India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c11.s1: Section 1. Deities

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c11.s1

Language: English

Section 1. Deities

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The religious conditions in Pāṇini mainly relate to *yajña* or sacrifice, and worship of various Vedic deities with oblations and performance of appropriate rituals by different classes of priests. Names of officiating priests and *dakshiṇā* or payments for their service are also mentioned (V.1.69; V.1.95). At the same time there are definite indications of popular phases of religious beliefs and practices as elaborated in devotion to gods and asterisms, worship of images and the growth of religious ascetic orders.

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*DEITIES.* Pāṇini mentions the following Vedic deities, both singly and in pairs: (1) Agni (IV.1.37), (2) Indra, (3) Varuṇa, (4) Bhava, (5) Śarva, (6) Rudra, (7) Mṛiḍa (IV.1.49), (8) Vṛishākapi, (IV.1.37), (9) Pūshā, (10) Aryamā (VI.4.12), (11) Tvashṭā (VI.4.11), (12) Sūrya (III.1.114), and (13) Nāsatya (VI.3.75). The last name is derived by Pāṇini as *na asatyāḥ*, 'who are the opposite of non-truth'. The Mahābhārata mentions Nāsatya and Dasra as the twin Aśvins born of the nose (*nāsā*) of Saṁjñā, wife of Sūrya (Anuśāsana-parva, 150.17). The derivation from *nāsā* is in fact mentioned by Yāska as a probable explanation of the word (*nāsikāprabhavau babhūvatur iti vā*, VI.13). But Pāṇini accepted the etymology of this word given by Aurṇavābha whose opinion is quoted by Yāska (*satyau eva nāsatyāvity-Aurṇavābhaḥ*, *Nirukta*, VI.13).

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Indra is also referred to as Marutvān (IV.2.32). Pāṇini refers to Prajāpati under the symbolical name of *Ka*. Patañjali says that *Ka* is not a pronoun, but the proper name of a deity (*saṁjñā chaishā tatrabhavataḥ*, II.275), so that the dative case of *Ka* would be *Kāya*, not *kasmai*. Reference is also made to the deity called Vāstoshpati who presided over a house or homestead and was as old as the *Ṛigveda*. Pāṇini's mention of Gṛihamedha (IV.2.32) under the context 'This is its deity' (IV.2.24) shows that Gṛihamedha was also looked upon as a deity. In the same context mention is also made of Soma, Vāyu, Mahendra and Apāmnaptṛi (IV.2.27), which last was a name of Agni as sprung from water to whom special oblations were offered.

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Of the pairs of deities (*devatā-dvandva*, VI.2.141) a long list is found in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*, e.g. Agni and Varuṇa (VI.3.27), Agni and Soma (IV.2.32; VI.3.27), Dyau and Pṛithivī (IV.2.32; VI.3.29-30) Ushā and Sūryā (VI.3.31), the twin agricultural deities Śunāsīra, and other combinations with Rudra and Pūshā (VI.2.142). Even Manthin, a Soma-vessel (*Somagraha*) is mentioned in the context of 'twin deities' (VI.2.142).

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Of the female deities the older goddesses mentioned are Indrāṇī, Varuṇānī, (IV.1.49), Agnāyī, Vṛishākapāyī (IV. 1.37), Pṛithivī always referred to as a pair with Dyaus, and Ushas for whom oblations were prepared as for an independent deity (IV.2.31).

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*POST-VEDIC DEITIES.* The most important of these is goddess Pārvatī four of whose names are mentioned, *viz.* (1) Bhavānī, (2) Śarvāṇī, (3) Rudrāṇī and (4) Mṛiḍānī (IV. 1. 49). This worship was a feature of the Sūtra period. The Vedas refer to their male counterparts such as Bhava, Śarva, Rudra and Mṛiḍa. The *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* mentions Rudra, Śarva, and Bhava as forms of Agni (VI.1.3.18), and makes the important statement that the name Śarva was popular in the Prāchya country, and Bhava in the Vāhīka region (*Śarva iti yathā Prāchyā āchakshate, Bhava iti yathā Vāhīkāḥ*, ŚB., I.7.3.8). It may, therefore, be inferred that the names Śarvāṇī and Bhavānī were local designations of the one and the same Mother Goddess. Similarly Rudrāṇī and Mṛiḍānī may have been other local epithets of the same deity.

