India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c9.s1.t1: Agricultural Produce

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c9.s1.t1

Language: English

Agricultural Produce

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1. *Cereals (Dhānya) and Pulses.* Pāṇini mentions the following food grains and pulses:

*Vrīhi.* Special fields for growing *vrīhi* and *śāli* are mentioned (*Vrīhi-śālyor-ḍhak*, V.2.2). The sacrificial cake made from rice is called *vrīhimaya* (IV.3.146). One who possessed a stock of rice was known as *vrīhimān*, *vrīhika* or *vrīhī*, all being epithets of a rich man. *Bahu-vrīhi*, the name of a compound (II.².23) is synonymous with *vrīhimān*, *i.e.*, one who has a plentiful stock of *vrīhi*. According to the *Taitt. Saṁhitā* (VII.2.10.2) *vrīhi* was an autumnal crop (*Vedic Index*, V.I.182).

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The following varieties of rice are mentioned:

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(i) *Śāli* (V.².2). It was different from *Vrīhi* as stated by Kauṭilya also. *Vrīhi* corresponds to Hindi *dhān*, and *śāli* to *jaḍahan*. *Śāli* crop was harvested in the cold season, and *vrīhi* in the rainy season. *Vrīhi* is a much older word used in the *Vājasaneyī Saṁhitā* (XVIII.12) and the *Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upanishad* (VI.3.13) as the first of the cultivated grains (*grāmya-dhānyas*). Patañjali refers to red rice (*lohita-śāli*, I.403) and irrigation channels for watering the *śāli* crop.

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(ii) *Mahāvrīhi* (VI.².38), a well-known variety of rice in the time of Pāṇini, also mentioned in the *Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa*, III.1.5.2.

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² *Yava* (Barley). Fields for growing barley were called *yavya* (V.1.7). Pāṇini refers to *yavānī* (IV.1.49), a kind of crude and coarse barley according to Kātyāyana. *Yavaka* (V.2.3) may be another variety of barley grown in

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(iii) *Hāyana* (III.1.148), a kind of *vrīhi* grown by transplanting, popularly called *jaḍahan*.

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(iv) *Shashṭikā*, ripening in sixty days (*Shashṭikāḥ shashṭirātreṇa pachyante*, V.1.90). According to Kātyayana it was a specific term for rice irrespective of its etymology. Other crops taking sixty days to ripen would not be called by this term. (*Shashṭike saṁjñāgrahaṇam*; also *Bhāshya* on it II.360). *Sānṭhī* (Hindi name of *Shashṭika* rice) was best suited to grow in the Punjab, since it does with but little water. It is a coarse rice, the grains of which aggultinate when boiled (Watt's *Dictionary of Economic Products*, Vol. V, pp. 620-21).

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(v) *Nīvāra*, (*Nau vṛi dhānye* III. 3. 48), wild or uncultivated variety of rice included under *a-kṛishṭa-pachya* class.

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special fields (*yavakya kshetra*, V.2.3).

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Barley was sown in the beginning of winter, probably on the *Āśvayujī Pūrṇimā* (IV.3.45), considered auspicious for sowing. A ceremonial sowing of barley is still practised in Hindu homes on the first bright day of the month of *Āśvayuja*, and its young sprouts (*yavāṅkura*) are worshipped on the tenth day of the same month. Barley ripens as a vernal crop, and the season of its harvesting is referred to by Pāṇini by about half a dozen names, such as *yava-busa* (IV.3.48), *khale-yava*, *lūna-yava*, *pūta-yava*, *pūyamāna-yava*, *saṁbhṛita-yava* and *saṁbhriyamāṇa-yava* (II.1.17).

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3. *Mudga* (Phaseolus Mungo) (IV.4.25).

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4. *Māsha* (Phaseolus Radiatus) (V.1.7, V.2.4).

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These two names occur also in the list of the *Vājasaneyī Saṁhitā* (XVIII.13). Fields for growing *māsha* were called *māshya* and *māshīṇa*, from which the crop is still called *māsīnā*. As examples of crops harvested by uprooting, the *Kāśikā* quotes *māsha* and *mudga* on *sūtra* IV.4.88. (*mūlyāḥ māshāḥ*, *mūlyāḥ mudgāḥ*). We are told by Watts that in certain districts the crop is cut, in others it is pulled out (Watt's *Dictionary*, Vol. VI, Pt. I, p. 189). Patañjali says that *mudga* also takes sixty days to ripen like the *shashṭikā* rice (*Bhāshya*, II. 360). He also refers to *rājamāsha* (*rāja-māshebhyo hitam rājamāshyam kshetram*, II.345) which is a variety of *māsha* grown principally in the Punjab.

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⁵ *Tila* (sesamum). Both in the Vedic literature and Pāṇini *tila* is mentioned in connection with *māsha* (V.2.4. and V.1.7 *tila-māsha* and *māsha-tila*). Pāṇini does not explicitly mention the two varieties of *tila*, black and white, but he refers to the use of the same in the *śrāddha* ceremony (VI. 3.71; IV.2.58) where only the black grains are used. They are known to Patañjali also (*kṛishṇatilebhyo hitaḥ kṛishṇatilyaḥ*, II.345). Pāṇini knows of the oil extracted from the *tila* seeds (IV.3.149), but later grammarians thought that there is no derivative sense attaching to the word *taila*, and

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therefore, it should be taken not as a word but as a suffix in such names as *sarshapa-taila* and *iṅguda-taila* (*Bhāshya*, V.2.97; II.376).

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6. *Aṇu* (*Panicum Miliaceum*, V.2.4). A very small grain consumed mostly by poorer people, growing as a rainy crop and mentioned with *priyaṅgu* in the *Yajurveda* (XVIII. 13).

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7. *Kulattha* (*Dolichos Biflorus*, IV.4.4.), horsegram, popularly known as *kulathī*, is grown specially in the Punjab in the Trigarta region (Hoshiarpur, Ambala, Simla) as an autumnal crop. It is eaten as pulses or groats, but Pāṇini mentions it as a flavouring ingredient (*saṁskāraka dravya*, IV.4.4). Like *shashṭika*, *kulattha* also occurs for the first time in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*. Kauṭilya notes it as a crop grown at the end of the rainy season (*Arth.* II.24).

