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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c8.s5: Section 5. Social Formations

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c8.s5

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Section 5. Social Formations

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These include in a descending order the following (1) *Janapada*, (2) *Varṇa*, (3) *Jāti*, (4) *Gotra*, (5) *Sapiṇḍa*, (6) *Sanābhi*, (7) *Jñāti*, (8) *Saṁyukta*, (9) *Kula*, (10) *Vaṁśa*, and (11) *Gṛihapati*.

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Pāṇini is acquainted with a number of *Janapadas* or States. To start with, a wandering *Jana* which was a Kshattriya clan, settled down in a particular region (*Jana-pada*), which came to be named after it. In time, other peoples also came to settle in it, whence arose the conception of a common citizenship binding them to the *Janapada*. It marked the evolution from the racial (*Jana*) to the territorial (*Janapada*) basis of citizenship embracing a variety of peoples. The citizens bound in loyalty to a common *Janapada* were called *Sajanapadas* (VI.3.85), nationals of the same State. The Vedic Bharata *Jana*, for instance, became settled in the region called Bharata, where were also settled later on other people giving rise to the territorial conception of citizenship replacing the clan. Thus it marked a great progress in political evolution.

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The governing class of each *Janapada*, however, was distinguished from the rest of its citizens by the designation *Janapadins* (IV.3.100), or the citizens proper as an elect body or nucleus representing the original settlers.

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A typical *Janapada* was peopled by members of the four principal castes and other mixed castes so that its population was heterogeneous.

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VARṆA AND JĀTI—Pāṇini mentions members of the same caste or *Varṇa* as *savarṇa* (from *samāna varṇa*, VI.3.85).

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However, the term *Jāti* is used more often for caste. In the early Vedic texts and even in the *Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra*, it had only the sense of family (*Vedic Index*, Vol. I.281).

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In the *Ashṭādhyāyī* an individual member of a caste is designated as *bandhu* in relation to his *jāti* (*Jātyantāch-chha bandhuni*, V.4.9). ‘The affix *chha* (*īya*) is added to a word ending in the word *jāti*, when it denotes a *bandhu*.’ The examples are *Brāhmaṇa-jātīyaḥ*, *Kshatriya-jātīyaḥ*, *Vaiśya-jātīyaḥ*. The *Kāśikā* says that *bandhu* in the *sūtra* means an individual; the *jāti* or class is in itself an invisible entity which achieves concrete form only through its component parts or *bandhus*. The term *bandhu* implies relationship, thus pointing to the fact that the *jāti* had evolved out of the common bond of mutual kinship. The word *sabandhu* in *sūtra* VI.3.85, indicates this idea of kinship, (*samāna-bandhutva*) uniting members of one caste.

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SAGOTRA—Next to caste was *Gotra*. *Gotra* denoted the ancestral family from which its members traced their descent. Members belonging to the same *gotra* were called *sagotra* (VI. 3.85). The *gotra* name of a person on the basis of his *gotra* must have been a matter of considerable practical importance. In the *Jātakas* we often find the *gotra* name of a person asked along with his personal name. This is shown by Pāṇini having prescribed elaborate rules for the formation of *gotra* names, *e.g.* Garga, father; Gārgi, son; Gārgya grandson; Gārgyāyaṇa great-grandson.

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SAPIṆḌA—It is important to note that the word *Sapiṇḍa* is peculiar to the *Sūtra* literature; there is no trace of it either in the *Saṁhitās*, or the *Brāhmaṇas* and *Araṇyakas*. The *Dharma-śāstra* works explain *Sapiṇḍa* as blood-relations upto the seventh degree on the father’s and fifth on the mother’s side (*Manu*, V.60). Pāṇini refers to the *Sapiṇḍa* institution in the aphorism, *Vānyasmin sapiṇḍe sthaviratare jīvati* (IV.1.165), which states that a great-grandson was called *yuvan* when a more elderly *Sapiṇḍa*, *i.e.* either his uncle or grand-uncle was alive.

