Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c8: Detailed Table of Contents

Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c8

Language: English

Detailed Table of Contents

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| 1.1 Introduction | 3 | 1.8.3 Stelae inscriptions: Arasalapuram and Indalur | 30 |
| 1.2 Earliest discoveries (1882-1903) | 4 | 1.8.4 A unique inscribed object: the Erettimalai Stone | 30 |
| 1.2.1 Mangulam: Pāṇḍiya inscriptions of the Caṅkam Age | 4 | 1.8.5 A rock-cut shrine: Pillaiyarpatti | 30 |
| 1.2.2 Edakal: Cēra inscriptions of the Caṅkam Age | 8 | 1.8.6 Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions from outside Tamil Nadu | 31 |
| 1.2.3 Kilavalavu: the earliest reference to Tondi on the east coast | 11 | 1.9 Map showing sites with Early Tamil inscriptions | 36 |
| 1.3 A flood of discoveries (1906-18) | 11 | 1.10 Distribution of Early Tamil inscriptions | 36 |
| 1.3.1 Alagarmalai: endowment by merchants from Madurai | 13 | 1.11 Distribution of Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions | 37 |
| 1.3.2 Sittannavasal: abode of a Jaina nun from Karnataka | 15 | 1.12 Catalogues of Early Tamil inscriptions | 37 |
| 1.4 Waning interest and random discoveries (1926-52) | 16 | **Annexure: Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions on pottery and other inscribed objects** | |
| 1.4.1 Pugalur: Cēra inscriptions of the Caṅkam Age | 17 | 1.13 Pottery inscriptions | 43 |
| 1.5 Revival of interest: fresh copying of inscriptions (1961-80) | 20 | 1.13.1 Introduction | 43 |
| 1.5.1 Arachalur: musical notations | 21 | 1.13.2 Arikamedu | 43 |
| 1.6 Recent discoveries (1981-2000) | 21 | 1.13.3 Uraiyur | 44 |
| 1.6.1 Jambai: inscription of Atiyaṉ Neṭumāṉ Añci | 23 | 1.13.4 Kodumanal | 44 |
| 1.6.2 Mannarkoil: the earliest reference to a *kaṭikai* (*ghaṭikā*) | 24 | 1.13.5 Alagankulam | 45 |
| 1.7 Physical features of caves with Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 25 | 1.13.6 Other excavated sites with pottery inscriptions | 47 |
| 1.8 Discovery of Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions | 25 | 1.13.7 Other explored sites with pottery inscriptions | 47 |
| 1.8.1 Cave shelters | 27 | 1.13.8 Tamil-Brāhmī pottery inscriptions from outside Tamil Nadu | 48 |
| 1.8.2 Jaina *nicītikai* inscriptions | 29 | 1.13.9 Tamil-Brāhmī pottery inscriptions from outside India | 48 |

c8.5

Detailed table of contents (contd.)