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The *Gaṇa-pāṭha* of IV.3.136 adds a few more names to the above list of cereals, *e.g.* *masūra* (*Ervum Hirsutum*), *godhūma* (wheat) and *gavedhukā* (*Coix Barbata*, *Vedic Index*, I.223). According to Kātyāyana *gavedhukā* formed part of the *Bilvādi* group (IV.3.136; *Bhāshya*, II.323).

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II. *FIBROUS PLANTS*—Pāṇini mentions *umā* (linseed) and *bhaṅgā* (hemp) and also the fields named after them (V.2.4). Kauṭilya refers to *atasī* and *śaṇa* in place of *umā* and *bhaṅgā*. Pāṇini also mentions cloth made from linen as *auma* and from wool as *aurṇa* (*Umorṇayor-vā*, IV.3.158). For Pāṇini's acquaintance with *karpāsa* or cotton we have to depend on the reading of the *Bilvādi-gaṇa* (IV.3.134). He, however, knows *tūla* (III.1.25) which might have denoted cotton.

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Patañjali raises an interesting discussion on *sūtra* V.2.4 as to whether *umā* (linseed) and *bhaṅgā* (hemp) can come under the category of *dhānyas* or not and sums up by saying that the derivative meaning of *dhānya* is 'what pleases', and since *umā* and *bhaṅgā* are profit-yielding commercial crops which must please the grower they too count as *dhānyas*. He further observes that the number of *dhānyas* is seventeen, a list in which *śaṇa* i.e. *bhaṅgā* is also included, hence there should be no objection to treating *umā* and *bhaṅgā* as *dhānyas* for purposes of Pāṇini's rules.

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III. SUGAR-CANE (*IKSHU*)—It is mentioned in *sūtra* VIII.4.5, and the manufacture of *guḍa* from sugar-cane is implied in rule IV.4. 103 (*Guḍādibhyashṭhañ*) on which the illustration *gauḍika*, meaning 'excellent for making *guḍa*' presumes sugarcane.

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IV. *KUSTUMBURU* (VI.1.143), the spice coriander (*Coriandum Sativum*). In the South Indian languages the words for coriander bear a closer affinity to Sanskrit *kustumburu*, *e.g.* *kotamalli* (Tamil), *kotimiri* (Telugu) and *kotambari* (Kanarese). It seems to have been a loan-word in Sanskrit.

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V. DYE-STUFFS—Pāṇini refers to *mañjishṭha*, madder (VIII.3.97) and *nīlī*, indigo (IV.1.42). *Mañjishṭha* (Indian madder, *Rubia Munjista*) is also mentioned in the *Aitareya* (III.2.4.) and *Śāṅkhayāna* (VIII.7) *Āraṇyakas*. Pāṇini derives *mañjishṭha* from *mañji* and *stha*, where *mañji* may mean a cluster of flower blossoms. The permanent dye made from madder has always been highly prized for its deep tinctorial quality. The great part of the madder used in the Punjab is that imported by the Lohani Afghans from the hills of North Baluchistan, Kabul and Khorasan to Multan and Peshawar. (Watt's *Dictionary*, Vol. VI, pt. I, p. 574).

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(*Nīlī* is according to Kātyāyana the name of the indigo plant. In Pāṇini's time *nīla* was a kind of cloth (*āchchhādana*, IV.1.42), dyed with indigo blue. According to McCrindle: "It appears pretty certain that the culture of the indigo plant and the preparation of the drug have been practised in India from a very remote epoch." (*Periplus*, p. 17). In the post-Vedic language *nīla* describes the colour of dark blue objects, such as indigo, sapphire, etc. (*Vedic Index*, II. 246, foot-note). In Pāṇini the indigo plant as the source of this colour was known and this is the earliest reference to this plant in Sanskrit literature The study of Pāṇinian flora furnishes an important chapter in the general history of Indian plants which still remains to be written on the basis of literary and archaeological sources. Pāṇini refers to the systematic cultivation of forests and groves of trees and plants and to early attempts at nomenclature on the basis of their flowers, leaves, fruits and roots. He is acquainted with the principal trees of north India, a good many of which are referred to by him for the first time. FORESTS—Pāṇini uses the term *vana* in a two-fold sense: (1) natural forests, such as Puragāvaṇa, Miśrakāvaṇa (Misrikh forest in Sitapur district, VIII.4.4); and (2) cultivated groves of trees and fruit-bearing plants, such as *āmravaṇa*, *khadiravaṇa*, *ikshuvaṇa*, which were also used as common names (*asaṁjñāyām api*, VIII.4.5). Pāṇini calls a large forest *araṇya* (IV.1.49) and Kātyāyana *araṇyānī* (*Bhāshya*, II.220).

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Pāṇini refers to forests classified on the basis of their produce, *e.g.* (1) *oshadhi-vana*, tracts producing herbs, as *dūrvā-vana*, *mūrvā-vana*, and (2) *vanaspati-vana*, those producing timber trees as *śirīshavana* and *devadāruvana* (VIII.4.6).

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*OSHADHI AND VANASPATI*—The plant kingdom is usually classified into two convenient divisions as *oshadhi* and *vanaspati*, plants and trees (*Vibhāsh-aushadhi-vanaspatibhyaḥ*, VIII.4.6). The word *vṛiksha* is synonymous with *vanaspati* in *sūtra* IV.3.135 (*Avayave cha prāṇy-oshadhi-vṛikshebhyaḥ*), with which Kātyāyana agrees (*sūtra* II.4.12, which prescribes optionally singular number for compounds of tree names, *Bhāshya* I. 475). *Tṛiṇa* and *dhānya* (grasses and cereals) mentioned separately from *vṛiksha* (II.4.12), must have been included under *oshadhi*, which in addition to these two comprised other divisions of annual plants, such as creepers.

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Patañjali speaks of a tree as consisting of roots, trunk, fruits and leaves (*mūla-skandha-phala-palāśavān*, I. 219). Pāṇini mentions all these parts in different *sūtras*, and in his view the plants were named after the peculiarity of their leaves, flowers, fruits and roots (*parṇa*, *pushpa*, *phala*, and *mūla*, IV.¹.64), e.g. *śaṅkhapushpī*, (*Andropogon aciculatus*), a herb with a flower white like conch-shell. He mentions that a fruit was generally named after its tree, without the addition of any suffix (*Phale luk*, IV.³.163), as *āmalaka*, fruit of the *āmalakī* tree.

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¹ *Aśvattha* (IV.3.48), *Ficus religiosa*. Pāṇini takes *aśvattha* to signify the time when these trees bear fruit (*yasmin aśvatthāḥ phalanti*, *Kāśikā*).