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SANĀBHI—Sanābhi is equal to *samāna nābhi*, *i.e.* those connected with a common *nābhi* or umbilical cord (VI.3.85), thus bringing within its fold all the blood-relations of different degrees. In the *Ṛigveda* I.139.9, the seer Paruchchhepa says: our *nābhis* (umbilical cords) join us to Manu, Atri and Kaṇva of old (*Asmākaṁ teshu nābhayaḥ*). In *Manu*, *Sanābhya* is taken as *Sapiṇḍa* (cf. *Kullūka*, V.184).

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*JÑĀTI*—*Jñāti* mentioned in *sūtra* VI.2.133 is explained by the *Kāśikā* as comprising 'all relations on the mother's and father's side' (*jñātayo mātṛi-pitṛi-sambandhino bāndhavāḥ*, VI.2.133). Pāṇini considers *jñāti* to be synonymous with *sva*, *i.e.* kinsmen or paternal relations (I.1.35).

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*SAMYUKTA*—*Jñāti* and *Saṁyukta* occur in the same *sūtra* (VI.2.133), the latter formed a smaller social unit than the former. The *Kāśikā* says that the *saṁyuktas* included relations on the wife's side only, as brother-in-law and others (*saṁyuktāḥ strī-sambandhinaḥ śyālālayaḥ*), which means that the wife's *jñātis* were the *saṁyukta* relations of the husband. Among *saṁyuktas* Pāṇini himself mentions *śvaśura-śvaśrū*, *i.e.* father-in-law and mother-in-law (I.2.71), and *śvaśurya* or brother-in-law (IV.1.137).

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*FAMILY (KULA)*—The family was considered to be the fundamental unit or nucleus of society in ancient India. Society was an aggregate of families, each comprising several members under the headship of the father, or in his absence the eldest brother, and as far as possible partaking of a common household. Pāṇini calls family a *kula* (IV.1.139; IV.2.96).

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The word *kulīna*, 'of eminent family,' (IV.1.139) indicated high descent. The epithet *mahākula* was indicative of a still higher family status. Pāṇini refers to the members of these distinguished families as *mahākulīna*, *māhākulīna* and *māhākula* (IV.1.141). On IV.1.139 the *Kāśikā* refers to a member of a superior family of śrotriya Brāhmaṇas as *śrotriya-kulīna*. Manu points out that a *kula* could be improved in its status by the following factors: (1) marriage, (2) study of the Vedas, and (3) performance of Vedic rites, (*Manu*, III.66; 184-186), to which the *Mahābhārata* echoing the same popular esteem for *mahākula* adds *tapa*, *dama*, *annadāna* and *samyag vṛitta* (Udyogaparva, 36.23-29).

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On the other hand some families suffered in social status by their neglect of Vedic study or lapses in morals; members of such degraded families were stigmatised as *dushkulīna* or *daushkuleya* (IV.2.142).

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VAMŚA—*Vaṁśas* could be both natural and cultural in their character. The spiritual lineage is called by Pāṇini *Vidyā-sambandha*, and the natural *Yoni-sambandha* (IV.3.77; VI.3.23). The spiritual lineage is represented by a succession of teachers and pupils. The natural lineage is traced both on the father's and mother's side, as pointed out by Patañjali (IV.1.147; II.261).

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It was the duty of the pupils to recite the succession-lists of the teachers of Schools to which they belonged. A few such spiritual genealogies are preserved in Vedic works.

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Family pedigrees also seem to be carefully preserved by counting the number of its generations from the original founder. *Sūtra*, II.1.19, *Saṁkhyā vaṁśyena*, states that a numeral may be prefixed to the name of an ancestor (*vaṁśya*) and the compound thus formed will indicate the number of generations descended from him. As an instance Patañjali cites *ekaviṁśati-Bhāradvājam*, meaning that there were twenty-one descendants in the line of Bhāradvāja (I.499).

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A second instance is *tripañchāśad-Gautamam* (Pat. I.499 on II.4.84), meaning that there were already counted fifty-three generations of the descendants of Gautamas. These numbers afford valuable chronological data for computing their time allowing 25 years to a generation. Thus the first Bhāradvāja should be dated to about five-hundred years earlier and the first Gautama to about thirteen hundred years earlier than the time when the two illustrations were adopted. It may be noted as a striking resemblance that the *Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upanishad* also knows only of 57 generations of teachers. It may be surmised that perhaps this stock-example of fifty-three Gautamas dates from the time when the *Vaṁśa* lists were being compiled in the Brāhmaṇa period. We may also note that the Gautama family with which this example is connected was an important family famous for its learning as represented in its several descendants like Aruṇa, Uddālaka Āruṇi and his son Śvetaketu Āruṇeya in the Upanishads.