c8.6

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| 1.13.10 General characteristics of pottery inscriptions | 49 | 2.10 Renewed study of cave inscriptions: the first field expedition (1962-66) | 81 |
| 1.14 Inscribed objects with Tamil-Brāhmī legends: coins, seals and rings | 50 | 2.11 Tracings of cave inscriptions | 82 |
| 1.15 A unique inscribed touchstone from Thailand | 51 | 2.12 *Corpus of the Tamil-Brāhmī Inscriptions 1966 (1968)* | 83 |
| | | 2.13 Later publications on Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 84 |
| ## 2. Decipherment | | 2.13.1 R. Nagaswamy 1972 | 84 |
| 2.1 Introduction | 69 | 2.13.2 R. Panneerselvam 1972 | 84 |
| 2.2 Venkayya's reading | 69 | 2.13.3 M.S. Venkataswamy 1981 | 85 |
| 2.3 Krishna Sastri's readings | 70 | 2.13.4 *History of Tamil Nadu: Sangam Age (Political) 1983* | 86 |
| 2.3.1 Script | 71 | 2.14 Results of recent research on the orthography of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 86 |
| 2.3.2 Orthography | 71 | 2.14.1 Revised model of medial vowel notations | 87 |
| 2.3.3 Language | 72 | 2.14.2 Other orthographic 'peculiarities' in the cave inscriptions | 87 |
| 2.4 Breakthrough: Subrahmanya Aiyer's decipherment | 72 | 2.15 Second field expedition (1991-96) | 87 |
| 2.4.1 Phonological structure of the script | 73 | 2.15.1 Aims of the expedition | 89 |
| 2.4.2 Discovery of the special Tamil characters | 73 | 2.15.2 Special studies | 90 |
| 2.4.3 Identification of Tamil grammatical elements | 75 | 2.16 Chronology of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 90 |
| 2.4.4 Language of cave inscriptions | 75 | 2.16.1 Chronology of pottery inscriptions in Tamil-Brāhmī | 91 |
| 2.4.5 Problems with Subrahmanya Aiyer's readings | 75 | 2.16.2 Changing trends in the chronology of cave inscriptions | 92 |
| 2.4.6 Assessment of Subrahmanya Aiyer's work | 77 | 2.16.3 Chronological classification | 92 |
| 2.5 A comic interlude | 77 | 2.16.4 Reappraisal of chronological evidence | 93 |
| 2.6 Elements of Bhattiprolu orthography in cave inscriptions | 78 | 2.16.5 Palaeographic evidence | 93 |
| 2.7 The first linguistic study | 79 | 2.16.6 Orthographic evidence | 94 |
| 2.8 Discovery of the *puḷḷi* in the Tamil-Brāhmī script | 80 | | |
| 2.9 The first book on cave inscriptions | 80 | | |

c8.7

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| 2.16.7 Linguistic evidence | 95 | ## 4. Polity | |
| 2.16.8 Revised chronological scheme | 95 | 4.1 Introduction | 115 |
| 2.17 Documentation | 95 | A. STATE | |
| 2.17.1 Tracings | 95 | 4.2 The Pāṇḍiyas | 115 |
| 2.17.2 Estampages | 96 | 4.2.1 Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ | 115 |
| 2.17.3 Direct photographs | 96 | 4.2.2 Peruvaḻuti | 116 |
| ## 3. Language | | 4.2.3 Kaḷumāra Nataṉ | 116 |
| | | 4.3 The Cēras | 117 |
| 3.1 Language of cave inscriptions | 101 | 4.3.1 Irumpor̲ais of the Pugalur inscriptions | 117 |
| 3.1.1 The unsolved problem | 101 | 4.3.2 Coịns of the Irumpor̲ais | 118 |
| 3.1.2 How much Tamil? | 101 | 4.3.3 Cēra inscriptions from Kerala | 118 |
| 3.1.3 What kind of Tamil? | 102 | 4.3.4 Silver portrait coins of the Cēras | 118 |
| 3.1.4 The language of the inscriptions is Old Tamil | 103 | 4.4 The Cōḻas | 118 |
| 3.1.5 Dravidian and Indo-Aryan in the inscriptions | 103 | 4.4.1 Tittaṉ | 119 |
| | | 4.4.2 Neṭuṅkiḷḷi | 119 |
| 3.2 Dravidian element | 104 | 4.5 Chieftains | 119 |
| 3.2.1 Phonemic inventory | 104 | 4.5.1 Atiyaṉ Neṭumāṉ Añci | 119 |
| 3.2.2 Lexical items | 105 | 4.5.2 Piṭṭaṉ and Kor̲r̲antai | 120 |
| 3.2.3 Grammatical elements | 107 | 4.5.3 Kaṇimāṉ | 121 |
| 3.2.4 Influence of Old Kannada | 108 | 4.5.4 Atiṇṇaṉ Etirāṉ Cēntaṉ | 121 |
| 3.3 Indo-Aryan element | 109 | 4.5.5 Patumaṉ Kōtai | 121 |
| 3.3.1 Phonology: presence of non-Tamil sounds | 109 | 4.6 Administration | 122 |
| | | 4.6.1 King | 122 |
| 3.3.2 Orthography | 109 | 4.6.2 Heir apparent | 122 |
| 3.3.3 Vocabulary | 109 | 4.6.3 Princes | 122 |
| 3.3.4 Prakrit grammatical usages | 110 | 4.6.4 Chieftains | 122 |
| 3.3.5 Prakrit of the cave inscriptions | 111 | 4.6.5 Servant (of the king) | 122 |
| 3.3.6 Lexical items of doubtful etymology | 112 | 4.6.6 Superintendent, chief | 122 |
| | | 4.6.7 Superintendent of pearls | 123 |
| 3.3.7 Changeover from Prakrit to Sanskrit | 114 | 4.6.8 Chief of scribes | 123 |
| | | 4.6.9 Title of ministers, palace officials and merchants | 124 |
| | | 4.6.10 An honour or title bestowed by the king | 124 |