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Āditya referred to in *sūtra* IV.1.85 is to be taken as the name of the classical sun-god rather than of the Vedic Ādityas. In fact a new feature of the Pāṇinian pantheon is the emergence of time-denoting words raised to the status of deities (IV. 2.34). For instance, oblation was prepared to worship the deity named *Māsa*, 'Month', and called *Māsika*; and similarly for the deity *Saṁvatsara*, 'Year', and called *Sāṁvatsarika*. There was also worship of the 'Seasons' as deities, *e.g.* Vasanta or Spring, the oblation being called *Vāsantaṁ haviḥ*. Pāṇini himself refers to *Ṛitu*, 'Season' as a deity (IV.2.31), in whose honour some worship was prescribed. This process of deification extended even to stars. This is indicated by the mention of Proshṭhapada, a name of Bhādrapada, as a *devatā* or deity (IV.2.35). But the whole system of adopting personal names after the names of asterisms, for which detailed rules are given (IV.3.34, 36, 37), was due to the fact that the stars became objects of adoration and worship. Names like Rohiṇisheṇa, Bharaṇisheṇa and Śatabhishaksena implied in the *sūtra* *Nakshatrād-vā* (VIII.3.100) point to a belief in the beneficent influence of deities presiding over these asterisms.

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*BHAKTI*. The new phase of religious belief found its expression in the cult of *Bhakti* or theistic devotion to particular gods and goddesses. Such names as Varuṇadatta and Aryamadatta, which were shortened as per *sūtra* V.3.84, point to the belief that gods like Varuṇa and Aryamā, if propitiated by the parents, would grant the boon of a son to be named after them. Pāṇini admits that the name-ending *datta* denoted a benediction from a god or a higher power of which the personal name became a symbolic expression (*Kārakād-datta-śrutayorevāśisbi*, VI.2.148). This religious approach is further exemplified in Pāṇini's reference to *bhakti* to Vāsudeva and Arjuna (IV.3.98). Patañjali clearly remarks that Vāsudeva was here not a mere Kshatriya name but the personal name of Kṛishṇa whose *bhakta* or worshipper was called *Vāsudevaka*. We should, however, admit that *bhakti* in this context (IV.3.95-100) has also a secular significance in some *sūtras*, e.g. *āpūpika*, one who loves eating cakes (example to IV.3.96). The reference to the *bhakti* of Mahārāja or Kubera proves on the other hand that Pāṇini surely had religious *bhakti* also in mind (*Mahārājat-ṭhañ*, IV.3.97).

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*MAHĀRĀJA.* Besides referring to the *bhakti* shown to Mahārāja as stated above, Pāṇini also mentions that Mahārāja was a *devatā* (IV.2.35), to whom oblations were offered. According to Patañjali *bali* offered to Mahārāja was called *mahārāja-bali* (I.388, cf. also *Kāśikā*, II.1.36). This deity may be identified with those mentioned as a group of Four Great Kings, *Chattāro Mahārājāno*, who dwell in the *Chātummahārājika* or the lowest *deva* world as guardians of the four quarters. In *Jātaka* VI.265, Vessavaṇa is called a Mahārāja and in the *Mahāsutasoma Jātaka* Śakra and the other three Lokapālas are called *Mahārājāno* (VI.259). They also stand at the head of the list of gods and other superhuman beings in the *Āṭānāṭiya Sutta* (*Dict. Pāli Proper Names*, I.242; 861). From *bhakti* to Mahārāja deity, it is clear that Vāsudeva as an object of *bhakti* is also to be taken as a deity as stated by Patañjali.

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*VĀSUDEVA-CULT.* Pāṇini's reference to Vāsudeva as the object of *bhakti* throws light on the antiquity of the *bhakti* cult. Kaiyaṭa describes Vāsudeva as *paramātma-devatā-viśesha*. Keith accepts the accuracy of this identification and considers the remark of Patañjali, *viz. samjñā chaishā tatrabhavataḥ*, to be 'the most satisfactory proof of the identity of Vāsudeva with Vishṇu, for except through such identification no one could dream of putting Vāsudeva on the same plane as Ka' (*J.R.A.S.*, 1908, p. 848). Patañjali's reference to the staging of *Bali-bandhana*, Vishṇu's famous exploit, and the slaying of Kaṁsa, Kṛishṇa's great deed, were regarded by Weber himself as hinting at the early belief in the existence of Kṛishṇa-Vāsudeva and his identification with Vishṇu (*ib.* p.

