The Indus Civilization c4: I. The Indus Civilization
The Indus Civilization c4
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I. The Indus Civilization
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THE remains of the ancient city of Harappa are situated in the Montgomery district of the Punjab and lie beside what was once the bed of the Ravi before that river shifted its course. On this site seals had been found from time to time during the last few decades, and it has always been suspected that these seals, most of which bore the incised figure of an animal surmounted by pictographic signs, dated from very early times; indeed, Sir Alexander Cunningham went so far as to say that the Brahmi alphabet of India was derived from this unknown script, a theory in which he is now supported by Professor Stephen Langdon.
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Harappa, at that time the only site known to contain traces of this as yet unknown Indian civilization, had, unfortunately, served until recent years not only as a brick quarry for the neighbouring towns and villages, but even as a source of railway ballast, and it was, in consequence, difficult to obtain any clear plan of the houses and other buildings. Accordingly, Sir John Marshall, then Director-General of Archæology in India, determined to discover another site where the remains of this civilization might be investigated, and eventually found it in the mounds of Mohenjo-daro, about twenty-five miles south of Larkana, in middle Sind.
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The credit of realizing the prehistoric nature of this very fine site must be given to Mr. R. D. Banerji, who came upon it in 1922 when excavating a Buddhist stupa and monastery erected somewhere between 150 and 300 A.D. These Buddhist buildings, which were of burnt brick, save for the drum of the stupa of unburnt brick, stood on the loftiest part of the site, a mound which Mr. Banerji found to be composed of the masonry and material of the much earlier culture now termed the Indus civilization. Even the burnt bricks used by the Buddhist monks dated from those early times, for they had been dug out and made to serve again some twenty-six centuries later. The reports from Mohenjo-daro were so encouraging that Sir John Marshall resolved to carry out more extensive operations, especially as the work of Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni at Harappa in 1921 had proved that that site, at any rate, was without doubt an extremely early one.
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Mr. M. S. Vats was accordingly deputed to make further investigations at Mohenjo-daro in the winter of 1923-4, and the following season fresh excavations were carried out by Mr. K. N. Dikshit. In 1925-6, an increase in the funds available for the work enabled Sir John Marshall to gather together a larger staff, including Mr. H. Hargreaves and Mr. Sana Ullah, and these more extensive operations, which were supervised by the Director in person, produced a great deal of most interesting material as well as the plans of many buildings.
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The following autumn Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and the writer together resumed excavations at other parts of the site, and from that time until financial troubles put an end, in 1931, to archæological exploration in India, the investigation remained in the latter's charge. Meanwhile, the work at Harappa proceeded on a smaller scale under Mr. M. S. Vats, while Mr. N. G. Majumdar toured Sind in search of further sites. This latter work proved most successful, for settlements of the Indus Valley civilization were discovered in many places in that province, from the modern city of Hyderabad in the south nearly to Jacobabad in the north; they form a long chain of mounds between the present course of the Indus and the foothills of the Khirthar Range in Baluchistan, and include a very large city built of unburnt brick close to the eastern bank of the river. Only a brief examination of these mounds has yielded evidence of a yet earlier culture in some of them, lying beneath the remains left by the Indus Valley people when they deserted these sites, which, it should be mentioned, were not occupied again in later times. Of this earlier culture, named the Amri culture (after the site at which it was first discovered in Sind), we know but little; but its pottery, both in its shapes and the geometric designs painted on it in two colours, differs radically from the Indus Valley ware and is clearly the work of a different people.
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In 1925, Mr. Hargreaves explored, among other sites, a large mound at Nal, in the Kalat State of Northern Baluchistan, and found there evidences of a culture whose connection with that of the Indus Valley people has yet to be determined. Two years later, Sir Aurel Stein travelled through Northern and Southern Baluchistan to ascertain whether the Indus culture had penetrated to those regions and, in the course of two arduous campaigns, was rewarded by the discovery of an abundance of contemporary and even earlier remains.
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Traces of the occupancy of the Indus Valley people have also been detected at Rupar, a small settlement on the Sutlej, not far from the Simla Hills, and there can be no doubt that other sites farther east and south of Harappa will eventually come to light; in fact, Sir John Marshall is confident that this culture spread to, even if settlements were not actually made in, the Ganges valley. As it is, Harappa lies more than four hundred miles north-east of Mohenjo-daro, while some of the sites in Southern Baluchistan, where pottery of definite Indus Valley make has been found, are as much as one hundred and fifty miles away to the west. The discovery of this pottery, however, does not establish the fact that the civilization which built Mohenjo-daro and Harappa penetrated into Baluchistan to any large extent, and further excavations in that very arid province will be necessary before this point can be settled. It is known that the Indus Valley people carried on a thriving trade with their neighbours, so it is quite possible that some of the commodities they exported were contained in pottery vessels which found their last home on the rubbish-heaps of the Balu chistan settlements. At all events, it can be assumed that the Indus Valley civilization extended south and east of Harappa; as Professor Childe has pointed out, it must have embraced an area immensely larger than either Egypt or Sumer.
