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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c12.s6: Section 7. Āyudhajīvī Sanghas

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c12.s6

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Section 7. Āyudhajīvī Sanghas

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ĀYUDHAJĪVĪ SANGHAS—Pāṇini refers to a number of *Saṅghas* as *āyudhajīvin* (V.3.114-117), meaning those who lived by the profession of arms. In *sūtra* IV.4.14, *Āyudhāch-chha cha*, one who earns his living by means of arms (*āyudhena jīvati*) is called *āyudhīya* or *āyudhika*. Kauṭilya refers to two kinds of *janapadas*, (1) *āyudhīya-prāyāḥ* (explained as *āyudha-jīvi-Kshatriyādi-prachurāḥ*), those mostly comprising soldiers, and (2) *Śreṇi-prāyāḥ* comprising guilds of craftsmen, traders and agriculturists. The former (and also his *śastropajīvins*) correspond to Pāṇini’s *āyudhajīvī Saṅghas*, which were the same as the *yodhājīvas* of Pali literature.

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FOUR KINDS OF ĀYUDHAJĪVINS—Pāṇini classified his material of the *āyudhajīvin Saṅghas* under several heads, viz. (1) *Saṅghas* in Vāhīka (V.3.114); (2) of Parvata (IV.3.91) or mountainous country; (3) *Pūgas* organised under their *Grāmaṇī* into some form of *Saṅgha* government (V.3.112); and lastly (4) *Vrātus* living by depradation and violence (V.3.113; V.2.21), and having only a semblance of *Saṅgha*. The most advanced *āyudhajīvin Saṅghas* belonged to the Vāhīka country (V.3.114), which comprised the region from the Indus to the Beas and the Sutlej (Karṇaparva, 44.7; *Hindu Polity*, 1.34). These were the Yaudheyas, Kshudrakas, Mālavas, etc.

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MOUNTAINEERS—A very important group of martial *Saṅghas* comprised those occupying *Parvata* or some mountainous region in the north-west. According to the true import of Pāṇini’s rule, those whose ancestors once lived in the Parvata region continued to retain their original appellation of the ancestral homeland (*abhijana*), although for the time being they might have migrated elsewhere (*Āyudhajīvibhya-* *śchhaḥ parvate*, IV.3.91; *so'syābhijana iti vartate, Kāśika*). Evidently this Parvata region must have been outside the plains of the Vāhīka country, which brings us to the highlands of north-west as the home-land of the *āyudhajīvins*. The *Kāśikā* mentions the *Hṛdgolīyas* of Hṛidgola, probably Hi-lo of Yuan Chwang (modern Hiḍḍā south of Jalalabad); *Andhakavartīyāḥ* of Andhakavarta, perhaps Andkhui, a district in the north-east of Afghanistan (*Imp. Gaz.*, Afghanistan, p. 80), and *Rohitagirīyas* of Rohitagiri, which last is important as reminiscent of Roha, old name of Afghanistan. All this portion of the country is up to the present day peopled by hardy and warlike mountaineers. The *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* refers to mountain-dwellers (*parvatāśrayiṇaḥ*) of the west, including such names as the *Nihāras* (*Nigrahāra* of *Vāyu*, same as Nagarahāra or Jalalabad where Hṛidgola or Hiḍḍā is situated) and the Haṁsamārgas (modern Hunza in the north of Dardistan). Thus the country of the mountaineers extended from Kashmir to Afghanistan and most of the people settled in these mountains and their valleys were of the *āyudhajīvin* class. The Bhīshmaparva especially mentions the Girigahvaras, dwellers of mountain caves, as a people of the north-west (Bhīshmaparva, 9.68; cf. *Pratīchyāḥ Pārvatīyāḥ*, Udyoga, 30,24), and this epithet appropriately applies to the tribes of the north-west. They were the same as the *saṅghāḥ girichāriṇaḥ* and *girigahvara-vāsinaḥ* (Droṇaparva, 93.48). Arrian mentions these mountainous Indians as fighting in the army of Darius against Alexander at Arbela (*Anabasis*, III,8.3-6). It was these Parvatīya Āyudhajīvins that offered stout resistance to Alexander in Bactria and Gandhāra. The approximate location of these Parvatīyas should be sought for in the region of the Hindukush on both sides of it. Roha, of medieval geographers, Rohitagiri of Pāṇini, the ten *maṇḍalas* of Lohita (Sabhā, 24.16) and Rohitagirīyas of the *Kāśikā*, all together point to the mountainous regions of central and north-east Afghanistan as being the *Parvata* country, which name survives in Kohistan. We may now form a clear conception of the geographical distribution of the three types of *Saṅghas* in Pāṇini: (1) the *Āyudhajīvins* of Vāhīka from the Indus upto the Beas and the Sutlej, of whom a special group occupying the mountainous Kangra region was called *Trigarta-Shashṭha* (V.3.116); (2) *Pūgas*, under the leadership of *grāmaṇīs*, settled on the right bank of the Indus (*Sindhukūlāśritā grāmaṇīyāḥ*, Sabhāparva, 32.9), corresponding in all probability to the present day “Tribal Area” to the west of the Indus; (3) *Parvatīyas*, or the Highlanders of Afghanistan and the Hindukush, who included also the tribes of Dardistan. These contained many living only in the *Vrāta* stage of existence. It is evident that the *Saṅghas* in the innermost belt were the best organised of all and lived in a higher stage of civilization owing to Aryan contact and proximity and those in the outlying parts were much less civilised.

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*PŪGA AND VRĀTA*—The Vāhīka land and the Parvata country were reeking with *āyudhajīvin* tribes governed by constitutions of different types. The highest form of government evolved amongst them was the *Saṅgha*. Under the *Saṅgha* polity also there were several stages of development. Some were only aristocratic oligarchies; others were of the Rājanya variety whose descendants are to be seen most likely in the Rāṇas of the Panjab Hill States; and still others were politically so well organised as to associate the whole *Janapada* with the sovereign right of issuing coins.

