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Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Vol. I, Part I: History of Gujarat c7: Chapter VI.

Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Vol. I, Part I: History of Gujarát c7

Language
English

Contents

Chapter VI.

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TRAIKŪṬAKAS, A.D. 250-450.

Their Race or Tribe

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influence, just as the Gurjjaras called themselves descendants of Karṇa the hero of the Mahābhārata, and the Pallavas claimed to be of the Bhāradvāja stock, the Traikūṭakas forgot their Abhīra origin and claimed descent from the Haihayas. Again as the Valabhīs (A.D. 480-767) adopted the Gupta era but gave it their own name so the rulers of Tripura seem to have continued the original Traikūṭaka era of A.D. 248-9 under the name of the Chedi era. The decline of the Kshatrapas dates from about A.D. 300 the rule of Viśvasena the twentieth Kshatrapa son of Bharttridāman. The subsequent disruption of the Kshatrapa empire was probably the work of their old neighbours and foes the Traikūṭakas, who, under the name of Haihayas, about the middle of the fifth century (A.D. 455-6) rose to supremacy and established a branch at their old city of Trikūṭa ruling the greater part of the Bombay Dakhan and South Gujarāt and probably filling the blank between A.D. 410 the fall of the Kshatrapas and A.D. 500 the rise of the Chālukyas.

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About 1887 Pandit Bhagavānlāl secured nine of a hoard of 500 silver coins found at Daman in South Gujarāt. All are of one king a close imitation of the coins of the latest Kshatrapas. On the obverse is a bust of bad workmanship and on the reverse are the usual Kshatrapa symbols encircled with the legend:

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महाराजेंद्रवर्मपुत्रपरमवैष्णवश्रीमहाराजरुद्रगण : Mahārājendravarmaputra Parama Vaishṇava Śrī Mahārāja Rudragaṇa. The devoted Vaishṇava the illustrious king Rudragaṇa son of the great king Indravarmā.

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At Karād, thirty-one miles south of Sātāra, Mr. Justice Newton obtained a coin of this Rudragaṇa, with the coins of many Kshatrapas including Viśvasimha son of Bharttridāman who ruled up to A.D. 300. This would favour the view that Rudragaṇa was the successful rival who wrested the Dakhan and North Konkan from Viśvasimha. The fact that during the twenty years after Viśvasimha (A.D. 300-320) none of the Kshatrapas has the title Mahākshatrapa seems to show they ruled in Kāthiāvāda as tributaries of this Rudragaṇa and his descendants of the Traikūṭaka family. The Dahrasena of the Pārdi plate whose inscription date is 207, that is A.D. 457, may be a descendant of Rudragaṇa. The Traikūṭaka kingdom would thus seem to have flourished at least till the middle of the fifth century. Somewhat later, or at any rate after the date of the Kanheri plate (245 = A.D. 495), it was overthrown by either the Mauryas or the Guptas.¹ that two different eras, whose initial points were only a few years apart, were in use in the same district. Now that the Saka and the Vikrama eras are known to have had different names at different times, the change in the name of the era offers no special difficulty. This identification would carry back Kalachuri rule in South Gujarāt to at least A.D. 455-6, the date of the Pārdi grant: and it is worth noting that Varāhamihira (Br. Samh. XIV. 20) places the Haihayas or Kalachuris in the west along with the Aparāntakas or Konkanis.

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¹ That the era used by the Gurjjaras and Chālukyas of Gujarāt was the Chedi era may be regarded as certain since the discovery of the Saṅkhedā grant of Nirihullaka (Ep. Ind. II. 21), who speaks of a certain Saṅkarana as his overlord. Palæographically this grant belongs to the sixth century, and Dr. Bühler has suggested that Saṅkarana is the Chedi Saṅkaragaṇa whose son Buddharāja was defeated by Mangalīśa some time before A.D. 602 (Ind. Ant. XIX. 16). If this is accepted, the grant shows that the Chedis or Kalachuris were in power in the Narbāda valley during the sixth century, which explains the prevalence of their era in South Gujarāt. Chedi rule in the Narbāda valley must have come to an end about A.D. 580 when Dadda I. established himself at Broach. It being established that the Kalachuris once ruled in South Gujarāt, there is no great difficulty in the way of identifying the Traikūṭakas with them. The two known Traikūṭaka grants are dated in the third century of their era, and belong palæographically to the fifth century A.D. Their era, therefore, like that of the Kalachuris, begins in the third century A.D. : and it is simpler to suppose that the two eras were the same than

