The Personality of India: Pre- and Proto-historic Foundation of India and Pakistan c13.s3.t1: Gujarat
The Personality of India: Pre- and Proto-historic Foundation of India and Pakistan c13.s3.t1
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Gujarat
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In Gujarat, the pioneer discoveries of Foote² were continued by Dr. Sankalia whose explorations and excavations from 1941 at Langhnaj mark a very important stage in Indian Prehistoric studies.¹ This was continued by the writer during the last five years and R. N. Mehta and S. N. Chowdhary have worked in the Narbada and Banas valleys (Fig. 18).
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² FOOTE, Ippa.
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¹ SANKALIA, *Investigations into Prehistoric Archaeology of Gujarat*, Baroda, 1946. SANKALIA, & KARVE, *Preliminary Report of the Third Gujarat Prehistoric Expedition*, Poona, 1945. SANKALIA, & KARVE, "Primitive Microlithic Culture and People of Gujarat", *American Anthropologist*, Vol. 51, No. 1, 1949.
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GUJARAT MAP SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF LANGHNAJ MICROLITHIC INDUSTRY
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North and Central Gujarat provide excellent evidence for the study of the settlement pattern of these communities. In the Upper pleistocene, extensive wind-activity (referred to already) has left a vast area of fossil sand dunes and "blow-outs" or depressions, formed by the whirlpools of wind caught between the dunes. When the area became more habitable with the resumption of wetter conditions, some of these blow-outs supported small natural ponds. It seems that, in one of these wet phases, man settled on the tops of these wind-blown dunes surrounding those ponds. During the explorations it was found that ancient sites were located either on the cliffs of the rivers or on isolated groups of dunes with ponds. Thus, we can bring to our minds the picture of these hunting communities settling on the well-drained areas with water to support them and their prey.² Since no evidence of any definite habitation or houses have been found, we can only postulate nomadic people with very transient habitations.
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² It is interesting to recall that all over the world these small hunting and fishing communities with these microlithic tools preferred soft sandy open sites (incapable of supporting heavy vegetation). This can be studied best in European Mesolithic period. But when once extreme specialization takes place these people seem to have moved even into the more wooded parts of Tropical India and Africa and managed to live with such small tools. If we are lucky one day in recovering the methods of hafting etc., we may be able to explain some of these anomalies.
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The excavations of Dr. Sankalia at Langhnaj in the Mehsana District in 1942, '44, '47 and '49 resulted in the discovery of a large number of microliths, animal remains and seven human skeletons in a very highly flexed position. Due to the fine and homogeneous texture of the soil, as it was windborne, it was not possible to locate any stratification or sequence. The soil analyses carried out by Prof. Zeuner, however, yielded definite evidence of a buried soil.³ This was confirmed by the excavations conducted by the writer in 1954 at this site. A continuous humic horizon was found varying in depth between 2'-10" and 4'-2" by testing the soil with acid. Another human skeleton in a badly preserved condition was found below this horizon suggesting that the Microlithic culture belonged to the older land surface, subsequently raised by fresh deposition.
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³ ZEUNER, F. E., 1950 *op. cit.*
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The animal remains are being studied at present by Zeuner, but according to him, "though the identification of the species present still requires some time, it has become certain that game animals are conspicuous in the fauna". Some of them are: Indian rhinoceros (*Rhinoceros* Unicornis. L), Hog deer (*Hyelaphus porcinus Zimm.*), Indian buffalo (probably wild), Antelope (*Boselaphus tragocamelus Pall.*) and among the smaller ruminants Black Buck (*Antilope cervipra; Linn.*). Two skeletons of dog were also found (one near that of a man), but there is no definite evidence of domestication. Thus according to Zeuner, the predominance of the game fauna and the absence of domesticated animals remains so far, suggests that these microlithic people must have been mostly hunters.¹
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¹ ZEUNER, F. E., "The Microlithic Industry of Langhnaj Gujarat", Man, 1952. No. 182.