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The *sūtra* IV.1.163 mentions the two terms *Vaṁśya* and *Yuvā* which denoted the great-grandfather and the great-grandson respectively as being alive at the same time (*Jīvati tu vaṁśye yuvā*). As stated above, suffixes were added to indicate these distinctions, as in the series Garga-Gārgyāyaṇa. *GṚIHAPATI*—The smallest social formation was the *Gṛiha*, its master being called *Gṛihapati* (IV.4.90), in whom vested the supreme authority of the family. Generally the father was the *gṛihapati*, but after him his eldest son. *Sūtra* IV.1.164 (*Bhrātari cha jyāyasi*) points out that the younger brother was called *yuvā*, when he was under the guardianship of his elder brother as the head of the family.

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The family system was called *gārhapata*, of which Pāṇini cites the example *Kuru-gārhapatam* (VI.2.42), *i.e.* the family-system in the Kuru country, to which Kātyāyana adds another example, *viz.* *Vṛiji-gārhapatam*, the family-system in the Vṛiji country.

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*FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS*—The sphere of relationships constituting the family is indicated by the following list from the *Ashṭādhyāyī*:—

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*Mātā*, *Pitā* (I.2.70); *Pitāmaha*; *Pitṛivya* (uncle IV.2.36); *Bhrātā*, *Sodarya* (uterine brother, IV.4.109); *Jyāyān Bhrātā* (IV.1.164); *Svasā* (sister, I.2.68); *Putra*, *Pautra* (V.1.10); *Pitṛi-shvasā* (father's sister, VIII.3.84), *Paitrishvaseya* (her son, IV.1.132); *Mātṛi-shvasā* (mother's sister, VIII.3.84) and her son *Mātṛishvaseya* (IV.1.134); sister's son or *Svasrīya* (IV.1.143); brother's son or *Bhrātṛivya* (IV.1.144); *Mātāmaha* (mother's father, IV.2.36); *Mātula* (mother's brother, IV.2.36) and *Mātulānī* (maternal uncle's wife, IV.1.49).

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The parents are called *Pitarau* by the *Ekaśesha* compound which drops out *mātā* (I.2.70). Patañjali's illustration *mātā-pitarau* on the *vārttika*, *Abhyarhitam* (II.2.34; 1.436) recalls Manu's view that the mother was entitled to greater esteem than the father (*Manu*, II.145). Pāṇini was probably of the same view as inferred from his mentioning *Mātāmaha* before *Pitāmaha* (IV.2.36). In the *Ekaśesha* compounds like *Pitarau* (parents), *Bhrātarau* (brother and sister, I.2.68), *Putrau* (son and daughter, I.2.68), and *Śvaśurau* (parents-in-law, I.2.71), it is always the word for the male that is retained and expresses the female also, which is probably indicative of his importance in a patriarchal society. The *sūtra* I.2.67, *Pumān striyā* points to their relative positions. According to *sūtras* I.2.56 and 57 Pāṇini knowingly eschewed the discussion of *Pradhāna* (Principal) and *Upasarjana* (Subordinate) from the *Ashṭādhyāyī*. In his view the usage of society is the best guide in matters like defining the primary and secondary position of husband and wife, teacher and pupil, male and female, etc.

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Pāṇini refers to a father with many children as *Bahu-prajaḥ* (V.4.123), and to a grandfather as *Putrapautrīṇa*, who lived to enjoy the affection of his sons and grandsons in an expanded family (*Putra-pautramanubhavati*, V.2.10).

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FRIEND—The domestic sphere of the home was extended in a wider social circle of friends. The *Jātakas* include *mitta* and *suhajja*, friends and acquaintances, in the gradation of relationships. (*māta-pitu-mitta-suhajja ñāti-vaggo*, *Jātaka* Vol. V, p. 132).