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³ *Plaksha* (IV.3.164), *Ficus infectoria*, mentioned in connection with its fruits called *plāksha*, and its groves called *plaksha-vaṇa* (VIII.4.5).

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*TREES*—The following trees are mentioned in the *sūtras*:

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² *Nyagrodha* (VII.3.5), *Ficus bengalensis*. Pāṇini also mentions its other name *vaṭa* (VI.2.82), a new word unknown in Vedic literature.

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⁴ *Āmra* (VIII.4.5), *Mangifera indica*, with its groves called *Āmra-vaṇa*. This is one of the earliest references to *āmra* in Sanskrit literature.

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⁵ *Palāśa* (IV.3.141), *Butea frondosa*. The *Palāśādigaṇa* mentions seven other trees, e.g. *Khadira*, *Śiṁśapā*, *Syandana*, *Karīra*, *Śirīsha*, *Yavāsa* and *Vikaṅkata*.

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⁶ *Bilva* (IV.3.136), *Aegle Marmelos*, the wood-apple tree.

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⁷ *Khadira* (VIII.4.5), *Acacia catechu*. In Pāṇini *Khadiravaṇa* is both a proper name and also applied to a grove containing catechu trees. As a proper name it is mentioned as the abode of Revata, the foremost of the forest recluses (*Khadiravaniya*, *Aṅguttara Nikāya*, XIV.1; see *Journal of the Deptt. of Letters*, Calcutta University, 1920, p. 233).

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Patañjali speaks of its white trunk (*gaura-kāṇḍa*), small leaves (*sūkshma-parṇa*), and hard bark (*kaṅkaṭavān*, I.113).

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⁸ *Śiṁśapā* (VII.3.1), *Delbergia Sisoo*; also included in the *Palāśādi* group (IV.3.141).

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⁹ *Varaṇa* (IV.2.82), *Crataeva religiosa*. (Hindi *barnā*; (Watt, *Dict.*, Vol. VI. pt. I, p. 340; Hindi name *chhaukrā* and Varaṇā (Gk. Aornos) situated near the groves of this tree.

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¹⁰ *Śamī* (V.3.88 and IV.3.142), *Prosopis spicigera*, found in the arid dry zones of the Punjab, Sindh and Rajputana (Watt, *Dict.*, Vol. VI, pt. I, p. 340; Hindi name *chhaukrā* and *jaṇḍ*). A small tree was called *śamīra*, and articles made of it *śamīla*.

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¹¹ *Pīlu* (V.2.24 and VI. 3.121), *Salvadora indica*, a large evergreen tree of the same habitat as *śamī*. Payment made, or incidents happening under the *pīlu* trees were called *pailumūla* (V.1.97). The Vāhīka country had large forests of *pīlu* trees (Karṇaparva, 44, 31). Such places were used by the cattle thieves as places for concealing stolen animals (Watt, *Dict.*, Vol. VI, pt. II, p. 448), and as out of the way places they gave scope to criminal acts, as stated in the *Mahābhārata* (Karṇaparva, 44, 20-22). The ripe small berries of *Pīlu* were called *pīlukuṇa* in the time of Pāṇini (V.2.24), a word still surviving in the Punjabi dialect as *pīlaknā* (पिलकना).

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¹² *Kārshya* (VIII.4.5) synonymous with the *Śāla* (*Shorea robusta*). The reference to the forests of *Kārshya* trees (*Kārshya-vaṇa*) is important as pointing to the Terai forests of *Śāla* trees in eastern India.

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¹³ *Pīyūkshā* (VIII.4.5) is a variety of *Plaksha*, also mentioned in the *Tālādi* (IV.3.152) and *Kāśādi* (IV.2.80) groups.

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¹⁴ *Tāla* (IV.3.152), *Borassus Flabelliformis*. Bows made of *Tāla* are referred to in the *Mahābhārata* and the *Kāśikā* (*Tālād-dhanushi*).

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¹⁵ *Jambū* (IV.3.165), *Eugenia jambolana*, of which the fruits were called *jāmbava* and *jambū*.

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16. *Harītakī* (IV.³.167); *Terminalia chebula*, noted especially for its fruits, also called *harītakī* (yellow myrobalan).

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17. *Vaṁśa* (V.¹.50) bamboo, also known as *veṇu* and *maskara* (VI.1.154); the latter is also mentioned in the *Ṛiktantra* (*maskaro veṇuḥ*, *sūtra* 210).

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18. *Kāraskara* (VI.¹.156), stated as the name of a tree, is in the *Mahābhārata* the name of a people identified with the Āraṭṭas (Jayaswal, *J.B.O.R.S.*, 1933, p. 115), but the two words appear to be different.

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¹ *Karkandhū* and *Badara* (V.2.24), *Zizyphus jujuba*.

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19. *Sidhrakā* (VIII.⁴.4), mentioned as the proper name of a forest. The *Sāma-Vidhāna Brāhmaṇa* refers to the fuel of the Saidbrika tree (III.⁶.⁹), of which the wood was hard (*sāravṛiksha i.e.* catechu; also *Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa*, III.4.¹⁰). *Sidhrakā* and *Saidbrika* were the same.

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⁴ *Pāṭalī* (IV.3.136), *Stereospermum suaveolens*. That Pāṇini included it in the *Bilvādi* group is inferred from Patañjali's example, *pāṭalāni mūlāni* (*vārttika* 2, *sūtra* IV.3.166; II.328). Patañjali implies that *Pāṭalī* takes *aṇ* by IV.3.136 to denote 'the roots thereof' and since the *aṇ* suffix is not elided as a case of exception to the *vārttika Pushpa-mūleshu cha bahulam*, the *ī* of Pāṭalī is elided in the form *pāṭala*.

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⁶ *Iṅgudī* (IV.3.164), *Ximenia aegyptiaca*.

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⁹ *Nīpa* (IV.3.152), *Nauclea kadamba*.

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¹⁰ *Dāru* (IV.3.152) referring to *Pītadāru* or *Devadāru* which as the name of a tree ending in *u* seems to be

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20. *Vishṭara* (VIII.³.93), a tree but unidentified.

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³ *Kuṭaja* (V.1.50), *Holarrhena antidysenterica*.

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The names of trees in the *gaṇas* are:

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² *Kuvala* (V.2.24), as above.

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⁵ *Vikaṅkata* (IV.3.141), *Flacourtia sapida*.