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Mohenjo-daro seems to have been a smaller city than Harappa, but even so, it occupies a square mile of ground. It may have been larger than appears, for its outskirts are buried beneath the silt deposited by the River Indus. As this city is by far the better preserved of the two, it was here that the material in this book was largely gathered, but it must be borne in mind that, save for some objects of obviously later date, the finds at Harappa are practically identical with those at Mohenjo-daro. Their pottery, for example, is the same in most of the shapes and the designs painted upon it; the seal-amulets incised with animals and signs might have come from either site, and though there is a feeling that Harappa is slightly older than Mohenjo-daro, there is little definite evidence to support it. The script seems to have remained the same throughout the period of occupation of either city; it retained its pictographic character right up to the time of their abandonment.
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Owing, however, to the fact that the bed of the Indus has risen some twenty feet or more in the course of the ages, it is impossible without very costly pumping machinery to explore the earliest levels of Mohenjo-daro; in one place, where the excavations have penetrated forty feet below the surface of one of the principal mounds, the objects found were identical with those of the later levels. Below this limit digging cannot continue, although it is obvious that the walls descend to yet lower levels in the now water-logged soil, and there is no doubt that the foundations of the city are of a much earlier date than the levels it has been possible to reach; yet there is no reason to suppose that the people who originally founded Mohenjo-daro were in any marked degree more primitive than its inhabitants in later days. Both bronze and copper were found in the lowest levels excavated, a fact which is not surprising, for the former metal was in common use in Sumer some five thousand years ago. But no Neolithic material has been discovered, so it is unlikely that the site was established as early as the Stone Age. The writer also considers it a mistake to term the Indus Valley civilization, as represented at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, chalcolithic, in spite of the fact that stone implements have been unearthed in both places. These stone implements are simple ribbon-flakes of flint which served as knives (Pl. K, 3), and specimens, together with the cores from which they were struck (Pl. K, 4), have been found in most of the houses; no doubt a knife of this type was cheaper than, and perhaps just as efficient for certain purposes as, a metal one. Another kind of stone implement discovered is rectangular in cross-section and not unlike a celt in form; it was probably a ploughshare, but these are very rare.
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Mohenjo-daro, which means in Sindi "The Place of the Dead," consists of one very large mound, roughly thirteen hundred yards long from north to south, and about six hundred and seventy yards wide, with smaller mounds to the north and east. About two hundred yards away to the west rises another mound, not so large as the first, but loftier, measuring about four hundred and forty yards from north to south by three hundred and thirty yards from east to west, and having a number of hillocks on its northern, southern and north-western sides. It is uncertain whether these two large mounds were originally one, for no deep digging has as yet been done in the gap.
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between them; certainly they appear quite distinct to-day. The larger mound to the east appears to a casual beholder to be a complex system of low mounds, separated by ravines; these ravines actually represent the ancient thoroughfares, which have, in the course of time, become channels for the rains that normally fall in Sind in the summer months. One of these streets, running from east to west, is still used; in fact, it forms the main approach to the camp from Dokri railway station, some seven and a half miles away.
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The mounds of Mohenjo-daro are of a light red tint which contrasts pleasingly with the blue of the sky and the yellow-grey of the surrounding plain. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, being built almost entirely of burnt brick, have become so heavily impregnated with salt that, to this day, a shower of rain produces a mass of crystals which crumble the surfaces of newly-exposed walls. The same thing also occurs during the rare frosts that are experienced in Sind. The denudation of the mounds is slowly but surely reducing their height, while their area is correspondingly increased by the débris carried down from above. The masonry lying a foot or so beneath the surface is, of course, unaffected by disintegration, the bricks being permanently dry or damp according to their situation. When wind, rain, or the excavator’s spade removes the superficial coating of dust and exposes fresh masonry, this in turn gradually crumbles away.
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The deterioration of the bricks was not by any means so rapid when Mohenjo-daro was an inhabited city, for the walls above the soil could absorb but little salt, while the buried walls of earlier times, which served as foundations, were permanently damp. This state of things was due to the fact that the plain round the city was then well watered, and consequently the destroying action of the salt was checked, although, as we know, the buildings needed frequent repair. Since that time the climate of Sind has become gradually drier, and the deposit of surface salt has increased in proportion. It is interesting to reflect that it is only the humidity of our climate which prevents the same thing from happening in England.