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847). If in the second century B.C. these exploits formed part of the Vishṇu legend they must have been considerably older (cf. the example, *Jaghāna Kaṁsaṁ kila Vāsudevaḥ*, *Bhāshya* quoting it as a past event, II.119). Patañjali also refers to the *Vyūha* of Kṛishṇa with his three acolytes: *Janārdanas-tvātmachaturtha eva*, (*Bhāshya*, III.43, on *sūtra* VI. 3.5). He also mentions Kṛishṇa and Saṁkarshaṇa as joint leaders of an army (*Saṁkarshaṇa-dvitīyasya balaṁ Kṛishṇasya vardhatām*, I.426), and refers to the existence of temples dedicated to Keśava and Rāma besides those of Kubera (*Prāsāde Dhanapati-Rāma-Keśavānām*, I.436). In *sūtra* VIII.1. 15 Pāṇini states that the word *dvandva* signifies a pair of persons jointly famous (*abhivyakti*), on which the *Kāśikā* cites as an example *Saṁkarshaṇa-Vāsudevau* (*dvāvapyabhivyaktau sāhacharyeṇa*). Devotional worship to Saṅkarshaṇa and Vāsudeva in connection with a religious shrine is proved by epigraphic evidence of second century B.C. (Nagari Ins., *E.I.*, XXII, p. 198 ff.). The *Arthaśāstra* not only refers to the legend of Kṛishṇa and Kaṁsa (XIV.3) but also prescribes the building of temples sacred to god Apratihata, *i.e.* Vishṇu (II. 4). These examples, although of the Maurya-Śuṅga epoch, show that Kṛishṇa's divinity was already established as a result of centuries of religious development. Patañjali's reference to the Śiva-Bhāgavata religion (II. 387) is also proof of the early antiquity of the Bhāgavata cult, for the Śaivas following the Bhakti cult must have been so named after the Bhāgavatas. Although the evidence from the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* is not unassailable, it must be mentioned that the *Gavāśva* group (II.4.13) reads *Bhāgavatī-Bhāgavatam*, as a compound word in singular number mentioning a female and a male follower of the Bhāgavata religion. Grierson also maintained the antiquity of the Bhāgavata religion in Pāṇini's time on the basis of his knowledge of Vāsudeva as a deity (*J.R.A.S.*, 1909, p. 1122). Sir R. G. Bhandarkar agrees with this view. (*J.R.A.S.*, 1910, p. 170, Vāsudeva of Pāṇini, IV.3.98).

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*IMAGES.*—Figurines, including divine images are included under the general term *pratikṛiti* (V.3.96). Pāṇini, however, knew of a more specific word, *archā* (V.2.101), which accords with Patañjali's usage (*Mauryaiḥ hiraṇyārthibhiḥ archāḥ prakalpitāḥ*, V.3.99, *Bhāshya*, II.429).¹ Its derivative *archāvān* (V.2.101) should have signified the owner of an image.

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¹ *Archā* means 'image of a god'; cf. *dīrgha-nāsikī archā*, *tuṅga-nāsikī archā* (IV.1.54; II.222); also Lūder's discussion of its use in the Mora Well Inscription, *Ep. Ind.*, XXIV. p. 198.

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An important sūtra, *Jīvikārthe chāpaṇye* (V.3.99) intended to regulate the formation of names of divine images, proves beyond doubt Pāṇini's knowledge of images of deities in his time. Regarding the naming of images there are the following possibilities covered by Pāṇini's rule and Patañjali's rather involved argument on it:

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(1) There may be images installed in temples or open shrines, which are not of individual ownership, and hence not for any ones' livelihood (*jīvikā*), or for sale (*paṇya*), but are for worship (*pūjārtha*). These images remain outside the purview of Pāṇini's rule. How they were named, whether *Śiva* or *Śivaka* we are left to guess, but there is all the probability that they were named without the *kaṇ* suffix, as *Śiva*, *Skanda*, etc.

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(2) In the second place there may be images in the possession of *devalakas* or owners and custodians of shrines. They may be either fixed in one place or carried from place to place. The former would cover for all practical purposes the images of class 1 above, which would then be objects of Pāṇini's rule and the deity would be named *Śiva* (without *kaṇ* suffix). Both *chala* and *achala* images with the *devalakas* would serve for worship (*pūjārtha*), be a source of livelihood (*jīvikārtha*) to their care-takers, but be not for sale (*apaṇya*). All these are the object of Pāṇini's rule, and they would be named as *Śiva*, *Skanda* (without *ka*).

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(3) The third class of images would be those displayed for sale (*paṇya*); these were not for worship (*pūjārtha*), although they were a means of livelihood to their owners (*jīvīkārtha*). These would be counter-examples of Pāṇini's *sūtra*, and named as *Śivaka*, *Skandaka*, etc.