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But besides *Saṅgha* there were other elementary forms of democratic institutions in existence amongst those *āyudhajīvins*, three of which as *Śreṇi*, *Pūga* and *Vrāta* are particularly noteworthy. The word *Śreṇi* possessed a political significance also as shown by the expression *Kshatriya-śreṇi* found in the *Arthaśāstra* for a class of *Vārtā-śastropajīvins*. The *Mahābhārata* also knows of *Śreṇi* as a political institution. It mentions *Śreṇis* fighting on the side of Duryodhana (*Śreṇayo bahusāhasrāḥ saṁśapatakagaṇāścha ye*, Karṇaparva, V.40). These must be corporations of fighting Kshatriyas. Pāṇini’s *sūtra* II.1.59, *Śreṇyādayaḥ kṛtādibhiḥ*, shows the political development at work among the *Āyudhajīvan* peoples organising themselves into new *Śreṇis* and *Pūgas*. Bands of *āyudhjīvin* warriors were coming under the general influence of political awakening and emerging into organised political life. The linguistic formation such as *aśreṇayaḥ śreṇayaḥ kṛitāḥ Śreṇikṛitāḥ* points to these new political developments. Similarly *Pūga-bhūtāḥ*, (*apūgāḥ pūgā bhūtāḥ*, 'those who were not organised as *pūga* became so organised'), and *Eka-bhūtāḥ*, 'tribes organising themselves as one political unit under a common ruler' (*ekādhīna*) or king.

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*PŪGA*—*Pūga* was less developed than a regular *āyudhjīvī Saṅgha*, but better organised than a *Vrāta*. The *Kāśikā* makes *Pūga* a species of *Saṅgha* composed of members of different castes without any regular occupation, but probably of a peaceful character intent on earning money (*nānā-jātīyā aniyata-vṛittayo arthakāma-pradhānāḥ Saṅghāḥ Pūgāḥ*, V.3.112). Pāṇini mentions *Pūga* along with *Saṅgha* and *Gaṇa* in connection with a quorum, the member whose presence imparted to the *Pūga* its completeness being mentioned as *Pūgatitha* (*pūgasya pūraṇaḥ*, V.2.52). This shows that the method of deliberation prevailing in the *Pūga* was similar to that in the well organised *Saṅghas* and *Gaṇas*.

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*Grāmaṇī Constitution of Pūgas.* Sūtra V.3.112 is important as throwing light on the nature and constitution of *Pūgas*. It shows that *Pūgas* derived their names in two ways; some were named after their Leader or *Grāmaṇī*, and some from other circumstances (*Pūgāññyo'grāmaṇī-pūrvāt*, V.3.112). The *Kāśikā* mentions Lohadhvaja, Chātaka and Śibi as Pūgas whose names were not derived from those of their leaders. But Devadattaka and Yajñadattaka are given as typical names of *Pūgas* called after the name of their *Grāmaṇī*. Thus those who recognised Devadatta as their *Grāmaṇī* were called *Devadattakāḥ*. This fact is significant, as we know that the organisation of a corporate band of persons under one leader is still the prevailing custom in the North-West. Many of the Pathan tribes or *khels* are named after their ancestral leaders corresponding to ancient *Grāmaṇīs*. Isazai, Usufzai, both living on the banks of the Indus, are names of this type. The name of the *Pūga* as derived from its original *Grāmaṇī* founder continued later on through generations.

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The association of *Pūga* with *Grāmaṇī* in Pāṇini's *sūtra* points to their definite geographical area. We are told in the *Mahābhārata* that the warlike *Grāmaṇīyas*, i.e. clans named after their *grāmaṇīs*, lived on the banks of the Indus and they fought against Nakula in his western campaign (*Sindhu-kūlāśritā ye cha Grāmaṇīyā mahābalāḥ*, Sabhāparva, 32.9). We may thus locate the *Pūga* type of *Saṅghas* organised under *Grāmaṇī* leaders in the tribal area to the west of the Indus. Pāṇini names some of these war-like tribes of the North-West Frontier, *e.g.* Aśani (*Parśvādi* group, V.3.117) perhaps, Shinwāris with their parent-stock of the Kārshbuns, to be identified with Kārshāpaṇas in the same *gaṇa*; the Āprītas or Aparītas (IV.2.53), same as Greek Aparytai, (*Camb. Hist.*, p. 339), modern Afridis. The Pathans are an ancient people, settled in their original homeland, the country of Vedic Pakthas, or Pakteys (country Paktyike) mentioned as being in the north-west of India by Herodotus (*Ved. Ind.*, I. 464), from which Pakhtun is derived. Several ancient Sanskrit names in the *gaṇas* correspond to names of these clans, e.g., the Pavindas (*Aśvādi gaṇa*, IV.1.110) corresponding to modern Powindas settled in the Gomal valley, armed tribesmen formerly occupying the Wana plain (*N.W.F.P. Gaz.*, p. 253), and the Vānavyas (*Naḍādi* group, IV.1.99; people of the Vanāyu country), corresponding to the people of the wide open Wānā Valley in the north of Gomal river.

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These clans (*Pūgas*) are still governed by their Council of Elders, which according to the Frontier Crimes Regulation has a determining voice in the adjudication of criminal cases, and which represents survivals of the old form of *Saṅgha* government which obtained amongst them.