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⁷ *Śālmali* (IV.2.82), Silk cotton tree, *Bombax Malabaricum*.

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⁸ *Udumbara* (IV.3.152), *Ficus glomerata*.

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implied in *sūtra* IV.³.139. *Pītadāru* also occurs in *Phiṭ sūtra* (no. 37) and *Sarala*, a name of *Devadāru* (*Cedrus deodara*) in Patañjali (II.81).

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11. *Rohītaka* (IV.³.152), *Andersonia rohitaka*.

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12. *Vibhītaka* (IV.³.152), *Terminalia belerica*.

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13. *Śirīsha* (IV.².80), *Mimosa sirisa* (*Albizzia Lebbek*), mentioned in connection with the town *Śairīshaka* (modern Sirsā) named after it.

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14. *Spandana* or *Syandana* (IV.³.141), *Ougeinia Dalbergioides*, an ancient tree known in the *Ṛigveda* (III.53.19). It is one of the best woods for shock-resisting ability and was used for making chariots, also called *syandana* cf. Hindi *Sāndan*).

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15. *Kaṇṭakāra* (IV.³.152), *Solanum jaquini*.

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16. *Karīra* (IV.³.141), *Capparis aphylla*. Karīra-prastha, a town, (VI.².87) was named after this tree.

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² *Kāśa* (IV.2.80 and VI.2.82), *Saccharum spontaneum*.

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³ *Kuśa* (*Poa cynosuroides*) occurs in such words as *kuśāgra*, (V.3.105) and *kuśala* (V.2.63). Its feminine form was *kuśā* (IV.1.42). Patañjali mentions *kuśa-kāsam* as names of grasses (II.4.12; I.475).

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*GRASSES AND WEEDS*—Pāṇini mentions the following grasses (*tṛiṇa*, II.⁴.12) in the *sūtras*:

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¹ *Śara* (VIII.4.5), *Sacchrum arundinaceum*. Pāṇini mentions *Śaravaṇa* as the name of a forest and *Śarāvatī* (VI. 3.15) as a river. Patañjali mentions the names of two grasses as *śara-śīryam* II.4.12, I. 476). *Śara* is well-known, and *śīrya* should be identified with *sairya*, mentioned earlier in the *Ṛigveda*, I.191.3.

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⁴ *Muñja* (III.1.117), *Saccharum munja*. Pāṇini refers to *muñja* grass being treated (*vipūya*) in water for its fibres. Its reeds were called *ishīkā* (VI.3.65).

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⁵ *Naḍa* (Reed), IV.2.87, in such names as *naḍvān*; IV.2.88, *naḍvala*; IV.2.91, *naḍakīya*, denoting a place abounding in reeds.

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6. *Śāda* (IV.2.88), grass from which *śādvala*, a grassy land.

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7. *Vetasa* (IV.2.87), cane or *Calamus rotang*.

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8. *Katṭṛiṇa* (VI.3.103), explained by Amara as *saugandhika*, a fragrant grass, probably same as *sugandhitejana* of the Vedic literature (*Vedic Index*, II.453).

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*Grasses mentioned in the gaṇas.*

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1. *Vīraṇa*, *Andropogon muricatus*, also called *uśīra* (IV. 4. 53; IV.2.80), a fragrant grass (*Kisārādi* group). The gathering of *vīraṇa* flowers was a favourite game in East India called *Vīraṇa-pushpa-prachāyikā*, celebrated in the month of Vaiśākha (April-May).

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2. *Balvaja*, *Eleusine indica*, (IV.2.80; IV.3.142).

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3. *Darbha* (IV.3.142); also in the *Gavāśva* group II.4. 11, where it occurs in such compounds as *darbha-śaram*.

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4. *Pūtika* (II.4.11), a grass, also known in Vedic literature (*Vedic Index*, II.11).

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FLOWERS (PUSHPA, IV.1.64)—Pāṇini mentions *kumuda*, water-lily (IV.2.80, IV.2.87), and *pushkara*, lotus (V.2.135). The *Pushkarādi-gaṇa*, also contains its other synonyms, *e.g.* *padma*, *utpala*, *bisa*, *mṛiṇāla*. The *Harītakyādi-gaṇa* mentions *śephālikā* (*Nyctanthes Arbor Tristis*), a sweet-scented flower, which was known to Patañjali who refers to a cloth dyed with its colour, called *śaiphālika* (*Bhāshya*, V.3.55; II.413).

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Pāṇini tells us that the flowering plants or creepers derived their names from the name of their flowering season (*kālāt pushyat*, IV.3.43) on which the *Kāśikā* cites *vāsantī kundalatā*, i.e. the creeper *Jasminum multiform* flowering in the spring season.

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HERBS (OSHADHI). The formation of the names of herbs is the subject of *sūtra* IV.1.64, *Pāka-karṇa-parṇa-pushpa-mūla-bāl-ottara-padāch-cha*. Some herbs are cited in the four *antar-gaṇa sūtras* to the *Ajādi* group IV.1.4, which also occur as *vārttikas* of Kātyāyana, although Haradatta treats them as part of the *gaṇa* (cf. *Padamañjarī* proposing to correct *satprāk-kāṇḍa* as *sadach kāṇḍa* on the basis of the *vārttika*). Thus *triphalā*, the triad of Indian myrobalans and *amūlā*, *Methonica Superba* (*Vedic Index*, I.31) appear to be old names. *Brāhmī*, a famous herb (*Herpestis Monnieria*; Watt, *Dict.*, Vol. IV, p. 225), is known to Patañjali (*Bhāshya*, III.233 on Pāṇini VI.4.171).

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*FRUITS* (*PHALA*)—Pāṇini takes fruits as the produce of trees (cf. IV.3.163-167), but Kātyāyana and Patañjali take *phala* to include even grains as rice, barley, pulses, sesamum, etc., produced by the annual plants which wither away after ripening (*phala-pāka-śushāṁ upasaṁkhyānam*, II.327). This agrees with Manu who defines *oshadhi* as *phalapākāntā* (I.46). Pāṇini refers to fruit-bearing trees (*phalegrahi*, III.2.26) and has made rules for denoting the fruits of various *vanaspatis* (*Phale luk*, IV.3.163 etc.), stating that the linguistic form of the name of the fruit is generally the same as that of the tree.