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The date of the Indus civilization has now been fixed with some certainty, for certain objects found during the excavations now proceeding in Mesopotamia have been identified as of Indian workmanship, a point which will be discussed in more detail later. It is enough to say here that the upper levels of Mohenjo-daro are contemporaneous with the latter part of the Early Dynastic Period of Babylonia, *c.* 2550 B.C., while the lower levels, as far as we have descended, where the objects found are barely distinguishable from those of the latest levels, could hardly antedate the latter by more than five hundred years, and perhaps as little as three hundred. This dating of the upper levels is now accepted by most authorities, but it must be remembered that it depends on Mesopotamian chronology, and that any modification of the latter must entail a corresponding re-dating of the Indus Valley finds.
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Who were these people who built Mohenjo-daro and Harappa? No definite answer can be given at present to this question, though it is certain that they were a pre-Aryan race, for their cities were flourishing some thousand years before any Aryan-speaking people had entered India, an event which took place, according to modern ruling, about 1500 B.C. It may be that the Indus Valley people were invaders, as their settlements up till now have all been found in the north-west of India; but in any case it is probable that they were already highly civilized before they entered the country, indeed, their culture appears to have been superior to that of Elam or Sumer.
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Some scholars have pointed out that the pictographic script of the Indus Valley people, as shown on their seals (Pl. M), bears a close resemblance to the Proto-Elamite script, though it does not necessarily follow that the two peoples spoke the same language. Professors Barton and Speiser have put forward a theory that the later Babylonians included three races, the Proto-Elamites, the Sumerians, and the Semites or Akkadians, the first named being the earlier, and perhaps the original, inhabitants of Babylonia. A few Sumerian signs also resemble some of the Indus Valley characters, but as the Proto-Elamites preceded the Sumerians in the valley of the two rivers, it is possible that their script influenced that of the newcomers. Another interesting fact which should be noted in this connection is that certain skulls unearthed at Mohenjo-daro are of the same type as others of very early date discovered in Mesopotamia. It may therefore be assumed provisionally that the Proto-Elamites, the dwellers in the Indus Valley brick-built cities, and perhaps also the Sumerians, had a common ancestry; but beyond this it is not possible to go until further sites have been explored in India, Baluchistan, and the highlands of Persia and more information is forthcoming with regard to the origin and lines of development of these early peoples.
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Before leaving this subject, it must be mentioned that the only extant inscriptions of the Indus Valley people are the very brief ones found on the seals and other amulets. The script appears very much the same on all these objects, irrespective of whether they were unearthed at high or low levels of the two cities, which seems to indicate little intellectual advance on the part of the people after their arrival in India—a state of affairs caused, perhaps, by the influence of an enervating climate. A different and more cursive style of writing may, of course, have been used for ordinary occasions, though there is at present no evidence to prove this. The complete absence of any long documents suggests that the writing materials in general use were of leather, wood, or even, possibly, leaves, all of which have long since perished in the damp and salty soil.
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Whatever the origin of the Indus Valley people may have been, it is certain that they had lived for a considerable time in India. Not only do their exceptionally, well-built cities bear witness to this fact, but fresh corroboration is also to be found in various aspects of their religion, which included tree- and animal-worship and the use of phallic symbols, features which do not appear in the contemporary civilizations to the west.
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The inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa seem to have led more or less peaceful lives, instead of continually fighting for their existence; no evidence exists, as in Sumer, of the cities being repeatedly sacked and burnt. On the other hand, it must be remembered that a heavy toll has been taken of the bricks of both cities, and that city-walls and fortifications would be the first to be dismantled. A chain of small mounds immediately north of the stupa mound at Mohenjo-daro reveals traces of an exceptionally thick wall and what appears to be a gateway, but considerable work remains to be done here before the existence of fortifications can be conclusively established.
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Mr. Hargreaves and Mr. Vats in the course of their excavations at Mohenjo-daro in 1925-6 found several groups of skeletons, one comprising fourteen in a large room and another of six in a street. All the remains, some of women and young children, lay in very contorted attitudes, and the people had evidently died a violent death. Excavation in a different part of the city has since laid bare other groups of skeletons, one being of especial interest. In this group the remains of some members of the party lay at the foot of a staircase leading down from a street to a well, while one, a woman, had nearly climbed up to the level of the street, but had succumbed on the top step (Pl. D, b). It was thought at first that epidemic disease must have been responsible for these deaths, but this theory was refuted later by the discovery of two more groups, each containing the remains of at least one decapitated person.