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*Kumāra-Pūgas.* In *sūtra* VI.2.28 there is a reference to Youth Organisations of these *Pūgas*, with the prefix *kumāra* added to their names, *e.g.*, *Kumāra-Chātakāḥ*, *Kumāra-Lohadhvajāḥ*, *Kumāra-Balāhakāḥ*, *Kumāra-Jīmūtāḥ* (*Kāśikā*). These must have been organised under the auspices of their parent body or the Elders. Kauṭilya also mentions these two divisions as *Saṅghamukhyas* and *Kumārakas* distinctly existing inside *Saṅgha* organizations (*Arth.*, XI.1, p. 378). It is clear that the terms *kumāra* and *saṅghamukhya* correspond to what Pāṇini has designated as the *yuvan* members and *vṛiddhas*. Both the *Yuvan* and *Vṛiddha* members of each family received social and political recognition in the *Kula* as well as the *Saṅgha*.

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VRĀTA—The *Vrātus* were bands of war-like roving aboriginal tribes, with whom the Aryans came into conflict. The *Ṛigveda* refers to the Aryan heroes as *vrātasāhaḥ* (VI.75.9). From Pāṇini it appears that the *Vrātus* lived in an elementary stage of *Saṅgha* government. The *Kāśikā* defines *Vrāta* as a *Saṅgha* living by violence (*utsedha-jīvinaḥ saṅghā vrātāḥ*, V.3.113). Pāṇini refers to *Vrāta* in a two-fold sense, the other being depredation or physical violence by which those people made a living (*Vrātena jīvati*, V.2.21), from which they were known as *Vrātīnas*. This was the general name given them by *Lāṭyāyana* also. According to Weber they were non-Brahmanical western tribes comprised of *yaudhas* or warriors (Weber, *H.I.L.*, p. 78; *Vedic Index*, II.344, agrees with this). Since Pāṇini's time up to now the predatory habits (*utsedha*) of these tribes have continued. For example, the Zakkakhel clan of the Afridis are notorious as the most active bands of thieves on the Frontier (*N.W.F.P. Gaz.*, p. 236). The *Kāśikā* explains *vrāta* as physical violence, and the word *utsedha* used there corresponds to *prasedha* of the *Lāṭyāyana Śrautasūtra* used for the Vrātyas (*Vrātyāḥ prasedhamānā yānti*, VIII.6 7; commentary, *lokam āsedhantaḥ praśayantaḥ*). The object of *sūtra* V.3.113 (*Vrāta-chphañor-astriyām*) is to regulate the formation of the names of Vrātas of which the *Kāśikā* cites two examples, viz., Kapotapākāḥ and Vrīhimatāḥ. The *Mahābhārata* regards the Dārvābhisaras and Darads as Vrātas (Droṇaparva, 93.44; Vulgate).

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VRĀTAS=VRĀTYAS—The *Vrātas* seem to have been the same as *Vrātyas* (cf. Sāyaṇa explaining *vrāta* of *Tāṇḍya* XVII.1.5; as *vrātya-samudāya*). The *Śrautasūtras* give details regarding *Vrātyas* as to their modes of life, belongings and dress. They are said to have used a kind of very small wagon covered with a plank for seat and useful for driving along trackless paths (*vipatha*; also *phalakāstīrṇa*, from which Hindi *phirak* a dialectical word still current), a stringless bow not using arrows but probably sling balls or pellets, bellow-like skin quivers (*bhastrā* or *kalāpa*) as used by the Sakas, a silver disc round neck, goat-skin or *postīn* (*āvika*), tilted cornate turban, and a kind of cloth woven with black thread (*vāsaḥ kṛishṇa-daśaṁ kadru Kātyāyana Śr.*, XXI.134), or of a different colour, but fringed with streaks of strong block colour (XXI.135) and called *kadru* (*kṛishṇa-sūtrotaṁ tat-kadrvākhyam*, com.) Pāṇini's reference to *Taitila-kadrū* (VI.2.42) is very likely to the *kadru* cloth of the Taitila country. Kauṭilya mentions Taitila as a breed of horses which from its association with other names of north-western countries as Kambhoja, Sindhu, Bāhlīka, Sauvīra and Vānāyu (Wana Valley) should be taken as being imported from north-west India (*Arth*, II.30, p. 133). This gives an indication of the place of origin of the *Taitila-kadrū*, if the rendering of *kadrū* as the name of a fabric in use amongst the Vrātyas be correct.

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The *Vrātyas* were more backward in their political organisation than the *Pūgas*. They were subordinate to a leader distinguished by his *nishka* ornament of silver (*nishko rājataḥ*, *Kātyāyana*, XXI.138; *Vedic Index*, II.344). Like the *Pūgas*, their leader also seems to have been called a *Grāmaṇī* (V.3.112). In the *Saṁyutta Nikāya*, a *yodhājīva gāmaṇi* discourses with the Buddha (IV.308-09). From his talk it appears that there were many old *āchāryas* among them who themselves being soldiers held out to those dying in action the hope of becoming one with the Sarañjita Devas (the gods of "Passionate Delight", *D.P.P.N.*, II.1068). This agrees with the description of the *Lāṭyāyana Śr.* which draws a distinction between the *yaudhas* (warriors) and the *arhants* or teachers or priests wearing red turbans. (cf. Patañjali's *lohītoshṇīshāḥ ṛitvijaḥ, Bhāshya*, I.1.27; I.86; also *Kāt. Śr.*, XXII.3.15).

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VRĀTYA-STOMAS—Earnest attempts were made to reclaim these people to the Aryan fold by the performance of some easy rituals called *Vrātya-stoma*, considered adequate to purify them (*mṛijānāḥ yanti, Kāt. Śr.*, XXII.4.26), to put an end to their stigma (*vrātyastomeneshṭvā vrātya-bhāvād virameyuḥ, ib.*, XXII.4.29), and to entitle them to social intercourse (*vyavahāryā bhavanti, ib.* XXII.4.30). It is possible that the converted Vrātyas who had been admitted to the Brāhmaṇa or Kshatriya fold were spoken of as *Brāhmaṇa-kṛitāḥ*, and *Kshatriya-kṛitāḥ*, expressions read along with *Śreṇi-kṛitāḥ, Pūga-kṛitāḥ*, etc. in the *Śreṇyādi gaṇa* (II.1.59).