c8.8

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| 4.6.11 Titles of other important personages | 124 | 4.11 Early Jaina records with dates | 136 |
| 4.6.12 The village assembly | 125 | 4.12 Re-occupation of the cave shelters by later Jainas | 137 |
| 4.6.13 Assembly of learned persons | 125 | 4.13 Jaina contribution to Tamil | 139 |
| 4.6.14 Warfare | 126 | | |
| | | C. SOCIETY | |
| B. RELIGION | | 4.14 Introduction | 140 |
| 4.7 Earlier views on the authors of cave inscriptions | 126 | 4.15 Agriculture | 140 |
| 4.7.1 Buddhist occupation of the caves | 126 | 4.15.1 Paddy | 140 |
| 4.7.2 Ājīvika presence in the caves | 127 | 4.15.2 Ploughshare | 140 |
| 4.8 Early phase of Jainism in the Tamil country | 127 | 4.15.3 Irrigation | 140 |
| 4.8.1 Bhadrabahu-Chandragupta legend | 127 | 4.16 Trade | 141 |
| 4.8.2 Samprati and Jainism in the Tamil country | 128 | 4.16.1 The merchant guild | 141 |
| 4.9 Evidence of Jainism in Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions | 128 | 4.16.2 Merchants and traders | 141 |
| 4.9.1 Jaina character of the inscriptions: a statistical study | 128 | 4.16.3 Commodities of trade | 141 |
| 4.9.2 Jaina terminology | 129 | 4.17 Professions | 141 |
| 4.9.3 Titles of monks | 129 | 4.17.1 Mason and master mason | 141 |
| 4.9.4 Titles of nuns | 131 | 4.17.2 Producer or seller of salt | 142 |
| 4.9.5 Names of Jaina monks and nuns | 131 | 4.17.3 Carpenter | 142 |
| 4.9.6 Common religious terms in Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions | 132 | 4.17.4 Mahout or charioteer | 142 |
| 4.9.7 Jaina religious terms in Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions | 132 | 4.17.5 Goldsmith | 142 |
| 4.9.8 Cave shelters: the earliest Jaina hermitages | 133 | 4.18 Social organisation | 142 |
| 4.10 Evolution of Early Jainism in the Tamil country | 134 | 4.18.1 Clans | 142 |
| 4.10.1 Early period | 135 | 4.18.2 Kinship | 144 |
| 4.10.2 Middle period | 135 | 4.18.3 Honorifics | 144 |
| 4.10.3 Late period | 135 | 4.18.4 Attributes | 145 |
| | | 4.19 Personal names | 145 |
| | | 4.19.1 Appellative names | 145 |
| | | 4.19.2 Names based on religion | 146 |
| | | 4.19.3 Names based on Vedic and Brahmanical deities | 147 |
| | | 4.19.4 Personal names based on asterisms | 149 |
| | | 4.19.5 Personal names (based on other asterisms) on inscribed objects | 150 |
| | | 4.19.6 Personal names after *ṛishis*, *gōtras*, etc. | 151 |