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It now seems certain that Mohenjo-daro was attacked by enemies during one period at least of its later history. The identity of these enemies has not yet been definitely established, but the writer is strongly inclined to the view that they came from Baluchistan, which was probably, as it was up to a hundred years ago, the home of turbulent and war-like tribes. The foothills of the Khirthar Range, which lie on the borders of Baluchistan, are only some forty miles distant from the city of Mohenjo-daro, whence they are clearly visible during the cold weather, though for the greater part of the year they are veiled in a haze of dust and heat. It is probable that these tribes only became a danger to Mohenjo-daro in later years, when the decline of the city laid it open to attack, for the skeletons described above were, without exception, unearthed in the latest levels.
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In addition to the enemies by which it was beset at a later date, Mohenjo-daro, perhaps from the time of its foundation, had a more serious foe with which to contend. This was the Indus, which now flows three and a half miles east of the city, though at one time it must have been much nearer. The river when in flood is constantly shifting its bed; it begins to rise early in June, generally being at its highest in July and August. Abnormal conditions, such as the unduly rapid melting of the snow and ice at its source, the breaking of ice dams, or excessive rains in Sind or Baluchistan, may, and often do, lead to extensive floods, which in the past could not have been anticipated. The subsidence of walls and well-linings at two distinct levels of the city, one much lower than the other, proves that a flood took place early in the history of Mohenjo-daro and that another marked the beginning of its decline. On both occasions the city was deserted for a comparatively short period, but when all danger was passed it was again occupied.
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It must not be imagined, however, that Mohenjo-daro was ever flooded to any great depth. The city was, through constant rebuilding, considerably higher than the surrounding plain, so that the inhabitants were in no danger of drowning, though the water probably extended for miles, and put a stop to all commerce and trade for many months. This would be a disaster for the people, as the character of its buildings, no less than the fact that it traded with other countries, proves that their city was a thriving commercial centre. Two particularly interesting buildings should be mentioned in this connection: one is considered by the writer to have served as a large market-place, with permanent stalls arranged in long rows, and the other, at Harappa, appears to have been a gigantic storehouse.
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Little is known of the political status of Mohenjo-daro, although a large, straggling building has been discovered which may have been a palace. It is quite possible, however, that this was not a royal residence, for the city, being smaller than Harappa, may have been ruled by a governor. A governor could have carried on the administration from this building besides living in it, as there is ample accommodation for a great many people, in addition to servants’ quarters and a number of storerooms. Other large and important buildings may also have been administrative centres. It is impossible to say at present whether Harappa contained a palace or not, as the buildings have been too badly wrecked by brick-robbers to supply any evidence as to the status of the city.
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The apparent absence of temples in both cities is surprising, but there may, of course, have been small shrines scattered about whose ground-plans make them indistinguishable from ordinary houses. The Buddhist stupa and monastery, which stand, at a height of some sixty feet above the level of the surrounding plain, on the loftiest mound in the western portion of Mohenjo-daro, are, however, known to cover a building which may well have once been a temple. This structure has only been partially examined at present, as the trial trenches cut in the courtyard of the stupa were necessarily very restricted, and a full examination would be impossible unless the stupa were removed altogether. It is possible, however, to see that the building beneath the stupa is erected on an artificial hill about twenty feet high and composed of mud-brick, a material which is used for the other platforms found in various parts of the site. The purpose of these platforms was obviously to raise the buildings upon them out of the reach of floods, but the height of the one which supports the structure beneath the stupa seems to suggest that it was intended to give it prominence as well as safety. When further excavations take place on this site, the axiom that once a site becomes sacred it remains so, even to the followers of other religions who may occupy it later, will probably once more prove true.
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The excavation of another building by Sir John Marshall in 1925-6 seems to provide further evidence that the building upon which the stupa stands had some religious use. This second building lies a short way to the west of the first, and consists of a large bath (Pl. A), surrounded by a cloistered walk. There is also a group of eight small bathrooms at its northern end (Pl. B, a). It seems likely that ceremonial bathing was part of the religion of the people of Mohenjo-daro, as it still is among Hindus to-day, and that the large bath was the place where the people performed this ritual. The eight small rooms may have been used by the priests in charge of the building, a theory which appears to be substantiated by the presence of a cell above each room. A full description of this place is given in a later chapter.
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Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were both finally deserted at about the same time, the abandonment of the latter being due, apparently, to the shifting of the course of the River Ravi, upon the banks of which it once stood. It is not known what finally forced the inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro to leave it, although it is possible that a third great flood was the determining factor. Whatever the cause of its ultimate abandonment, the city lay in ruins until the first or second century A.D., when, as we have seen, a small part of it was temporarily occupied by a people of alien race and creed.