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These social formations indicate a vigorous movement to absorb in the Hindu society elements that were at one time outside the Aryan pail. In Pāṇini's time social movements of this type were in brisk operation as evidenced by certain words in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*. Sometimes even after the transition of a particular people from the *Vrāta* stage to that of a *Saṅgha*, pockets of *Vrāta* soldiery continued to exist. This was true of the Andhaka-Vṛishṇi *Saṅgha*, about which Kṛishṇa says that 'contingents, 18,000 strong, are organised still as *Vrātās* in our *Kula* organisation' (*ashṭādaśa-sahasrāṇi vrātānāṁ santi naḥ kule, Sabhāparva*, 13.55).

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*FOUR-FOLD VRĀTYA-STOMAS*—The Vrātya-stoma ritual was made an extremely simple affair, allowing much latitude to its performer. Naturally the *Vrātās* could not been expected to handle elaborate ritual. It is therefore laid down that the Vrātya-stoma sacrifice can be performed in ordinary fire (*laukika agni*, com. on *Kāt.* I.1.14), and with such ingredients as could be obtained in each locality (*yathādravye janapade*, *ib.* XXII.2.22). One can easily perceive that the four kinds of Vrātya-stomas were prescribed for corresponding elements of the *Vrāta* population:

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(1) For cultural leaders in Vrātya society (*vrātya-gaṇasya ye sampādayeyuḥ*, *Kāt.*, XXII.4.3). These were the same as are designated *āchāryas* in the *Saṁyutta Nikāya* (cited above).

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(2) For those who actually lived by violence, (called *nindita* and *nṛiśaṁsa* (*Kāt.*, XXII.44), corresponding to the *utsedha-jīvins* of grammatical literature.

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(3) For youngsters (*tṛitīyana kanishṭhāḥ*, *Kāt.*, XXII.4.5; =*Yuvānaḥ*), who had not yet developed criminal habits. We are at once reminded of Pāṇini VI.2.28 referring to *Kumāra-Pūga*. This shows two things, viz. existence of juvenile groups amongst the Vrātyas, and similarity in the political texture of *Pūgas* and *Vrātas* as crude *Saṅgha* organisations.

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(4) The last Vrātya-stoma converted the elderly members of a Vrātya community, *jyeshṭhāḥ* (*Kat.*, XXII.4.6) also called *sthavira* (XXII.4.7), corresponding to what Pāṇini calls *Vṛiddha* in distinction to the *Yuvan* members in the families. It is thus clear that this four-fold programme aimed at working on more than one front at a time to accelerate the process of Aryanisation of the Vrātya elements in the population.

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*ĀYUDHAJĪVĪ SAṄGHAS*—Pāṇini mentioned the *āyudhajīvī Saṅghas* by name in *sūtras* V.3.115-17 and in the three *gaṇas* of these *sūtras*, *Dāmanyādi*, *Parśvādi* and *Yaudheyādi*. The chapter opens with a reference to such *Saṅghas* in the Vāhīka country, the cradle-land of martial tribes who cultivated military art as a way of life. Mostly they were Kshatriyas. But *sūtra* V.3.114 (*Āyudhajīvi-saṅghañ-ñyaḍ Vāhīkeshva-Brāhmaṇa-Rājanyāt*) shows that some of them were Brāhmaṇas also, *e.g.* the Gopālavas, and others called Rājanyas, which most likely correspond to those Hill States whose ruling classes designate themselves at present as Rāṇās. The Śālaṅkayanas are stated by the *Kāśikā* to have belonged to the Rājanya class, and they seem to be an ancient community, as even Patañjali mentions them by the name of *Trika* (V.¹.58; II.352), probably on account of their League of Three States (on the analogy of *Shashṭha* as applied to the League of Six Trigartas, V.3.116).

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¹ *Vṛika* (V.3.115). An individual member of this *Saṅgha* was called Vārkeṇya, and the whole *Saṅgha* Vṛika. This name standing alone in the *sūtra* with a suffix peculiar from the rest is hitherto untraced. It is stated to be *āyudhajīvin*, but not necessarily associated with Vāhīka. It should probably be identified with Varkaṇa, the Old-Persian form in the Behistun inscription of Darius, mentioned along with Pārthava or the Parthians (*Behistun Ins.*, Col. II.1.16). There is a striking similarity between the Sanskrit and Old-Persian forms of the name, *e.g.* Vārkeṇya equal to Vārkaṇa in the singular number, and Vṛikāḥ equal to Varkā in the plural as in the expression *Sakā Hauma-Varkā*. The country of the Vṛikas seems to have

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*NAMES OF SANGHAS IN THE SŪTRAS*—The following *āyudhjīvī Saṅghas* are mentioned in the *sūtras*:

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been the same as Hyrcania lying to the north of Parthia and on the eastern corner of the Caspian (mod. Persian *Gurgan*, from *vṛika*=*gurg*, in the valley of the river of that name in the fertile district of Astarabad (*Sanjana Studies*, p. 251; *Enc. Br.*, 17. 566). The Persians distinguished the Varkas and in fact all the northern warlike equestrian people as Sacas (Persepolis Tomb Insc., *Sakā para-daraia*). The name *Vṛika* was known throughout the north-west as shown by its derivatives found in the several languages near Pāṇini's homeland, e.g. Ishkashmī *werk*, Yidghā *wurk*, *wurg*, etc. The title Bakanapati or Barkanapati, the chief of Varkaṇas, is applied to a Śaka governor of Mathurā who was associated with the foundation and repair of the Devakula of Wima Kadphises (*J.R.A.S.*, 1924, p. 402; *J.B.O.R.S.*, XVI, p. 258), whom Jayaswal identified as a Hyrcanian Saka. Pāṇini's acquaintance with a branch of the Śakas is not surprising, since he uses the Śaka word *kanthā* meaning 'town' in six *sūtras*. The Śakas were a very ancient race referred to in the Old-Persian inscriptions of Darius and settled both in Śakasthāna and on the borders of Parthia which were connected with Bāhlīka and Gandhāra. Kātyāyana also has the expression *Śaka-Parthava* in a *vārttika* showing that in the fourth century B.C. he knew of the Śakas and the Parthians, probably by way of commerce, previous to their political invasions. The Virks are also a section of the Jāts in the Punjab, who originally seem to have been Scythians.

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² *Dāmani* (V.3.116). There is a strong resemblance between the name of this *Saṅgha* and a powerful warlike tribe still known as Damani and settled in the north-western portion of Baluchistan known as Chagai lying to the south of the Chagai Hills (*Imp. Gaz.*, Vol. X, p. 117).

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³ *Trigarta-Shashṭha* (V.3.116), the League of the Six Trigartas. Trigarta stands for 'Three Valleys', viz., those of the rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The Trigartas represented a second cluster of mountainous *Saṅghas* being counted amongst *Parvatāśrayiṇaḥ* (*Mārk. Purāṇa*, 57.57), along with the Nihāras,

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Dārvas, Karṇa-Prāvaraṇas, etc., who formed the north-western group. In earlier times this region, as now, was split up into a number of States. The *Kāśikā* mentions the Six Members of this Confederacy as follows:—

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(1) Kauṇḍoparatha, (2) Dāṇḍaki, (3) Kraushṭaki, (4) Jālamāni, (5) Brāhmagupta and (6) Jānaki.

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These are not identified. Brāhmagupta may be Bhramor. Jānakis are mentioned as helpmates of king Suśarmā of Trigarta (Ādi., 61.17; Udyoga., 4.17).

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4. *Yaudheya* (V.3.117). Pāṇini's reference to Yaudheyas is the earliest known. The Yaudheyas have a long history as shown by their inscriptions and coins of different ages, and were existing upto the time of Samudragupta. Their coins are found in the East Panjab and all over the country between the Sutlej and the Jumna, covering a period of about four centuries, 2nd century B.C. to 2nd century A.D. The *Mahābhārata* mentions Rohitaka as the capital of the Bahudhānyaka country, where a mint-site of the Yaudheyas of Bahudhāñyaka was found by the late Dr. Birbal Sahni. Sunet mentioned as Saunetra by Pāṇini was a centre of the Yaudheyas where their coins, moulds and sealings have been found. The Yaudheyas do not seem to have come into conflict with Alexander, since they are not named by the Greek writers. The Johiyā Rajputs who are found on the banks of the Sutlej along the Bahawalpur frontier may be identified as their modern descendants (*A.S.R.*, XIV., p. 114).

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5. *Parśu* (V.3.117). The whole tribe was called *Parśavaḥ*, and a single member *Pārśava*. The Parśus may be identified with the Persians. The Parśus are also known to Vedic literature (*Ṛigveda*, VIII.6.46) where Lüdwig and Weber identify them with the Persians. Keith discussing Pāṇini's reference to the Parśus proposes the same identification and thinks 'that the Indians and Iranians were early connected' (*Ved. Ind.*, I.505).

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Gandhāra, Pāṇini's homeland, and Pārsa, both occur as names of two provinces in the Behistun Inscription, brought under the common sovereignty of Darius (521-486 B.C.), which promoted their mutual intercourse. Pāṇini knows Gāndhārī as a kingdom (IV.¹.169). It seems that soon after the death of Darius Gandhāra became independent, as would appear from the manner of its mention by Pāṇini as an independent *janapada*. Pāṇini's *Pārśava* is nearer to the Old-Persian form Pārsa (cf. the Behistun Inscription) denoting both the country and its inhabitants, and king Darius calls himself a *Pārsa*, *Pārsahyā pusa*, 'Persian, son of a Persian' (Susa inscription, *J.A.O.S.*, 51.222).

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¹ *Dāmanyādi group* (V.3.116). The names which are supported both by the commentary on *Chandra* and the *Kāśikā* are Aulapi, Audaki, Āchyutanti (or Achyutadanti), Kākādanti, Sārvaseni, Bindu, Tulabha (*Kāśikā* Ulabha), Mauñjāyana and Sāvitrīputra. Of these only the Sāvitrīputras are mentioned in the *Mahābhārata* (Vanaparva, 297.58; Karṇaparva, V.49) and should be located in the Panjab adjacent to the Uśīnaras. The Sārvasenis (also *Kāśikā*, VIII.1.5; VI.2.33; cf. Bhīshmaparva, 10.59) seem to be a branch of the Sarvasenas mentioned in the *Śaṇḍikādi gaṇa* (IV.3.72), like Gāndhārī-Gandhāra, Sālva-Sālveya. As pointed out by Przyluski *kāra* in Madrakāra meant 'army' or 'troops', being an Old-Iranian word. It is the same as Skt. *senā* (*ante*, p. 57). The Madrakāras were a division of the Sālvas (IV.1.173). In medieval tradition the Sālvas were known as Kārakukshīyas (Hemachandra, *Abhidhānachintāmaṇi*, IV.23), a significant name derived from their territory containing rich pockets of *kāras* or soldiery. This is just the idea of Sārvaseni also,

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Baudhāyana also mentions the Gandhāris along with the Sparśus amongst western peoples (*Baudhāyana Śr.*, 18.44, p. 397; *Vedic Index*, II.489).