c8.9

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| **4.19.7 A note on personal names derived from Indo-Aryan** | 151 | **5.4 Origin of Tamil-Brāhmī** | 173 |
| **4.20 Place names** | 151 | **5.5 Graphemic inventory of Tamil-Brāhmī** | 175 |
| **4.20.1 Countries** | 151 | **5.6 Tamil-Brāhmī and other Brāhmī variants** | 175 |
| **4.20.2 Regions outside the Tamil country** | 152 | **5.6.1 Mauryan Brāhmī** | 175 |
| **4.20.3 Territorial divisions** | 152 | **5.6.2 Southern Brāhmī** | 175 |
| **4.20.4 Cities and ports** | 153 | **5.6.3 The Bhattiprolu script** | 176 |
| **4.20.5 Other place names** | 156 | **5.6.4 Sinhala-Brāhmī** | 177 |
| **4.20.6 Common toponyms** | 156 | **5.7 Tamil-Brāhmī: general characteristics of writing** | 178 |
| **4.21 Flora and fauna** | 157 | **5.8 Direction of writing** | 179 |
| **4.21.1 Flora** | 157 | **5.9 Palaeography of Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu** | 180 |
| **4.21.2 Fauna** | 157 | **5.10 Vowels** | 181 |
| **4.22 Culture** | 158 | **5.11 Consonants** | 184 |
| **4.22.1 Art** | 158 | **5.12 Additional letters in Tamil-Brāhmī** | 187 |
| **4.22.2 Music and dance** | 158 | **5.12.1 Tamil-Brāhmī *ḷ*** | 187 |
| **4.23 Sport: cockfight** | 159 | **5.12.2 Tamil-Brāhmī *ḻ*** | 193 |
| **4.24 From orality to literacy: transition in early Tamil society** | 159 | **5.12.3 Tamil-Brāhmī *ṟ*** | 194 |
| **4.24.1 Early literacy in Tamil society** | 159 | **5.12.4 Tamil-Brāhmī *ṉ*** | 195 |
| **4.24.2 Popular versus elitist literacy** | 160 | **5.13 Medial vowel signs** | 196 |
| **4.24.3 Literacy and political independence** | 161 | **5.14 The *puḷḷi*: palaeographic aspects** | 198 |
| **4.24.4 Facilitating factors for spread of literacy** | 162 | **5.15 Tamil-Brāhmī legends on Sātavāhana coins** | 199 |
| **4.24.5 A democratic, quasi-alphabetic script** | 164 | **5.15.1 Previous studies** | 199 |
| **4.24.6 The consequences of literacy in early Tamil society** | 164 | **5.15.2 Coin-legends** | 201 |
| | | **5.15.3 Palaeography of the coin-legends on the reverse** | 202 |
| # PART TWO | | **5.15.4 Chronology of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions in the light of the coin-legends** | 203 |
| ## STUDIES IN EARLY TAMIL EPIGRAPHY | | **5.15.5 Language of the coin-legends on the reverse** | 204 |
| ### 5. Palaeography | | **5.15.6 Literal translation** | 204 |
| **5.1 Nomenclature** | 167 | | |
| **5.2 Palaeographic Charts** | 168 | | |
| **5.3 Origin of writing in Tamil: earlier theories** | 169 | | |

