sa* has a hook on the left. In these inscriptions we also find a symbol at the beginning and at the end. Both resemble the form of *oṁ*, the first curving upwards as in the northern inscriptions, and the second downwards as in the later southern inscriptions of India. The first symbol is followed by two verticals with looped ends.

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In these letter forms we find a mixture of the northern and southern types, and we also see a deliberate attempt to adapt these forms to write the Pyu language. The latest forms copied belong to the sixth century A.D. If we leave aside the form of *a*, which may be the result of simplification, there is nothing in the other letters which can suggest a date earlier than fifth century A.D. The presence of so many northern forms as well as those of the Chālukyan type suggests that the person who adopted this writing knew these different characters. The evidence further suggests that this adaptation could hardly have been made before the sixth century A.D.

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As remarked before, in some Pyu inscriptions¹ each line of the Pyu alternates with another line of writing that is definitely in different Indian characters. As far as we have been able to read them, they do not make any sequence. It appears that the letters have been used as pure alphabets, and it is doubtful whether any medial vowel is used with the consonants, except the inherent *a*. Most of the letters repeat themselves, like *ma*, *ma*, *ma* or *ta*, *ta*, *ta* or *va*, *va*, *va*, &c., or we find them in combinations with others. It is for the epigraphists to decide whether they are to be taken as musical notes. But the letters have clearly preserved certain older forms. The most remarkable is the form of *a*, which has on the right a vertical with two curved strokes on the left—a form which is seen from Aśokan times to the 1st century a.d. in India, but which in Ceylon is preserved till the fourth century a.d. Another striking feature is the form of *ya*, which is of the ‘anchor-shaped’ type—a long vertical within a crescent below, a type also preserved in Ceylon till a late period. All other forms, such as *ta*, *na* with a curved base, the round backed *da*, *ma* with a looped base, the straight vertical of *ra*, and *va* with a circle below a stem, are later southern forms of about the fourth to fifth century a.d. All the letters are characterized by notched head-marks. These notches are of the same style as those in the main Pyu inscription. There is no doubt that these letters were written at the same time as the Pyu inscription, as the ornamental curved flourishes of the Pyu writing had been arranged in line with these letters. The Pyu inscription itself cannot be dated earlier than the seventh century a.d. It is difficult to account for the preservation of the older forms unless these were used for some definite purpose, musical or otherwise.

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¹ See *Inscriptions of Burma*, University of Rangoon, Oriental Studies Publication, no. 5, Oxford, 1956, portfolio IV, pl. CCCLVa.

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C. Pl. XII. 8 is taken from Maunggun gold plates, with which the writing of the Kyundawzu plates agrees. Here the letters are characterized by line head-marks. The lower verticals of *a*, *ka*, *ra*, and the vertical type of the medial *u* have curved ends, but the right limb of *la* is reduced in height. Waves are seen in the arms of several letters. The medial vowels and the forms of the letters agree with the sixth-century style of South-east Asia, except that in these inscriptions the ornamental extensions are not to be seen. They may be assigned to the late sixth century a.d.

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Pl. XXII. 9 is taken from the Kawgun cave inscription. The writing is very crude. Except for the open-mouthed type of *ma*, which must have been derived from the Sanskrit writing known in Burma, all other forms including the medial vowels are southern, and do not appear in South-east Asia before the sixth century a.d. The date may fall in the sixth to seventh century a.d.

Linked texts (1)

Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā Dṛṣṭāntapaṅkti — Kumāralāta, Sanskrit