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ĀYUDHJĪVĪ SANGHAS IN THE *GAṆA-PĀṬHA*—The three *gaṇas*, *Dāmanyādi*, *Parśvādi* and *Yaudheyādi* give some more names of *Āyudhajīvī Saṅghas*:

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and it appears that this was the region of north Rajasthan, where we have already located the Sālvas (*ante*, p. 55). This is confirmed by the *Kāśikā* counting it amongst three rainless areas, *viz.* Trigarta, Sauvīra and Sārvaseni. (*Kāśikā* VIII.1.5; VI.2.33). Mauñjāyana (V.3.116; IV.1.99) seems to be Munjān in the Upper Oxus region, the home of the Ghalcha dialect called Munjānī (cf. *Mauñjāyanī* in IV.1.73 *gaṇa*). The Baijavāpis seem to be a genuine reading in the *gaṇa*, being included in the commentary on *Chandra* also. The name occurs in the *Raivatakādi* (IV.3.131) and *Sutaṅgamādi gaṇa* (IV.2.80), and is mentioned in the *Bhāshya* (II.4.81; I.496), *Charaka* (I.1.10), and the *Śatapatha* (XIV. 5.5.20, Baijavāpāyana).

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2. *Parśvādi* (V.3.117). There are twelve names in this *gaṇa* common to both *Chandra* and *Kāśikā*, only the name Viśāla is new in the *Kāśikā* and may be an interpolation. The first three names Parśu, Rakshas and Asura are mentioned by Patañjali as forming part of this *gaṇa* and must be names of actual peoples and not mythical (*Bhāshya*, II.270). The following is the full list of the *Saṅghas* in this group:

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(1) *Bāhlīka*. Identified with Balkh in the extreme north of Afghanistan, which must have been organised as an *āyudhajīvī Saṅgha* in Pāṇini’s time. It was reckoned as a satrapy of the empire of Darius, a little before Pāṇini’s time.

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(2) *Asura*. It is a generic name but in this case may be identified with the name of the Assyrians, whose country formed part of the Persian empire in the fifth century B.C. and is mentioned in the Behistun inscription as Old-Persian *Athurā*, and in Susian as *Aṣṣura*.

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(3) *Piśācha*, literally a people who were consumers of raw flesh. Grierson has conclusively shown that the inhabitants of the North-Western Frontier, *i.e.*, of Gilgit, Chitral and Kafiristan, were of Piśācha tribe, where cannibalism, eating raw flesh, once prevailed and he also observes that in the south of the Kafir country, round about Laghman, are the Pashai Kafirs whom Dr. Hoernle proposed to identify with Piśācha as a phonetically sound equation (Piśācha, *J.R.A.S.*, 1950, pp. 285-88). Discussing the question "Who were the Piśāchas?", he comes to the conclusion that they were originally a real people, probably of Aryan origin, who inhabited the north-west of India and the neighbouring parts of the Himalayas, and were closely connected with the Khaśas, Nāgas, and Yakshas. Pargiter agreeing with Grierson's identification of the Piśāchas has observed that 'there can be no reasonable doubt that their character as demons or goblins was a later perversion of their real nature' (*J.R.A.S.*, 1912, p. 712). The existence of the Paiśāchī Prakrit is so well attested to by literary references that there can be no reasonable doubt about its speakers being real human beings.

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(4) *Rakshas*. By adding the *aṇ* suffix in a pleonastic sense (*svārthe*) prescribed by this very *sūtra* (V.3.117) we get the word form *Rākshasa*. They also appear to have been an actual people, probably of the north-west group and of the same racial character as the Piśāchas. The Rākshasas, Nāgas and the Piśāchas fight also in the Bhārata war on both sides (Pargiter, *J.R.A.S.*, 1908, p. 331). We find an important tribe named Rakshānis settled in Chagai district of North Baluchistan (*Imp. Gaz.*, X.117).

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(5) *Marut*, unidentified, but possibly connected with the Pathan tribe called the Marwats, now settled in the Marwat Tahsil of Bannu district (*Imp. Gaz.*, VI.394).

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(6) *Aśani* and (7) *Kārshāpaṇa*. The juxtaposition of these two names seems to be significant, for we find two corresponding Pathan tribes, Shinwari and Karshabun, belonging to the same stock (*Imp. Gaz.*, *N.W.F.P.*, p. 79). The preservation of a caste system, and the sanctity of the cow among the Shins, settled in the eastern Hindu-Kush region, north of Landi Kotal, point to their former religion being Hinduism. The mountain villages where Shins are in majority retain a trace of former idolatry in the sacred stones set up in one form or another, in almost every hamlet (*Afghanistan Gazetteer*, p. 49). The change in religion has not yet brought about the seclusion of Shin women, who mix freely with men on all occasions, a survival of the days of their freedom.

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(8) *Sātvata* and (9) *Dāśārha*. The Sātvata and the Dāśārha clans are stated in the *Mahābhārata* to have formed part of the Andhaka-Vṛishṇi *Saṅgha*.

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(10) Vayas and (11) Vasu are names not identified.

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3. *Yaudheyādi group*, is repeated twice in the *Ashṭādhyāyī* (IV.1.178 and V.3.117), a phenomenon somewhat unusual, as observed by the author of the *Nyāsa* (*Vichitrā hi gaṇānāṁ kṛitir-gaṇakārasyeti punaḥ paṭhitaḥ*). Nine names are common to both lists and they alone seem to be genuine:

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(1) *Yaudheya*, as explained above.