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Fig. 19. Typical Microlithic Industry of the Mahi Valley—Gujarat.
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This is also borne out by the typology of the microliths and other stone tools. The most conspicuous feature of this industry is the complete absence of any heavy tool, and at best, it can be described as a crude geometric microlithic industry. Only one perforated mace-head was found during this whole period. A statistical analysis of the material from the latest excavation by the writer (1954) showed that 87.4 per cent of the total microliths lay below the buried soil. The most common tool type among the microliths is the lunate or the crescent. The other types represented are—triangle, trapeze, side and end scrapers and core scrapers (Fig. 19). From the functional or utilitarian point of view the most important type recognized by Zeuner is the "asymmetrical point", in which a sharp point is obtained by obliquely backing one of the sides of a thick flake with a mid-rib. In view of the absence of the arrow head in the Indian lithic industries, these may be regarded as barbs and points or arrow heads.² But the most remarkable evidence of the manufacture of microliths was brought out by Zeuner in the course of his study of the animal remains. He noticed a number of artificial pits 10 to 25 mm. across on the large shoulder blade of the rhinoceros found by Dr. Sankalia. He explains³:
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² Ibid.
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³ Ibid.
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"The pits are all crowded with short cut marks which are mostly arranged radially. A few run across the pits without passing through the centre, so that it looks as if the pits are the results of the frequently repeated action of sharp cutting edges, which were impressed upon the bone in all manner of directions, though more or less exactly on the same spots. The result of this repeated operation was the wearing-away of the bone, which naturally was deepest where the largest number of cuts were superimposed. It is clear that these cuts, the longest of which is of the order of 12 mm., cannot have served any purpose such as cutting or carving the bone. The explanation which suggests itself is that the bone was used as an anvil for the manufacture of microliths, the cores being placed on the bone and the cuts being produced either by the sharp edge of the core or by the edge of the flake when it was struck off."
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The most intriguing feature of this microlithic culture, however, is the presence in very small quantities of extremely comminuted pieces of coarse, hand-made and ill-fired pottery. In the previous excavations, the presence of this pottery in the lower levels was not noticed, but the small excavation of 1952 and the larger and more carefully investigated excavation of 1954 brought definite evidence of the association of this pottery right through the cultural deposits at Langhnaj. But it may be stated that there is a slight difference in the pottery of the deposits above and below the humic horizon, the top ones showing a slightly higher firing and a few distinct rims. A second point is the extreme scarcity of these sherds, and the largest piece found in all these seven seasons' excavations being about 2". Hence this problem requires further investigation and possibly from different sites.
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The human remains have not yet been studied but a preliminary report of Iravate Karve may be stated to complete the picture. "The capacity of the skulls, to judge from the length and breadth measurements, compares with that of the modern Europoid. The supra-orbital ridge, the well-rounded occiput showing the ruggedness of the muscle relief, the pre-nasal fossa and the intra-orbital breadth suggest primitive features. The slight prognathism of one skull with the smooth small rounded forehead suggests Negroid affinities which belief is strengthened by the smallness of the cross-section as compared to the length of the long bones of the upper and lower extremities."¹
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¹ SANKALIA & KARVE, 1949., op. cit.
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Finally, about the age and character of this industry, a tentative position may be stated. The existence of the buried soil at Langhnaj as well as at Akhaj (three miles away) has been proved by soil analyses. Since the main culture belongs to the buried soil phase, there is no doubt that Microlithic man occupied these dunes when there was an interruption in wind activity during one of those wetter periods with slightly heavier rainfall. This is also borne out by the fauna and particularly rhinoceros, the lover of swampy jungles. Probably with the resumption of wind activity, suggested by a further accumulation of soil, these sites were gradually abandoned. This can be borne out by the fact that only 12.6 per cent of the tools were found above the buried soil. They probably moved eastwards into the foot-hills of Gujarat.