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Though the name Traikūṭaka means of Trikūṭa, the authorities quoted by Dr. Bhagvānlāl do not establish the existence of a city called Trikūṭa. They only vouch for a mountain of that name somewhere in the Western Ghāts, and there is no evidence of any special connection with Junnar. Further, the word Traikūṭakam seems to mean rock-salt, not sea-salt, so that there is here no special connection with the Western coast. Wherever Trikūṭa may have been, there seems no need to reject the tradition that connects the rise of the Kalachuris with their capture of Kālanjara (Cunningham's Arch. Surv. IX. 77ff), as it is more likely that they advanced from the East down the Narbadā than that their original seats were on the West Coast, as the Western Indian inscriptions of the third and fourth centuries contain no reference either to Traikūṭakas or to Junnar or other western city as Trikūṭa.

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With reference to the third suggestion that the Traikūṭakas twice overthrew the Kshatrapas, under Īśvaradatta in A.D. 248 and under Rudragana in A.D. 310-320, it is to be noted that there is no evidence to show that Īśvaradatta was either an Ābhīra or a Traikūṭaka and that the identification of his date with A.D. 248-250 seems less probable than with either A.D. 244 or A.D. 236. (Compare above Footnote page 53). Even if Īśvaradatta's supremacy coincided with A.D. 250 the initial date of the Traikūṭaka era, it seems improbable that a king who reigned only two years and left no successor should have had any connection with the establishment of an era which is not found in use till two centuries later. As regards Rudragana it may be admitted that he belonged to the race or family who weakened Kshatrapa power early in the fourth century A.D. At the same time there seems no reason to suppose that Rudragana was a Traikūṭaka or a Kalachuri except the fact that his name, like that of Saṅkaragana, is a compound of the word gaṇa and a name of Śiva; while the irregular posthumous use of the title Mahākshatrapa among the latest (23rd to 26th) Kshatrapas favours the view that they remained independent till their overthrow by the Guptas about A.D. 410. The conclusion seems to be that the Traikūṭaka and the Kalachuri eras are the same namely A.D. 248-9; that this era was introduced into Gujarāt by the Traikūṭakas who were connected with the Haihayas; and that the introduction of the era into Gujarāt did not take place before the middle of the fifth century A.D.—(A. M. T. J.)

Chapter VII. The Guptas

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(G. 90-149; A.D. 410-470.)

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AFTER the Kshatrapas (A.D. 120-410) the powerful dynasty of the Guptas established themselves in Gujarát. So far as the dynasty is connected with Gujarát the Gupta tree is :

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Gupta. G. 1-12 (?)-A.D. 319-322 (?) Petty N. W. P. Chief.

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Ghatotkacha. G. 12-29 (?)-A.D. 332-349 (?) Petty N. W. P. Chief.

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Chandragupta I. G. 29-49 (?)-A.D. 349-369 (?) Powerful N. W. P. Chief.

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Samudragupta. G. 50-75 (?)-A.D. 370-395. Great N. W. P. Sovereign.

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Chandragupta II. G. 70-96-A.D. 396-415. Great Monarch conquers Málwa. G. 80 A.D. 400 and Gujarát G. 90 A.D. 410.

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Kumáragupta. G. 97-133-A.D. 416-453. Rules Gujarát and Káthiáváda.

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Skandagupta. G. 133-149-A.D. 454-470. Rules Gujarát Káthiáváda and Kachch.