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(2) *Śaubhreya*, probably named after an original ancestor called Śubhra referred to in *sūtra* IV.1.123 (*Śubhrādibhyaścha*). The name was possibly connected with the *Sabarcae* of Curtius, who are named as *Sabagrae* by Orosius. After the battle with the *Oxydrakai* (Kshudrakas) near the old junction of the Ravi with the Chenab, Alexander 'marched towards the *Sabarcae*, a powerful Indian tribe where the form of government was democratic and not regal (*Curtius*). Their army consisted of 60,000 foot and 6,000 cavalry attended by 500 chariots. They had elected three generals renowned for their valour and military skill;' (M'Crindle's *Alexander*, p. 252). The above description points to the *Sabarcae* having been an *āyudhjīvī Saṅgha*, which the Śaubhreyas of Pāṇini were. In this case the Greeks particularly noted the form of their government which was democratic and not regal.

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The territory of this *Saṅgha* lay on the lower course of the Chenab after it met the Ravi. The tribe was settled near the river by which Alexander was returning with his fleet after his battle with the Kshudraka-Mālavas. Both banks of the river were thickly studded with their villages (*Alexander*, p. 252).

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(3) *Śaukreya.* Probably the Scythian tribe *Sakarauloi*, mentioned as *Saruka*, along with *Pasionoi* (*Prāchīnī*) in the Puṇyaśālā Ins. at Mathurā.

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(4) *Vārteya*, may be identified with the Indian tribe *Oreitai*, settled to the west of the river Porali which now falls into the Sonmiani Bay, west of Karachi (cf. Saunāmaneya in *Śubhrādi gaṇa* IV.1.123; also IV.1.86). According to Curtius the tribe had long maintained its independence in those parts and it negotiated peace with Alexander through their leaders, which reflects its *Saṅgha* character (*Alexander*, p. 169).

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On the east of the river Arabis (old name of Porali) was another independent tribe which the Greeks called *Arabitai*, corresponding to Sanskrit Ārabhaṭa (the home of Ārabhaṭī *vṛitti*), a word unknown in Pāṇinian geography, but both of them as the Greeks noted, lay within the geographical limits of India.

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(5) *Dhārteya* unidentified, probably the same as the Dārteyas (*Ved. Ind.*, I.353). The Greek writers mention Dyrta as a town of the Assakenoi or the Āśvakāyanas of Massaga, and this may have been the capital of the Dārteyas.

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(6) *Jyābāṇeya*, a war-like tribe whose bow-string served as arrow. The Vrātyas of the *Tāṇḍya Br.* (XVII.1.24) and the *Śrautasūtras* appear to be the same as Pāṇini's *āyudha-jīvī Saṅghas* of *Vrāta* type. Amonst them we have a feature called *jyā-hroḍa*, a kind of bow not for shooting arrows (*anishu-dhanushka*, *Lāṭ. Śr.*, VIII.7; and *ayogya dhanu*, *Kāt. Śr.*, XXII. 4.13), which seems to be a contrivance for hurling sling balls, most probably a pellet-bow. The *Jyābāṇeyas* seem to be a section of these Vrātyas. The *Mahābhārata* specifically mentions the Mountaineers (*Pārvatīyas*) as experts in fighting by hurling stone-blocks as big as elephant heads, and secondly by shooting stone-balls with slings (*kshepaṇīya*, Droṇaparva, 121. 34-35).

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(7) *Trigarta.* It is mentioned here again although its constituent states (*Trigarta-Shashṭhas*) have been referred to only in the preceding *sūtra* V.3.116.

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(8) *Bharata*. This *gaṇa* alone mentions the *Bharatas* as an *āyudhjīvī Saṅgha*. It must be some old tradition, otherwise Pāṇini locates them in the Kuru region, on the borderland of the Udīchya and Prāchya divisions of India. According to another *sūtra* the Kurus lived under a regal form of government. It seems that these Bharatas lived round about Kurukshetra as a *Saṅgha* in Pāṇini's time.

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(9) *Uśīnara* already mentioned as a division of Vāhīka. It is likely that it was under the *Saṅgha* government.

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The above survey of the names of the *āyudhjīvī Saṅghas* as found in *sūtras* and the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* shows the dominant fact that the *Saṅghas* were clustured in the north-west regions of India and the Punjab, that they were mostly *āyudhajīvins* or martial tribes, a feature retained by most of them to this day, and that they were living in different stages of political evolution, ranging from the *Vrātās* and *Pūgas* to *Śreṇis* and *Saṅghas*, as represented by the wild Piśāchas at one end and the highly organised Yaudheyas on the other.

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SOME MORE REPUBLICS—Besides the *āyudhajīvī Saṅghas* stated as such in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*, there were some other communities in Pāṇini's time, which as we know from other sources were republics. These were:

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(1) *Vṛiji* (IV.2.131). They are known as *Vajji* in Buddhist literature and said to have included eight confederate clans of whom the Lichchhavis and the Videhas were the most important, both being described as republics in Buddha's time (*Buddhist India*, p. 25).

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(2) *Rājanya* (IV.2.53). They are mentioned also by Kātyāyana and Patañjali and in the *Mahābhārata*. The abundance of their coins in Hoshiarpur district points to it as their region (*vishaya* or *deśa*). According to Pāṇini the country occupied by the Rājanyas was called Rājanyaka. It appears that in the period after Alexander which witnessed large-scale tribal movements, a branch of the Rājanyas had moved to the region of Mathurā where also their coins have been found.

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(3) *Mahārāja*. Pāṇini refers to *bhakti* shown to Mahārāja in *sūtra* IV.3.97. So far as the word form is concerned it is the same for the name of Mahārāja as a people and as a deity. The existence of a *Mahārāja Janapada* is proved by their coins found in the Panjab. Traces of the ancient name are probably still preserved in the collection of four large villages in the Moga Tahsil of Ferozpur district which is the headquarters of a Pargana and still called Mahārāja, held by the Maharajki clan of Jats. The Maharajkians who own the surrounding country as Jagirdars form a distinct community, physically robust and opposed to subordination (*Punjab Gazetteer*, I.453).