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Mango, *bilva*, and *jambu* are important fruit-bearing trees mentioned, and berries of *plaksha* and *harītakī* are also named (IV.3.164,167). The *drākshā* vine, and its fruits occur in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* (IV.3.167). Pāṇini's reference to *Kāpiśāyana* shows his acquaintance with the grapes and its wines from Afghanistan (IV.2.99). The word also occurs in the *Mālādi* and *Yavādi-gaṇas* (VI.2.88; VIII.2.9) and in a *Phiṭsūtra* (no. 57). Pomegranate (*dāḍima*) occurs in the *ardharchādi gaṇa* (II. 4.31), but the first definite mention of the fruit is found in Patañjali (*Bhāshya*, I.38 and 217). Outside India, the fruit is carved on the ancient monuments of Persepolis, Assyria and Egypt, showing its pre-Pāṇinian antiquity.

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*PĪLUKUṆA*—In *sūtra* V.2.24, Pāṇini mentions the suffix *kuṇa* from *Pīlu* (*Salvadora indica*) and other tree names to denote their fruits. The ending *kuṇa* in this sense is a peculiarity of the Punjabi dialect round about Shahpur district in north-west Punjab where *pīlukuṇa* denotes the ripe *pīlu* berries. In Sanskrit literature the *kuṇa*-ending is of rare usage and Pāṇini has taken here a word from the spoken dialect nearer home.

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CLASSIFICATION—Pāṇini classifies creation into animate (*prāṇin*, IV.3.135; 154; also *prāṇabhṛit*, V.¹.129) and inanimate (*aprāṇin*, II.4.6; V.4.97 etc.), the two being also mentioned as *chittavat*, 'with mind' (V.1.89) and *achitta*, 'without mind' (IV.2.47). This becomes significant against the background of the Upanishadic thought where *prāṇa* (vitality) and *chitta* (mind) are considered as the two characteristics of life. The animate world is further subdivided into human (*manushya*, IV.2.134) and animal (*paśu*, III.3.69) kingdoms; and the latter again on the basis of their habits into domestic (*grāmya-paśu*, I.2.73) and wild (*āraṇya*, IV.2.129). Other modes of classification are also referred to, *viz.* according to size, as *kshudra-jantus* (II.4.8), or their food as *kravyād*, the carnivorous animals (III.2.69). Pre-Pāṇinian attempts at classification are reflected in such words as *ubhayatodanta* and *anyatodanta*, *dvipād* and *chatushpād*, *ekaśapha* and *dviśapha* of Vedic literature (*Vedic Index*, I.510). *Mṛiga* is generally a wild beast in the *Ashṭādhyāyī* (IV.3.51; IV.4.35), but in *sūtra* II.4.12 it stands for the cervidae, such as *ruru-pṛishatam* in the *Bhāshya* signifying two species of deer. Birds are called *pakshī* (IV.4.35) and *śakuni* (II.4.12). Pāṇini mentions the following animals:

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¹ An elephant is called *hastin* (V.2.133), *nāga* and *kuñjara* (II.1.62); a trumpeting elephant with prominent trunk was *śuṇḍāra* (V.3.88). A herd of elephants was called *hāstika* (IV.2.47). The height of an elephant constituted a measure as *dvihasti*, *trihasti* (V.2.38), as high as two or three elephants, words used with reference to the depth of a moat or the height of a rampart. Pāli *hatthin* also denotes the size of an elephant (*Milinda*, p. 312; Stede, *Pali Dict.*) The tusk

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of an elephant was called *danta* (V.2.113), used also as ivory; a tusker was *dantāvala*. Strength to kill or shoot an elephant was a mark of valour, expressed by the term *hastighna* (III.2. 54). A goad was *totra* (III.2.182).

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Patañjali refers to the food for elephants as *hasti-vidhā* (*vārttika* II.1.36.3, Bhāshya, I.388).

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2. Camel is called *ushṭra* (IV.3.157) and camel corps *aushṭraka* (IV.2.39). A young camel (*karabha*) restrained by a chain during infancy was known as *śriṅkhalaka* (*Bandhanam asya śriṅkhalaṁ karabhe*, V.2.79). Pāṇini refers to camel-riders (*ushṭra-sādi*, VI.2.40), and to mixed corps of camels and mules (*ushṭra-vāmī*). It seems that the term *ushṭra-sādi* and *ushṭra-vāmī* referred to the army units employed for quick transport.

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Pāṇini mentions *aushṭraka* as the name of articles made from the parts (*vikārāvayava*, IV.3.157) of dead camels. Such articles were large and small sacks (*goṇī* and *goṇītarī*, V.3.90) made of camel hair, and leather jars of large and small size (*kutū* and *kutupe*, V.3.89), made of hides and intestinal integuments of camels (Watt, *Dict.* II.63-64).

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3. *Aśva*. Horse and mare together were termed *aśva-vaḍava* in the masculine gender (II.4.27). Pāṇini mentions *Pārevaḍavā* (VI.2.42), a special breed of mares from across the Indus. Kauṭilya states that the best class of horses were imported from Kamboja, Sindhu, Bāhlīka and Sauvīra (*Arth.* II.30).

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*HARAṆA*—A mare in heat is referred to as *aśvasyati* (VII. 1.51) and the charges paid for her covering as *haraṇa*. *Haraṇa* has a technical sense in the *sūtra* *Saptamī-hāriṇau-dharmye' haraṇe* (VI.2.65). The object of the rule is to regularise the formation of words denoting some customary (*dharma*) dues of which *haraṇa* was one. The *Kāśikā* cites *vāḍava-haraṇa*, signifying a payment given to the owner of a sire for feeding him after covering the dame (*vaḍavayāḥ ayam vāḍavaḥ, tasya bījaniṣhekād uttarakālaṁ yad dīyate haraṇam iti taduchyate*, *Kā-* *śikā*). Such dues in kind or cash, were fixed by custom (*dharmya*) as an obligatory charge. The *Mahābhārata* mentions *haraṇa* in the wider sense of nuptial presents, both in cash and kind, given at the time of marriage; as for example those given by Kṛishṇa and the Yādavas to Arjuna marrying Subhadrā (*haraṇam vai Subhadrāyā jñātideyam*, Ādiparva 233.44). The example *vāḍava-haraṇam* cited in the *Kāśikā* seems to be an old stock-illustration.