c8.10

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| **5.15.7 Reason for the employment of Tamil in the coin-legends** | 205 | **6.3 Orthographic conventions in Brāhmī inscriptions** | 225 |
| **5.16 Numerals** | 205 | **6.4 Evolution of alternative medial vowel notations in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions** | 226 |
| **5.17 Punctuation** | 205 | | |
| **5.18 Symbols in cave inscriptions** | 205 | **6.5 TB-I system of medial vowel notation** | 227 |
| **5.18.1 Juxtaposition of script and symbols on pottery from Kodumanal** | 206 | **6.6 Medial vowel notation in Bhattiprolu inscriptions** | 227 |
| **5.18.2 Symbols in the cave inscriptions of Sri Lanka** | 209 | **6.7 TB-II system of medial vowel notation** | 229 |
| **5.18.3 The Anaikoddai Seal** | 209 | **6.8 TB-III (*puḷḷi*) system of medial vowel notation** | 230 |
| **5.18.4 Cave symbols and signs of the Indus script** | 209 | **6.9 The *puḷḷi* in *Tolkāppiyam*** | 230 |
| **5.19 The Vaṭṭeluttu script** | 210 | **6.10 Medial vowel notations in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions: a comparative study** | 231 |
| **5.19.1 Origin of Vaṭṭeluttu** | 210 | | |
| **5.19.2 Evolution of Vaṭṭeluttu: the early phase (5-6 centuries a.d.)** | 211 | **6.11 Medial vowel notations in cave inscriptions** | 234 |
| **5.19.3 Evolution of Vaṭṭeluttu: the middle phase (7-10 centuries a.d.)** | 212 | **6.12 Medial vowel notations in pottery inscriptions** | 234 |
| **5.19.4 Evolution of Vaṭṭeluttu: the last phase (11-19 centuries a.d.)** | 212 | **6.12.1 At sites in Tamil Nadu** | 235 |
| | | **6.12.2 From sites outside Tamil Nadu** | 235 |
| **5.20 The Tamil script** | 213 | **6.13 Medial vowel notations in legends on inscribed objects** | 235 |
| **5.20.1 Emergence of the Tamil script** | 213 | **6.13.1 Coins** | 236 |
| **5.20.2 Evidence for earlier Tamil inscriptions re-examined** | 214 | **6.13.2 Seals** | 236 |
| **5.21 Evolution and chronology of South Indian scripts: a summary** | 215 | **6.13.3 Rings** | 236 |
| | | **6.14 Use of *ī* as *i* in Early Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions** | 237 |
| **6. Orthography** | | **6.15 Special usage governing *u*-vowels in Early Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions** | 237 |
| **6.1 Introduction** | 225 | | |
| **6.2 Orthographic 'peculiarities' of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions** | 225 | **6.15.1 Apparent lengthening of *u* as *ū*** | 237 |

c8.11

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| 6.15.2 Empirical rules for the special usage of *u*-vowels | 239 | 6.21.3 Loss of anusvāra *ṁ* | 246 |
| 6.16 Dual values of the letters *e* and *o* | 239 | 6.21.4 Loss of *h* | 246 |
| 6.17 Doubling of consonants in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 240 | 6.21.5 Substitution of sibilants | 246 |
| 6.17.1 Doubling of consonants in loanwords | 240 | 6.21.6 Intervocalic *-p-* > *-v-* | 247 |
| 6.17.2 Doubling of consonants in Tamil words | 241 | 6.21.7 IA non-initial *-n* > Ta. *-ṇ* | 247 |
| 6.17.3 Doubling of consonants as a grammatical feature | 242 | 6.21.8 IA final *-ā* > Ta. *-ai* | 247 |
| 6.17.4 A special orthographic convention for doubling of consonants | 242 | 6.22 Voicing of consonants: evidence of Tamil-Brāhmī orthography | 247 |
| 6.17.5 Doubled consonants in Early Tamil inscriptions | 242 | 6.22.1 Caldwell's Law | 247 |
| 6.18 Analytical writing in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 242 | 6.22.2 Absence of voiced consonants in Tamil-Brāhmī | 248 |
| 6.18.1 Consonant followed by vowel | 243 | 6.22.3 Substitution of voiced with voiceless consonants in loanwords and Prakrit inscriptions | 248 |
| 6.18.2 Vowel followed by vowel | 243 | 6.22.4 Weakened articulation of consonants | 249 |
| 6.19 Pause in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 244 | 6.22.5 Minimal presence and loss of the sibilant *s* | 249 |
| 6.19.1 Pause in lieu of doubling of consonants | 244 | 6.22.6 *Tolkāppiyam* silent on voicing | 249 |
| 6.19.2 Pause indicating that the following vowel is a diphthong | 244 | 6.22.7 Evidence of voicing only from the early medieval period | 249 |
| 6.20 Assimilation and epenthesis in loanwords | 245 | 6.22.8 Interpreting the evidence | 249 |
| 6.20.1 Where the changes had taken place in Prakrit | 245 | 6.22.9 Discussion | 250 |
| 6.20.2 Where the changes appear to have taken place in Tamil | 245 | 6.22.10 Conclusion | 251 |
| 6.21 Orthographic changes in loanwords | 245 | ## 7. Grammar | |
| 6.21.1 Loss of voicing | 245 | I. PHONOLOGY | |
| 6.21.2 Loss of aspiration | 246 | 7.1 The Tamil alphabet | 253 |
| | | 7.2 Phonemic inventory | 253 |
| | | 7.2.1 Vowels (*uyir*) | 253 |
| | | 7.2.2 Consonants (*mey*) | 253 |