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According to the Puránas¹ the original seat of the Guptas was between the Ganges and the Jamna. Their first capital is not determined. English writers usually style them the Guptas of Kanauj. And though this title is simply due to the chance that Gupta coins were first found at Kanauj, further discoveries show that the chief remains of Gupta records and coins are in the territory to the east and south-east of Kanauj. Of the race of the Guptas nothing is known. According to the ordinances of the Smritis or Sacred Books,² the terminal gupta belongs only to Vaiśyas a class including shepherds cultivators and traders. Of the first three kings, Gupta Ghaṭotkacha and Chandragupta I., beyond the fact that Chandragupta I. bore the title of Mahārājādhirāja, neither descriptive titles nor details are recorded. As the fourth king Samudragupta performed the long-neglected horse-sacrifice he must have been Brāhmanical in religion. And as inscription style Samudragupta's three successors, Chandragupta II. Kumāragupta and Skandagupta, Parama Bhāgavata, they must have been Smārta Vaishnavas, that is devotees of Vishnu and observers of Vedic ceremonies.

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¹ Váyu Purána, Wilson's Works, IX. 219n.

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² Vishnu Purána, III. Chapter 10 Verse 9; Burnell's Manu, 20. Mr. Fleet (Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 11 note 1) quotes an instance of a Bráhman named Brahmagupta.

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The founder of the dynasty is styled Gupta. In inscriptions this name always appears as Śrī-gupta which is taken to mean protected by Śrī or Lakshmī. Against this explanation it is to be noted that in their inscriptions all Gupta's successors, have a Śrī before their names. The question therefore arises; If Śrī forms part of the name why should the name Śrigupta have had no second Śrī prefixed in the usual way. Further in the inscriptions the lineage appears as Guptavaṃśa that is the lineage of the Guptas never Śriguptavaṃśa¹; and whenever dates in the era of this dynasty are given they are conjoined with the name Gupta never with Śrigupta.² It may therefore be taken that Gupta not Śrigupta is the correct form of the founder's name.³

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¹ Fleet's Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 53 line 7.

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² Compare Skandagupta's Junāgaḍh Inscription line 15, Ind. Ant. XIV.; Cunningham's Arch. Sur. X. 113; Fleet's Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 59.

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³ Compare Mr. Fleet's note in Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 8.

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Gupta the founder seems never to have risen to be more than a petty chief. No known inscription gives him the title Mahārājādhirāja Supreme Ruler of Great Kings, which all Gupta rulers after the founder's grandson Chandragupta assume. Again that no coins of the founder and many coins of his successors have been discovered makes it probable that Gupta was not a ruler of importance to have a currency of his own. According to the inscriptions Gupta was succeeded by his son Ghaṭotkacha a petty chief like his father with the title of Mahārāja and without coins.

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Chandragupta I. (A.D. 349-369 [?]), the son and successor of Ghaṭotkacha, is styled Mahārājādhirāja either because he himself became powerful, or, more probably, because he was the father of his very powerful successor Samudragupta. Though he may not have gained the dignity of "supreme ruler of great kings" by his own successes Chandragupta I. rose to a higher position than his predecessors. He was connected by marriage with the Lichchhavi dynasty of Tirhūt an alliance which must have been considered of importance since his son Samudragupta puts the name of his mother Kumāradevī on his coins, and always styles himself daughter's son of Lichchhavi.⁴

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⁴ Fleet's Corp. Ins. Ind. III. 135. Mr. Fleet believes that the Lichchhavi family concerned was that of Nepāl, and that they were the real founders of the era used by the Guptas. Dr. Bühler (Vienna Or. Journal, V. Pt. 3) holds that Chandragupta married into the Lichchhavi family of Pāṭaliputra and became king of that country in right of his wife. The coins which bear the name of Kumāradevī are by Mr. Smith (J. R. A. S (N. S.) XXI. 63) and others assigned to Chandragupta I., reading the reverse legend Lichchhavayah The Lichchhavis in place of Dr. Bhagvānlāl's Lichchhavayah Daughter's son of Lichchhavi. On the Kacha coins see below page 62 note 2. The Lichchhavis claim to be sprung from the solar dynasty. Manu (Burnell's Manu,

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THE GUPTAS, A.D. 410-470.