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ĀŚVĪNA—(V.2.19). Pāṇini mentions it as the distance travelled by a horse in one day (*aśvasy-aikāhagamaḥ*). The *āśvīna* distance is mentioned in the *Atharvaveda* (VI.131.3) and the *Aitareya* and *Tāṇḍya Brāhmaṇas* (*Vedic Index*, I.70; cf. also Caland's note in the *Pañchaviṁśa Br.*, XXV.10.16). The exact distance is not stated, but seems to have exceeded five *yojanas* (25 miles), since the *Atharva* mentions it as coming after five *yojanas*. Kauṭilya states that horses of the first, second and third class drawing a chariot (*rathya*) travelled 6, 9 and 12 *yojanas* in one day (a *yojana*=about 5 miles), cavalry horses 5, 8 and 10 *yojanas* respectively (*Arth.* II.30). Patañjali mentions an average horse going four *yojanas* and a horse of higher mettle eight *yojanas* in one day (*Bhāshya*, V.3.55; II.413). Thus the *āśvīna* distance travelled by a horse in one day ranged from twenty-five to sixty miles according to the class of horse and the nature of work. As against Pāṇini's *āśvīna* (*aśva khañ*), the form in the *Atharvaveda* is *āśvina*, derived from *aśvin*, a horseman. Patañjali describes *śoṇa*, *hema* and *karka* (red, black and white) as colours of horses (I.251).

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⁴ *Khara*, mentioned in connection with stables for asses, *khara-śāla* (IV.3.35).

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⁵ *Aja* (Goat, IV.1.4; IV.2.39). A herd of goats was called *ājaka*. Goats and sheep together were called *ajāvi* and *ajaiḍa* (cf. *gaṇa Tishṭhadgu*). *Jābāla* denoted a goatherd, and *mahājābāla* (VI.2.38) one who was the owner of a big sheep-run. *Jābāla* does not seem to be a word of Sanskrit

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origin. It may be traced to a Hebrew word *yobel* or *jobil*, signifying ram's horn, whence 'jubilee'. Pāṇini shows acquaintance with some Semitic and Iranian words in use across the frontier (*e.g.* *hailihila*, VI.2.38; Arabic *halahila* 'deadly poison', Steingass, Persian-English Dictionary, p. 1506), whence later Sanskrit *halāhala* or *bālahala*; similarly *karsha*, berry).

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6. *Avi* (Sheep, V.1.8) was also termed *avika* (V.4.28). A flock of rams is referred to as *aurabhraka* (IV.2.39). Kātyāyana mentions the dialectical forms *avidūsa*, *avimarīsa*, *avisoḍha*, as words for goat's milk (*avi-dugdha*, IV.2.36, II.278).

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7. *Mṛiga* has a two-fold meaning in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*, *viz.* (1) wild beast (IV.3.51) in general and (2) deer (II.4.12). Pāṇini mentions two species of deer, *ṛiśya* a white-footed antelope (IV.2.80) and *nyaṅku*, a gazelle or small deer (VII.3.53), both being Vedic words (*Vedic Index*, I.115, 463). The female deer was called *eṇī* (IV.3.159). Patañjali refers to *rohit* as the female of the *ṛiśya* deer (I.248).

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Amongst carnivorous animals (*kravyād*, III.2.69) are mentioned *siṁha* (VI.2.72), *vyāghra* (II.1.56), *vṛika* (V.4.41), *kroshṭu* (jackal, VII.1.95), *biḍāla* (VI.2.72), and *śvā* (IV.4.11). Domestic dogs bred in royal kennels were called *kauleyaka* (IV.2.96; cf. *Kukkura Jāt.* I.22, *ye kukkurā rājakulamhi baddhā*; also *Rāmāyaṇa*, II.70.20).

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Of birds (*śakuni*, II.4.12, *pakshī*, IV.4.35 or *tiryach*, III.4.60), individual names are *chaṭakā* (sparrow, IV.1.128), *mayūra* (peacock, II.1.72, also *kalāpin*, IV.3.48), *kukkuṭa* cock, IV.4.46), *dhvāṅksha* (crow, II.1.42), and *śyena* (hawk, VI.3.71). *Śuka* (parrot) is included by Patañjali in the *Khaṇḍikādi gaṇa* (IV.245). Pāṇini also refers to pecking birds as *vishkira* (VI.1.150), amongst which Charaka counts the peacock and the cock (*Sūtrasthāna*, XXVII.46).

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Of the *kshudrajantus* (II.4.8), animals upto the size of a mungoose according to Patañjali, were *nakula* (mungoose, VI.3.75), *godhā* (big lizard, IV.1.129-130), *ahi* (snake, IV.3.56), *kshudrā*, *bhramara*, *vaṭara* (kinds of bees, IV.3.119) and *vaṭī* (an ant, V.2.139).

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Amongst acquatic animals mention is made of *nakra* (alligator, VI.3.75), *varshābhū* (frog, VI.4.84), and *matsya* (fish, IV.4.35) and *vaisāriṇa*, a species of fish (V.4.16).

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*FEEDING AND STOCK*—A drove of cattle was called *samaja*, and a drive to the pasture *udaja* (III.3.69). Herds of domestic cattle (*grāmyapaśu-saṅgha*) such as cows and bulls grazing together (*saṅghībhūtāḥ*) were called *gāvaḥ*, after the female of the species; similarly *mahishyaḥ* (male and female buffaloes), and *ajāḥ* (he- and she-goats). But when their young ones (*ataruṇa*), as calves and heifers, formed a mingled herd, the masculine form *vatsāḥ* signified both. This idiom still holds good in such Hindi words as *gāen* and *bachhṛe*.

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The age of an animal was expressed in terms of the number of its teeth (V.4.141) and the growth of horns (VI.2.1) and hump (V.4.146); *e.g.* a calf of tender age was spoken of as *dvidan* (with two teeth), *asaṁjāta-kakut* (without growth of hump), *aṅgula-śṛiṅga* (with horns an *aṅgula* long); and one of mature growth as *chaturdan*, *shoḍan*, *pūrṇa-kakut*, *udgata-śṛiṅga*, *etc.*

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Pastures for cattle were called *gochara* (III.3.119), in which herds grazed and moved from one part to another as fodder was eaten up. An area once used for grazing and later abandoned was called *gaushṭhīna* (*bhūtapūrva goshṭha*, V.2.18); similarly a woody pasture with its fodder consumed was called *āśitaṁgavīna araṇya* (V.4.7). This indicates a system of shifting cowpens and pastures both in village settlements and in forest areas. Straw (*busa* and *kaḍaṅkara*) was the fodder for livestock, which feeding on it was called *kaḍaṅkarīya* (V.1.69; if Hindi *ḍaṅgar*). Watering places for cattle are referred to as *nipāna* and *āhāva* (III.3.74), probably attached to a well as even today.