c8.12

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| 7.3 Dependent sounds (*cārpeḻuttu*) | 254 | II. MORPHOPHONEMICS | |
| 7.3.1 Shortened *-i* (*kuṟṟiyal-ikaram*) | 254 | 7.9 Definition | 271 |
| 7.3.2 Shortened *-u* (*kuṟṟiyal-ukaram*) | 254 | 7.10 Sandhi without change | 271 |
| 7.3.3 The āytam (*ḵ*) | 254 | 7.11 Sandhi of consonant and vowel | 271 |
| 7.4 Distribution of vowels | 255 | 7.11.1 In personal names | 272 |
| 7.4.1 Initial | 255 | 7.11.2 In place names | 272 |
| 7.4.2 Medial | 255 | 7.12 Mutation of initial stem in sandhi | 272 |
| 7.4.3 Final | 256 | 7.13 Changes in sandhi | 273 |
| 7.4.4 Vowel clusters | 256 | 7.14 Assimilation | 273 |
| 7.5 Distribution of consonants | 257 | 7.14.1 Regressive assimilation | 273 |
| 7.5.1 In the Corpus | 257 | 7.14.2 Progressive assimilation | 274 |
| 7.5.2 Comparison with *Tolkāppiyam* | 261 | 7.14.3 Mutual assimilation | 275 |
| 7.6 Distribution of consonant-vowels | 263 | 7.15 Addition | 275 |
| 7.6.1 In the Corpus | 263 | 7.15.1 Addition of glide *-y-* | 275 |
| 7.6.2 Comparison with *Tolkāppiyam* | 263 | 7.15.2 Addition of glide *-v-* | 276 |
| 7.7 Sound variations | 265 | 7.15.3 Doubling of the final consonant | 277 |
| 7.7.1 Vowels | 265 | 7.15.4 Doubling of the initial consonant | 277 |
| 7.7.2 Consonants | 267 | 7.16 Elision | 278 |
| 7.8 Some phonological processes | 269 | 7.16.1 Elision of a stem-final vowel | 278 |
| 7.8.1 Addition of paragogic suffixes | 269 | 7.16.2 Elision of the stem-final shortened *-u* | 279 |
| 7.8.2 Addition of the euphonic vowel *-u* | 270 | 7.16.3 With doubling of the preceding consonant | 279 |
| 7.8.3 Addition of the prothetic vowel *i-* | 270 | 7.16.4 Elision of the stem-final suffix *-(a)m* | 279 |
| 7.8.4 Contraction | 270 | 7.16.5 Elision of the stem-final PNG suffix *-(a)ṉ* before a noun | 280 |
| 7.8.5 Loss of initial palatal *c-* | 270 | | |
| 7.8.6 Elision of nasal *n* | 270 | | |
| 7.8.7 Elision of *n* with doubling of consonants | 270 | 7.16.6 Elision of the PNG suffix *-(a)ṉ* before a genitive suffix | 280 |
| 7.8.8 Elision of nasal *ṉ* | 270 | | |