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At present there is no means of getting any absolute chronology for this site since there is no stratigraphic superposition. But the evidence from other excavations has thrown some light on the possible limits. The excavations of Ranganathrao at Rangpur² have revealed the existence of a crude microlithic industry in a gravel lens below the natural soil on which the Proto-historic Harappan people settled. How earlier does it begin, cannot be stated now. The second limit is provided by the excavations at Baroda³ and Timbarva.⁴ At Baroda there was a clean barren layer between the Microlithic and the Early Historic phases. At Timbarva, this Early Historic phase of Baroda stratigraphically overlies, without a break, a still earlier period characterized by the presence of N.B.P. Since we have microlithic sites all round this place, the Microlithic phase could not be later than 400 B.C., a date assigned to the beginning of the early historic phase at Timbarva. This will be the lower limit, while the upper limit is provided by Rangpur.
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² Indian Archaeology, 1953-54.
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³ SUBBARAO, 1953. op. cit.
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⁴ MEHTA, R. N., Excavation at Timbarva, M. S. University Archaeology Series No. 2., 1955, Baroda.
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In Gujarat we have more than eighty sites and they are distributed in the valleys of Banas, Sabarmati, Mahi, Orsang, and Narbada (Fig. 18).
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The other area where we have reasonable evidence suggesting a high antiquity is the Tinnevelly district. A chain of microlithic sites have been found along the coast. The microliths are to be found in the *teri* deposits of definite aeolian origin, though the capillary oxidisation has consolidated them.¹ This oxidisation has given a reddish colour to these dunes, owing to the movements of iron, and this seems to have affected the stone implements themselves. The whole group of these tools of quartz or crystal have a red staining ("red hydrated ferric oxide"). In some of the open sites, according to Zeuner, these tools were deposited on the lateritic 'pan', when the winds have blown the sand.
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¹ SPATE, *op. cit.*, p. 727.
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Prof. Zeuner and Bridget Allchin have published their studies of these sites.² Zeuner opines that these dunes represent fossil-beach overlain with dune-sand. These dunes weathered before the subsequent formation of recent active dunes. Hence he writes, "these microlithic sites are older than a phase of ancient weathering and are associated with a sea level higher than at present". Assuming the sea levels to vary between 20 to 30 he gives three alternative dates : (1) Late Monasterian or Last Inter-glacial, (2) 1st stadial of the Last Glacial or (3) Late Atlantic post-glacial sea level (about 4000 B. C.). On the present evidence he recommends the last, and further studies should be carried out in the area.
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² ZEUNER, F. E., and ALLCHIN, BRIDGET. "The Microlithic sites of Tinnevelly, Madras State", *Ancient India*, No. 12, 1956, pp. 4-20.
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Another very important feature of this industry is the occurrence of pressure-flaked bi-facial points which are not found at all in any known site or collection from the rest of India. Since they are found in Ceylon, Africa and Oceanea, it would be worthwhile to study these further. Similarly, one notices an increase in the use of quartz as one moves south. Whether it is a part of a cultural tradition of using quartz, or it is just fortuitous, remains to be studied further.
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A similar industry of a high antiquity and associated with weathered soil profile and terrace system of the river Damodar has been located by B. B. Lal near Birbhanpur in Dist. Burdwan,¹ West Bengal. The tools lie in a weathered sandy loam, which rests on detrital laterite. There are a very wide range of a non-geometric microlithic tools with a few doubtful trapezes. The most interesting tools however, are fine² burins (polyhedral and bec-de-flute). This industry is very interesting in view of the occurrence wide of spread non-geometric elements in Eastern India. In the summer of 1953, the writer explored areas around Chakradharpur in the company of K. D. Banerji.³ Sen and Uma Chaturvedi have published a paper on microliths from this same area.⁴
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¹ *Indian Archaeology—A Review*, 1953-54, p. 6.