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Pāṇini refers to the cattle craving for salt as *lavaṇasyati* (VII.1.51). Kauṭilya prescribes salt to be given to cattle as part of their food.

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The cow and the bull were together called *dhenv-anaḍuha* (V.4.77). Prosperity in cows and calves was blessed by the expression '*Svasti bhavate sagave savatsāya* (Kātyāyana on VI.3.83). A cow-pen was *vraja*, and cow-stall *gośāla* IV.3.35) and *goshṭha* (VIII.3.97). *Goshpada* was the place for the cows to roam (VI.1.145, *gobhiḥ-sevito deśaḥ, Kāśikā*). Dense forests impenetrable to cows were *agoshpada* (VI.1.145).

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*Gotrā* in Pāṇini 'an assemblage of cows' (IV.2.51), re-calls the earlier Vedic word *gotra*, as the common shed for cows belonging to several families. Pāṇini mentions two new synonyms of *gotrā*, viz. *gavyā* and *ādhenava* (IV.2.47).

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The cowherds were called *gopāla*; special officers in charge of royal cattle were called *tantipāla* (VI.2.78). The son of a cowherd attaining the age when he was fit to take the cows out for grazing was called *anugavīna* (VI.2.78). This was analogous to the term *kavachahara* for a Kshattriya boy, mark-ing the age of maturity.

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*LIFE-STORY OF A COW*—The different stages in the life-cycle of a cow were expressed by suitable terms. The heifer attaining puberty (*kālyā prajane*) was termed *upasaryā* (III.1.104), and her first mating *upasara* (III.3.71). The *Mahā-bhārata* refers to a cow attaining full youth at the age of three (*māheyī trihāyanī*, Virāṭa, 16.6, Poona ed.). If she miscarried she was called *vehat* (II.1.65). On the eve of delivery she was called *adyaśvīnā*, 'calving today or tomorrow' (V.2.13), a new term for the Vedic *pravayyā* (VI.1.83); and after calving *grishṭi* (II.1.65). Pāṇini also refers to *mahāgrishṭi* (VI.2.38), a better cow whose milking period continues up to the next calving, corresponding to Vedic *naityikī* (═*nityavatsā*, *naichikī*, Hemachandra, *Abhidhāna-chintāmaṇi*, IV.336). *Dhenu* was a cow in milk (II.1.65), also called *astikshīrā* by Kātyāyana (II.2.24.21). After about six months of her calv-ing she became *bashkayaṇī* (II.1.65). A cow calving every year was marked out from the rest as *samāṁsamīnā* (V.2.12). Patañjali speaks of that cow as excellent (*gotarā*) which not only calves every year but gives birth to a heifer (*strīvatsā*, II.413). A cow pledged to the creditor to pay off the debt from her milk was called *dhenushyā* (IV.4.89).

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*BULL*—A very young calf was *śakṛit-kari* (III.2.24), corresponding to Vedic *atṛiṇāda* (*Br. Up.* 1.5.2). Next it was called *vatsa* and a group of them *vātsaka* (IV.2.39). When the cows went out for grazing, the calves were confined to special enclosures called *vatsaśālā* (IV.3.36).

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The wooden club hanging from the neck of a calf was called *prāsaṅga*, (cf. Hindi *pasaṅgā*) and a calf so restrained while out grazing was *prāsaṅgya* (IV.4.76). A calf of two years was called *dityavāh* (VII.3.¹; *Vedic Index*, I.359). A calf above the ordinary and selected to grow as a stud bull was called *ārshabhya* ('good for becoming a bull,' V.1.14). As such, he was termed *jātoksha*, 'growing up as a bull' (V.4.77), and was not castrated. Calves intended to grow as stud bulls are given special food and care. A young (*taruṇa*) bull was (*ukshā*), more developed *ukshatara* (V.3.91), when fully grown up *mahoksha* (V.4.77), and declining in age *vṛiddhoksha* (V.4.77) or *ṛishabhatara* (V.3.91).

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Similarly a draught bull was *vatsa* in the first stage, *damya* when broken, and *balivarda* as a bullock (Pat. on I.¹.1, 1.42).

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At the age of two and a half years the young bull gets his first pair of permanent teeth. This age was expressed by the word *dvidan*. He became *chatur-dan*, 'with four teeth,' at the age of three (V.4.141, *Kāśikā*).¹ Then he was given

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¹ Teething of young bulls and cows: the age of an animal at the time of sale and purchase. The prospective buyer invariably examines the teeth to judge the age. The growth of the horns is likewise a sign of age as referred to by Pāṇini in VI.2.115 (*Śṛṅgam-avasthāyāṁ cha*). The stages of maturity were also expressed in terms of the development of the hump, *e.g.* the terms *akakut*, *pūrṇa-kakut* and *unnatakakut* denoted the three stages of infancy, youth and maturity (V.4.146, cf. *Kāśikā*).

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| *Age* | | *Number of teeth* | |
| 2—2½ | years | 2 | teeth. |
| 3 | ” | 4 | ” |
| 3½ | ” | 6 | ” |
| 4 | ” | 8 | ” |

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The question of the number of teeth has its practical importance in judging a nose-string (*nātha-hari*, III.2.25), and was broken (*damya*) and castrated.

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The draught bulls were classified according to their work, *e.g.* *rathya*, drawing a chariot (IV.4.76), *yugya*, a yoke (IV.4.76), *dhurya* and *dhaureya*, a cart (IV.4.77), *śākaṭa* (IV.4.80) a cart-load, and *hālika* or *sairika*, the plough (IV.4.81). An ox accustomed to be yoked both on right and left of the yoke was called *sarva-dhuriṇa* (IV.4.78), and to one side only, *ekadhuriṇa*, the latter being of less worth.