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(4) Here Patañjali joins issue with Pāṇini. On the basis of some reliable historical information which he had he contends as to how the *sūtra* will fare in the case of images which the Mauryan kings, 'greedy of gold' (*hiraṇyārthibhiḥ*), had ordered to be set up (*prakalpitāḥ*) and most probably also to be sold, and which thus served simultaneously the triple purpose of *jīvikā*, *paṇya* and *pūjā*.¹ Kauṭilya supplies the much needed commentary on this extraodinary Mauryan measure to replenish their exchequer.² The Devatādhyaksha is directed to raise money (*ājīvet*, *hiraṇyopahāreṇa*, *kośaṁ kuryāt*, *Arth.* V.2) by manipulating the worship of divine images and exploiting the credulousness of the people, such as organising fairs and festivals in the holy shrines of deities (*daivata-chaitya*), improvising shows of miraculous *nāga* images with changing number of hoods, and spreading the news of other miracles, etc. (*Arth.* V.2). According to Patañjali these particular images would not be covered by Pāṇini's rule (*bhavet tāsu na syāt*), and although they might have found a place in the shrines for worship, they would not get the name *Śiva*, *Skanda*, etc.

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¹ अपण्य इत्युच्यते तत्रेदं न सिध्यति । शिव : स्कन्द : विशाख इति । किं कारणं । मौर्यैर्हिरण्यार्थिभिरर्चा : प्रकल्पिता : । भवेत्तासु न स्यात् । यास्त्वेता : संप्रति पूजार्था-स्तासु भविष्यति । (*Bhāshya*, V.3.99; II.429).

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² *Hiraṇyārthī*, according to Patañjali on *vār.* *arthāchchaśāsannihite* on *sūtra* V.2.135, denoted one who was bereft of wealth or gold, and consequently longed for it.

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(5) As a way out of the conundrum, Patañjali dismisses the case of the Mauryan images which were both for sale and for worship, and he points to contemporary images under actual worship (*yās-tvetāḥ saṁprati pūjārthāḥ tāsu bhavish-* *yati*) which were suitable examples of Pāṇini's rule and be designated as *Śiva*, *Skanda*, etc. (without *kan* suffix).¹

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Images of Śiva and Vaiśravaṇa were also known to Kauṭilya (II.4) as being installed in temples. Some of these deities were worshipped in pairs, e.g. *Śiva-Vaiśravaṇau*, *Skanda-Viśākhau*, *Brahma-Prajāpatī* (*Gaṇa-pāṭha* to II.4.14, and also a *vārttika* on VI.3.26). As pointed out by Patañjali these joint names were post-Vedic (*na chaite Vede sahanirvāpa-nirdishṭāḥ*, VI.3.26; III.149). Śiva and Vaiśravaṇa were the two main deities associated in the development of the popular cult of the Yakshas, Nāgas and other godlings. We have seen that Pāṇini refers to the worship of Mahārāja, which was but another name of Vessavaṇa-Kubera, who headed the group of the Four Great Kings or Regents of the Four Quarters and was the king of the *Yakkhas* in the North. Pāṇini also mentions the descendants of Dhṛitarājan (VI.4.135) who may be identified as the Lokapāla Dhataraṭṭha ruling in the East at the head of the Gandhabbas.

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*DEMONS*—The counterpart of the gods were the demons who are dreaded as much as the former were loved. In mentioning them Pāṇini is obviously drawing on older literature rather than recording contemporary beliefs. Diti (IV.¹.85)

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mother of the Daityas, Kadrū (IV.1.72), Asuras (IV.4.123), Rākshasas and the Yātus (IV.4.121) are referred to, but in connection with older linguistic forms. The term *āsurī māyā* (IV.4.123) similarly appears to be an old word signifying thaumaturgy or the *asura-vidyā* (cf. *Āśv. Śr.*, X.7, and *ŚB.*, XIII.4.3.11). The female demon Kusitāyī, wife of Kusita (IV.1.37) occurs in the *Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā* (III.2.6). The planet Rāhu is referred to as an enemy of the moon (*Vidhuṁ-tuda*, III.2.35).

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*YAKSHAS*—In *sūtra* V.3.84 Pāṇini refers to Śevala, Supari, Viśāla, Varuṇa and Aryamā. These were names of tutelary deities. It has been shown above (*ante*, p. 188) that Viśāla was the name of a *Yaksha* according to the Sabhāparva, 10.16. Supari and Śevala also appear to be minor godlings, probably *Yakshas*. According to the Āṭanāṭiya Sutta (*Dīghanikāya*) Varuṇa was a *Yaksha* also. Aryamā, too, was most probably a minor deity of popular religion associated with child-birth.

Linked texts (8)

Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Śatapathabrāhmaṇa — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit
Maitrāyaṇīsaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Nirukta — Yāska, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Jātaka — Pāli
Āśvalāyanaśrautasūtra — Āśvalāyana, Sanskrit