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² I am very much obliged to Shri B. B. Lal who allowed me to see the whole collection at Baroda. Lal, B. B. "Birbhanpur—A Microlithic site in the Damodar valley, West Bengal", *Ancient India* No. 14, 1958, pp. 4-48.
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³ This material is not yet published and is lying at Baroda with the writer.
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⁴ SEN, D. and CHATURVEDI, UMA. "Microlithic Industry of Singhbhum", *Man in India*, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 294-304.
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It is now possible to conceive the theory that the Indian microlithic industries, particularly, the non-geometric could be derived from the Middle Stone Age tools. The most interesting discovery of S. C. Malik, in the Bombay area is the occurrence of diminutive forms of borer or double-hollow scraper in the microliths in that area.
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Finally Krishnaswamy discovered in the Singrauli basin a microlithic industry four feet below the upper alluvium on the southern banks of Balia nadi ⁵ where the evidence is in conformity with the provisional dating assigned to early microlithic sites. This site is distributionally linked with the microlithic sites in the Banda, Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The general nature of the Singrauli microliths (backed blades, parallel sided blades, lunates, cores and coarse scrapers and arrow-heads in milky quartz), reminds us of a degenerate Upper Palaeolithic blade tradition and the entire industry, devoid of any associated pottery, can probably be ascribed to an early Mesolithic period.⁵
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⁵ KRISHNASWAMI, *Ancient India*, No. 9, p. 65.
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From the rest of India we have large quantities of indiscriminate collections with incomplete records (sometimes even of localities), lying in the various museums in India and abroad. Sometimes we have a few careful observations of investigators like Gordon, Hunter, Todd and a few others. But in view of the complexity of Indian archaeology with its problems of survival in different parts of the country and at different levels, it is very difficult to attempt any general classification or chronology. We have had enough of typology and we should make fresh collections under closely observed conditions and fix them in relation to the local culture sequence or the sequence in the region concerned primarily.
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A survey of all the microlithic industries in India described above shows the wide distribution and their typological homogeneity. Now our recent studies clarify two points :
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(1) There is a widespread Chalcolithic Blade or 'Ribbon flake industry' which is very distinct from the normal microlithic industry, by the predominance of blades and the absence of other microlithic tools.
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(2) Similarly we have clear evidence for the sub-division into Non-geometric microlithic industries and Geometric microlithic industries probably in a chronological order. In areas of Central and Western India, where the Neolithic cultures do not follow them, Geometric microlithic industry develops pottery, probably as a result of contacts with more developed cultures.
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Thus we can now safely say that the Late Stone Age in India was characterized by a Non-geometric microlithic industry followed by a widespread Geometric microlithic industry. But in certain backward areas this industry survived for a very long time, till they were displaced.
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Finally a few general observations about the Indian Microlithic Industry may be made to focus the attention of the workers. Microliths, as such, have a wide distribution in the time and space all over the Old World. But certain technological difference may be noted. Zeuner has pointed out how the asymmetrical points common in various parts of India are "one of the few items that distinguish the Indian microlithic 'hunting' industries from the Wilton of South Africa "58. Similarly bi-facial retouch and bi-facial points are very rare—almost absent—in the Indian industries. But they are very common in Africa, Ceylon and Australia. A few have been reported by Mrs. Allchin from the *teri* sites at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, close to Ceylon. Finally, it is now agreed by the archaeologists all over, that the so-called " Micro-burin " is the by-product of the blade, lunate and trapeze industries by the use of the technique of preparing a notch and twisting. The absence of micro-burins in India is one of the most striking features and the few that are recorded are infinitesimally small when compared to the totals and suggest an accidental origin. Hence does it mean again a different technological tradition? The writer had the privilege of examining most of the collections from Gujarat made during the last decade, and the entire collection of Foote, lying at Madras and these inferences are based on it. Yet, there is no reason for complacency and further studies are a great desideratum.