c8.13

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| **III. MORPHOLOGY** | | 7.27 Case | 289 |
| | | 7.27.1 First case (nominative) | 289 |
| 7.17 Definition | 281 | 7.27.2 Second case (accusative) | 289 |
| 7.18 Syllabic structure of stems | 281 | 7.27.3 Fourth case (dative) | 289 |
| 7.19 Parts of speech | 281 | 7.27.4 Sixth case (genitive) | 290 |
| 7.20 Nouns | 281 | 7.27.5 Zero-genitive | 291 |
| 7.20.1 Classification of nouns | 281 | 7.27.6 Seventh case (locative) | 291 |
| 7.20.2 Personal names (N.) | 281 | 7.28 Verbs | 292 |
| 7.20.3 Place names (P.) | 281 | 7.28.1 Verb stems in the Corpus | 292 |
| 7.20.4 Common nouns (n.) | 281 | 7.28.2 Transitive and intransitive | |
| 7.20.5 Appellative nouns | 283 | verbs | 293 |
| 7.21 Numerals | 283 | 7.28.3 Causative verbs | 293 |
| 7.22 Pronouns | 284 | 7.28.4 Causative suffixes | 293 |
| 7.22.1 Personal pronouns | 284 | 7.28.5 Frequency and distribution | |
| 7.22.2 Demonstrative pronouns | 284 | of causative suffixes | 294 |
| 7.22.3 Numeral pronouns | 284 | 7.29 Tense | 294 |
| 7.23 Number and gender | 284 | 7.29.1 Past tense | 294 |
| 7.23.1 Masculine singular | 285 | 7.29.2 Non-past (present-future) | |
| 7.23.2 Feminine singular | 285 | tense | 294 |
| 7.23.3 Honorific singular | 285 | 7.29.3 Absence of finite verbs | 295 |
| 7.23.4 Human (epicene) plural | 285 | 7.30 Participial nouns | 295 |
| 7.23.5 Neuter singular | 286 | 7.30.1 PNG suffixes of participial | |
| 7.23.6 Neuter plural | 286 | nouns | 295 |
| 7.24 Person | 286 | 7.30.2 Past participial nouns | 295 |
| 7.24.1 PNG suffixes | 287 | 7.30.3 Non-past participial noun | 296 |
| 7.24.2 Masculine singular | 287 | 7.31 Verbal nouns | 296 |
| 7.24.3 Feminine singular | 287 | 7.32 Adjectival participles | 296 |
| 7.24.4 Honorific singular | 288 | 7.32.1 Adjectival past participles | 297 |
| 7.24.5 Epicene plural | 288 | 7.32.2 Adjectival aorist participles | 298 |
| 7.25 Noun stems as attributes | 288 | 7.33 Adverbial participles | 298 |
| 7.26 The oblique stem | 288 | 7.34 The infinitive | 298 |
| 7.26.1 Nouns ending in *-am* | 288 | 7.35 Adjectives | 299 |
| 7.26.2 Nouns ending in *-tu* or *-ru* | 289 | 7.36 Interjections | 300 |
| 7.26.3 Oblique pronominal stem | 289 | 7.37 Particles | 300 |
| | | 7.38 Grammatical morphemes | 301 |

c8.14

| Section | Page | Section | Page |
| **IV. SYNTAX** | | 7.42 Sentences with adjectival participles as verbs | 303 |
| 7.39 Definition | 301 | 7.42.1 Qualifying the subject | 303 |
| 7.40 Syntax in Early Tamil inscriptions | 302 | 7.42.2 Qualifying the object | 303 |
| 7.41 Sentences with participial nouns as verbs | 302 | 7.43 Sentences without verbs | 304 |
| 7.41.1 In subject-object-verb order | 302 | 7.44 Adverbial clauses | 305 |
| 7.41.2 In object-verb-subject order | 302 | 7.44.1 With the verbal participle (of cause) | 305 |
| 7.41.3 In subject-verb order | 303 | 7.44.2 With the infinitive (of cause) | 305 |
| 7.41.4 In verb-subject order | 303 | 7.45 Agreement between subject and predicate | 305 |