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*BREEDS*—Pāṇini mentions the famous *Sālvaka* breed of bulls reared in the Sālva country (IV.2.136, *Goyavāgvoścha*). He refers to Sālva as a large confederacy of several member-states, whose number is stated to be six in the *Kāśikā* (IV.1.173). Patañjali mentions Ajamīḍha, Ajakranda and Bodha amongst them (IV.1.170, II.269). The *Mahābhārata* names Mṛttikāvatī as a Sālva capital, perhaps Mairta in Marwar. The location of Sālvas is further suggested by Ptolemy's Bolingai living on the western slope of the Aravallis, who appear to be the Bhūliṅgas, one of the six Sālvas. (McCrindle's *Ptolemy*, p. 163). The *Gopatha* couples the Sālvas with the Matsyas. Thus the Sālva *janapada* comprised the vast territory extending from Alwar to Bikaner or north Rajputana, and the Sālvaka breed of Pāṇini seems to be the same as the celebrated Nagauri bulls reared in the jungle-covered tracts of Nāgaur in the Jodhpur State (Hunter, *Imp. Gazetteer*, X.159) and those of Bikaner.

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Patañjali adds the name of the Vāhīka breed of bulls (1.354), and the *Kāśikā* two others, *viz.* of Kachchha (a counter-example to Pāṇini IV.2.134), and of the Raṅku country (IV.2.100). The former (*Kāchha gau*) reared in Kathiawar is considered by Watt as the finest in north-west India, its bullocks as powerful draught animals, and cows as excellent milkers (Watt, *Dict.*, V.669). The bull bred in Raṅku was called *Rāṅkava* and *Rāṅkavāyaṇa*.

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BRANDING OF COWS (LAKSHAṆA). *Lakshaṇa* denoted the marks branded on the body, generally ears, of cattle to distinguish ownership (*paśunāṁ svāmi-viśesha-sambandha-jñāpanārtham*, *Kāśikā*, VI.3.115). Pāṇini refers to the branding of cows in two *sūtras*:

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(1) *Karṇo varṇa-lakshaṇāt* (VI.2.112);
(2) *Karṇe lakshaṇasy-āvishṭ-āshṭa,-pañcha-maṇi-bhin-nachbhinna-chhidra-sruva-svastikasya* (VI.3.115).

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The first rule prescribes initial acute accent in such words as *dātrākarṇa*, 'whose ears are marked with a sickle.' The second *sūtra* dealing with vowel elongation incidentally gives a list of some marks used to indicate different owners, e.g. *vishṭa*, *ashṭa*, *pañcha*, *maṇi*, *bhinna*, *chhinna*, *chhidra*, *sruva* and *svastika*.

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The branding of cows was known in the Vedic period. The *Atharvaveda* refers to it as *lakshma* and mentions the *mithuna* mark (VI.141.2-3; XII.4.6). The *Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā* (IV.2.9), *Mānava Śrauta Sūtra* (IX.5.1-3), and *Gonāmika Pariśhishṭa* of the *Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra* give details of this ancient cattle rite and add a few more marks (*Journal of Vedic Studies*, Lahore, Jan. 1934, pp. 16 ff.). The *Mahābhārata* also refers to a census of the royal cattle (*smāraṇa*, Vanaparva, Ghoshayātrā, 239.4) by branding them (*aṅka*, *laksha*, Vanaparva, 240.4). The *Arthaśāstra* prescribes it for the Superintendent of Cows to 'register the branded marks, natural marks, colour and the spread of the horns of each of the cattle' as part of his duties relating to the cow-pen (*vraja-paryagra*, *Arth.* II.29, p. 129). The Edicts of Aśoka emphatically disallow the branding of horses and bullocks on certain specified days (Pillar Edict, V)¹. Patañjali refers to the mark (*linga*) being branded on the ear or the rump of the animal (*goḥ sakthani karṇe vā kṛitaṁ liṅgaṁ*, I.3.62; I.289); the mark being also called *aṅka* (*aṅkitā gāva ityuchyate' nyebhyo gobbhyaḥ prakāśyante*, VIII.².48; III.408).

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NAMES OF MARKS—Pāṇini mentions nine marks (VI.3.115); to which other names may be added from the *Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā*, *Ṛik-Tantra*¹ and *Kāśikā*, as shown below. *Vishṭakarṇī*, a mark in Pāṇini's list, is in the *Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā* a mark of the cows of Agastya, those of Jamadagni having a lute and of Vasishṭha a stake (*Vedic Index*, I.46). The *ashṭa-karṇī* of Pāṇini occurs in the *Ṛigveda* (X.62.7) where Grassmann translates 'having the sign for (the number) 8 marked on the ear.' (*Vedic Index*, V.I.46). The use of the numerals 5 and 8 as marks put on the ears of cattle shows that writing was popularly known (Goldstücker, *Pāṇini, His Place in Sanskrit Literature*, p. 44).

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¹ See also A.S.B. Memoir, *Animals in the Inscriptions of Piyadasi*, p. 373, referring to it as an old custom described in the *sūtra* literature; Pāraskara, iii. 10; Śāṅkhāyana iii. 10; Āśvalāyana *Gr. Pariśishṭa*, iii.-8. Also Drāhyāyaṇa Gṛihyasūtra, III.1.46 (*bhuvana* mark); Khādira Gṛihyasūtra, III.1.46.

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¹ *Karṇe plīh-āṅkuśa-kuṇḍal-oparisht-ādhy-akshata-bāṇānāṁ, Ṛiktantra sūtra* 217.

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Some of these marks (*lakshaṇa*) can be identified amongst the symbols stamped on punch-marks coins, e.g., ²*sruva*, ²*svastika*, ² *aṅkuśa*, *kuṇḍala*, *plīhā*, *bāṇa*, *mithuna.*

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² Allan, *Coins of Ancient India*, Index of Punch-marked Symbols, Index IV.

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List of Marks

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Cites (23)

Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Atharvavedasaṃhitā — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit
Kṛṣṇayajurvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Jātakatthavaṇṇanā — Pāli
Mānavaśrautasūtra — Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Śāṅkhāyanagṛhyasūtra — Śāṅkhāyana, Sanskrit
Khādiragṛhyasūtra — Khādira, Sanskrit
Śāṅkhāyanāraṇyaka — Sanskrit
Aitareyāraṇyaka — Sanskrit
Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Carakasaṃhitā — Agniveśa (Āyurveda) & Caraka, Sanskrit
Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa — Sanskrit
Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra — Āśvalāyana, Sanskrit
Pāraskaragṛhyasūtra — Pāraskara, Sanskrit
Aṅguttaranikāya — Pāli
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Abhidhānacintāmaṇi — Hemacandra, Sanskrit
Rktantra (Audavraji) — Audavraji, Sanskrit
Sāmavidhānabrāhmaṇa — Sanskrit