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Pāṇini calls a friend *sakhi* (V.1.126), or *mitra* (V.4.150), and friendship *sakhyam* (*sakhyuḥ bhāvaḥ karma vā*, V.1.126), or also *saṃgataṁ*, comradeship (III.1.105). Pāṇini marks out a friend by his goodness of heart and the enemy by its wickedness (*Suhṛid-durhṛidau*, V. 4. 150). Friendship to last for a life-time is called *ajarya*. In the following interesting *sūtra* Pāṇini puts his seal of approval on the basic principle of friendship so often repeated in Sanskrit literature:

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*Sāptapadīnaṁ sakhyam*, (V.2.22).

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Friendship is called *sāpta-padīna* because it is accomplished through "Seven Steps" (*sapta-pada*). In the *Atharva-veda*, Atharvā calls Varuṇa his *sapta-pada* friend, and Varuṇa pleased with the insight of Atharvā and his consequent fitness to keep the Pṛiśni cow reciprocates the same sentiment (*Atharva*, V.11.9, 10). The *Mahābhārata* also repeats the conception of *sāpta-pada* friendship (Vanaparva, 260.35; 297.23). We find the full explanation of *sāpta-pada* in the *Saptapadī* ritual of marriage as given in the *Gṛihya Sūtras* where the bridegroom makes the bride his *saptapadī* friend¹ by repeating seven formulas beginning with *Isha* and *Ūrja*. The conception symbolised by the outer form of taking 'seven steps' appears to be very old, since the *Ṛigveda* also mentions Agni milking the *Isha* and the *Ūrja* for the *Saptapadī* (*Ṛig*. VIII.72.16). Originally the *saptapadī* friendship was perfected round the fire; later the phrase assumed a figurative sense. (Cf. Vālmīki *Rāmāyaṇa* describing the friendship of Rāma with Sugrīva as *agni-sākshika*, Kish. 8.4).

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¹ For wife as a friend, see *Taittirīya Saṁhitā*, VI. 2.9.2. The same sentiment is echoed by Kālidāsa in *Raghu*. VIII.67: *Gṛihiṇī sachivaḥ mithaḥ sakhā*.

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SERVANTS—In Pāṇini a new word *kiṁkara* (III.2.21) unknown in the Vedic and Brāhmaṇa literature denotes a domestic servant. The *Gaṇa-pāṭha* mentions several classes of them, *e.g.* (1) *parichāraka* (attendant), (2) *parishechaka* (one helping in bath), (3) *utsādaka* (one who helps in toilet), (4) *udvartaka* (one who rubs the body with unguents), (5) *snātaka* (II.2.9 and VI.2.151, *yājakādi* group), (6) *pralepikā* (a female servant who applies paste to the body), (7) *vilepikā* (a female servant who applies unguents before bath), (8) *anulepikā* (a female servant who applies them after bath), (9) *anuchāraka* (an assistant), (10) *maṇi-pālī* (a female to keep charge of jewellery, IV.4.48), (11) *dvāra-pālī* (a female doorkeeper), (12) *daṇḍa-grāha* (bearer of staff) and (13) *chāmara-grāha* (bearer of fly-whisk, IV.1.146). Most of these servants formed part of the establishment in the king's household and were in the service of aristocratic or high families as stated in the *Arthaśāstra* and the *Kāmasūtra*. In the *sūtras*, Pāṇini mentions *dauvārika*, chamberlain (VII.3.4), *vaivadhika*, carrier of load (IV.4.17) and *udaka-hāra* or *udahāra* water-carrier (VI.3.60).

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*GUESTS*—Hospitality (*ātithya*, V.4.26) to strangers and guests was a cardinal virtue of household life. The hospitable man is referred to as *ātitheya* (*atithau sādhuḥ*, IV.4.104). The *Gṛihya Sūtras* lay down detailed rules for honouring a guest on his first arrival. Pāṇini mentions *pādya* and *arghya* (V.4.25) in the order in which they were offered to a guest, although grammatically contravening his own rule II.2.33. He also borrows from the Vedic terminology the word *goghna*, *i.e.* one for whom a cow was dedicated (III.4.73). A distinguished guest like a king, a priest, a preceptor, or a respectable relation was considered worthy of this honour. All these persons are incidentally mentioned in a *sūtra* (VI.2.133).

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