c8.15

PART THREE

c8.16

CORPUS OF EARLY TAMIL INSCRIPTIONS

c8.17

COMMENTARY ON INSCRIPTIONS

c8.18

| Site No. | Site | Inscr. No. | Corpus Page | Commentary Page |
| | **Early Tamil-Brāhmī Inscriptions (*1-59*)** | | | |
| | **(ca. 2nd century B.C.-1st century A.D.)** | | | |
| | Introduction | | 309 | 541 |
| I | Mangulam 1-6 | *1-6* | 315 | 543 |
| II | Arittapatti | *7* | 325 | 552 |
| III | Tiruvadavur 1-2 | *8-9* | 327 | 552 |
| IV | Kilavalavu | *10* | 331 | 554 |
| V | Kongarpuliyankulam 1-3 | *11-13* | 333 | 555 |
| VI | Marukaltalai | *14* | 337 | 558 |
| VII | Varichiyur 1-3 | *15-17* | 339 | 559 |
| VIII | Vikkiramangalam 1-6 | *18-23* | 343 | 560 |
| IX | Mettuppatti 1-10 | *24-33* | 351 | 563 |
| X | Karungalakkudi | *34* | 365 | 567 |
| XI | Mudalaikulam | *35* | 367 | 568 |
| XII | Alagarmalai 1-13 | *36-48* | 369 | 569 |
| XIII | Sittannavasal-A | *49* | 385 | 577 |
| XIV | Aiyarmalai | *50* | 387 | 580 |
| XV | Tirumalai 1-2 | *51-52* | 388 | 581 |
| XVI | Tirupparankunram 1-3 | *53-55* | 391 | 583 |
| XVII | Muttuppatti 1-3 | *56-58* | 395 | 586 |
| XVIII | Jambai | *59* | 399 | 588 |

c8.19

| Site No. | Site | Inscr. No. | Corpus Page | Commentary Page |
| | | **Late Tamil-Brāhmī Inscriptions (*60-89*)** | | |
| | | **(ca. 2nd-4th centuries A.D. )** | | |
| XIX | Anaimalai | ***60*** | 403 | 591 |
| XX | Pugalur 1-12 | ***61-72*** | 405 | 592 |
| XXI | Mamandur | ***73*** | 423 | 604 |
| XXII | Kunnakkudi 1-2 | ***74-75*** | 425 | 606 |
| XXIII | Tondur | ***76*** | 427 | 606 |
| XXIV | Kudumiyamalai | ***77*** | 429 | 608 |
| XXV | Tiruchirapalli-A | ***78*** | 430 | 608 |
| XXVI | Edakal-A 1-4 | ***79-82*** | 431 | 608 |
| XXVII | Nekanurpatti | ***83*** | 437 | 611 |
| XXVIII | Ammankoyilpatti | ***84*** | 439 | 613 |
| XXIX | Arachalur 1-3 | ***85-87*** | 441 | 616 |
| XXX | Mannarkoil 1-2 | ***88-89*** | 445 | 618 |
| | | **Early Vaṭṭeluttu Inscriptions (*101-121*)** | | |
| | | **(ca. 5th and 6th centuries A.D.)** | | |
| XXXI | Sittannavasal-B 1-7 | ***101-107*** | 451 | 621 |
| XXXII | Tiruchirapalli-B 1-3 | ***108-110*** | 461 | 623 |
| XXXIII | Perumukkal | ***111*** | 465 | 624 |
| XXXIV | Arasalapuram | ***112*** | 467 | 624 |
| XXXV | Indalur | ***113*** | 468 | 626 |
| XXXVI | Erettimalai | ***114*** | 469 | 627 |
| XXXVII | Paraiyanpattu | ***115*** | 471 | 628 |
| XXXVIII | Tirunatharkunru | ***116*** | 473 | 633 |
| XXXIX | Pillaiyarpatti | ***117*** | 475 | 634 |
| XL | Edakal-B 1-2 | ***118-119*** | 477 | 635 |
| XLI | Ezhuttukallu | ***120*** | 479 | 637 |
| XLII | Tamatakallu | ***121*** | 481 | 639 |

c8.20

APPENDICES

c8.21

| I. | Inscriptional Glossary | 643 |
| II. | Index to Personal Names in the Inscriptions | 656 |
| III. | Index to Place Names in the Inscriptions | 659 |
| IV. | Etymological Index: Dravidian | 661 |
| V. | Etymological Index: Indo-Aryan | 671 |
| VI. | Etymological Index: Doubtful Items | 678 |
| VII. | Index to Grammatical Morphemes in the Inscriptions | 680 |