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(4) *Andhaka-Vṛishṇi* (VI.2.34). The Purāṇas make them identical with the Sātvatas whom Pāṇini mentions as a *Saṅgha* in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha*. The *Mahābhārata* refers to them as a *Saṅgha* and so does Kauṭilya. Pāṇini refers to Rājanya leaders amongst the Andhaka-Vṛishṇis, which as explained by the *Kāśikā* denoted members of such families as were entitled to be consecrated to rulership (*abhishikta-vaṁśya*). The chief feature of the Andhaka-Vṛishṇi constitution appears to be a full-fledged party system. The party of Akrūra and that of Vāsudeva are referred to by Patañjali showing that the followers of each leader were designated in accordance with their respectve party leaders, *e.g.* *Akrūra-vargya*, *Akrūra-vargīṇa*, and *Vāsudeva-vargya*, *Vāsudeva-vargīṇa* (II.295).

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(5) *Bharga* (IV.1.178). Pāṇini refers to the Bhargas as a Kshatriya tribe. The Buddhist records mention them as a republic.

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NAMES OF SOME IMPORTANT TRIBES—Some tribes in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* deserve to be mentioned as being of considerable importance. We are indebted to the Greek historians of Alexander for the information that most of these were republics.

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(1) *Kshudraka* (IV.2.45) identified by Sir R. G. Bhandarkar with the Oxydrakai of Greek writers. Curtius refers to them as *Sudracae* (M'Crindle, *Alexander's Invasion*, p. 238).

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(2) *Mālava* (Gk. *Malloi*). According to the Greek writers both these communities were settled in the region where the Ravi joins the Chenab. They are said to have offered the stoutest resistance to the Greek invaders.

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(3) *Vasāti* (IV.2.53; *Rājanyādi gaṇa*) identified with Greek *Ossadioi*, settled somewhere in the region of the confluence of the Chenab and Sutlej with the Indus.

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(4) *Āprīta* (*Rājanyādi gaṇa*). These are to be identified with the *Aparytai* of Herodotus (*C.H.I.*, p. 339), the ancestors of the Afridis, whose own pronunciation of the name is *Āprīdī*. Their country is called Āprīdī-Tīrāh.

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(5) *Madhumant*.—Pāṇini mentions Madhumat as the name of a country in the region of Gandhāra (*Kachchhādi*, IV.2.133; *Sindhvādi*, IV.3.93). The name occurs in *sūtra* IV.2.86 also as a *deśa-nāma*. The *Mahābhārata* mentions the *Madhumantaḥ* as a people of the north-west (Bhīshmaparva, IX.53). The Madhumants are clearly the Mohmands, who occupy the territory to the north of the Kabul river, their home-land Dīr-Bajaur covering an area of 1200 sq. miles (*Afghanistan Gaz.*, p. 225). On the map one can at once notice the relative position of these two powerful tribes who were close neighbours. What appear to be the ancient names of Dīr and Tīrāh are preserved in Patañjali, who refers to *Dvirāvatīko deśaḥ*, *Trīravatīko deśaḥ* as pair names (*Bhāshya*, I.4.1; I.301; II.1.20; I.382). The former is Dīr (land of the two rivers) so called from the Mohmand homeland between the Kunar and Panjkora rivers. Similarly the extensive Afridi-Tīrāh was *Trīrāvatīka*, from the three rivers Kabul, Bara and Indus (*Kubhā-Varā-Sindhu*) which enclose it.

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(6)-(8) *Hāstināyana*, *Āśvāyana*, *Āśvakāyana*. The first is mentioned in *sūtra* VI.4.174, the second in IV.1.110, and the third in the *Naḍādi gaṇa* (IV.1.99).

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While describing Alexander's campaign from Kapiśa towards the Indus through Gandhāra, the Greek historians mention three important war-like peoples, viz. the *Astakenoi*, with capital at Peukelaotis, the *Aspasioi* in the valley of the Kunar or Chitral river, and the *Assakenoi* settled between the Swat and the Panjkora rivers, with capital at Massaga, and more specially in the mountainous regions of the Swat. The Paninian evidence throws light on these three names for the first time:

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(*a*) Aspasioi=Āśvāyana; in Alishang or Kunar Valley.

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(*b*) Assakenoi=Āśvakāyana; in the Swat valley and highlands, with capital at Maśakāvatī.

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(*c*) Astakenoi=Hāstināyana; near the confluence of the Swat with the Kabul, with capital at Pushkalāvatī.

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The Āsvāyanas and the Āśvakāyanas were the bravest fighters of all, being strongly entrenched in their mountainous fortresses. Alexander himself directed the operations against them. The Āśvakayana capital at Massaga or Maśakāvatī is given in the *Bhāshya* as the name of a river (IV.2.71), that should be looked for in that portion of the Suvāstu in its lower reaches where Mazaga or Massanagar is situated on it at a distance of 24 miles from Bajaur in the Yusufzai country. In times of danger the Āsvakāyanas withdrew into the impregnable defences of their hilly fortress which the Greeks have named Aornos. It appears to be the same as Varaṇā of the *Ashṭādhyāyī* (see *ante*, p. 69, for its identification with modern Uṇrā on the Indus). The Greeks also mention another of their towns, viz. Arigaeon, which commanded the road between the Kunar and the Panjkira valleys, and is comparable with Ārjunāva of the *Kāśikā* (*ṛijunāvāṁ nivāso deśaḥ*, IV.2.69).

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