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Samudragupta, A.D. 370-395

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Samudragupta was the first of his family to strike coins. His numerous gold coins are, with a certain additional Indian element, adopted from those of his Indo-Scythian predecessors. The details of the royal figure on the obverse are Indian in the neck ornaments, large earrings, and headdress; they are Indo-Scythian in the tailed coat, long boots, and straddle. The goddess on the reverse of some coins with a fillet and cornucopia is an adaptation of an Indo-Scythian figure, while the lotus-holding Ganges on an alligator and the standing Glory holding a flyflapper on the reverse of other coins are purely Indian.¹

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¹ The figure of the Ganges standing on an alligator with a stalked lotus in her left hand on the reverse of the gold coins of Samudragupta the fourth king of the dynasty may be taken to be the Sri or Luck of the Guptas. Compare Smith's Gupta Coinage, J. Beng. A. S. LIII. Plate I. Fig. 10. J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. Pl. I. 2.

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His Coins

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A noteworthy feature of Samudragupta's coins is that one or other of almost all his epithets appears on each of his coins with a figure of the king illustrating the epithet. Coins with the epithet *Sarvarájochchhettá* Destroyer-of-all-kings have on the obverse a standing king stretching out a banner topped by the wheel or disc of universal supremacy.²

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² The presence of the two letters का that is *ka* cha on the obverse under the arm of the royal figure, has led the late Mr. Thomas, General Cunningham, and Mr. Smith to suppose that the coins belonged to Ghatotkacha, the last two letters of the name being the same. This identification seems improbable. Ghatotkacha was never powerful enough to have a currency of his own. *Sarvarájochchhettá* the attribute on the reverse is one of Samudragupta's epithets, while the figure of the king on the obverse grasping the standard with the disc, illustrating the attribute of universal sovereignty, can refer to none other than Samudragupta the first very powerful king of the dynasty. Perhaps the Kacha or Kácha on these coins is a pet or child name of Samudragupta. Mr. Rapson (Numismatic Chron. 3rd Ser. XI. 48ff) has recently suggested that the Kácha coins belong to an elder brother and predecessor of Samudragupta. But it seems unlikely that a ruler who could justly claim the title *Destroyer-of-all-kings* should be passed over in silence in the genealogy. Further, as is remarked above, the title *Sarvarájochchhettá* belongs in the inscriptions to Samudragupta alone: and the fact that in his lifetime Samudragupta's father chose him as successor is against his exclusion from the throne even for a time.

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Coins³ with the epithet *Apratiratha* Peerless have on the obverse a standing king whose left hand rests on a bow and whose right hand holds a loose-lying unaimed arrow and in front an Eagle or Garuda standard, symbolizing the unrivalled supremacy of the king, his arrow no longer wanted, his standard waving unchallenged. On the obverse is the legend:

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³ Smith's Gupta Coinage in J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. Pl. I. 10.

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308) describes them as descended from a degraded Kshatriya. Beal (R. A. S. N. S. XIV. 39) would identify them with an early wave of the Yuechi or Kusháns; Smith (J. R. A. S. XX. 55 n. 2) and Hewitt (J. R. A. S. XX. 355-366) take them to be a Kolarian or local tribe. The fame of the Lichchhavis of Vaisáli or Passala between Patna and Tirhut goes back to the time of Gautama Buddha (B.C. 480) in whose funeral rites the Lichchhavis and their neighbours and associates the Mallas took a prominent share (Rockhill's Life of Buddha, 62-63, 145, 203. Compare Legge's Fa Hien, 71-76; Beal's Buddhist Records, II. 67, 70, 73, 77 and 81 note). According to Buddhist writings the first king of Thibet (A.D. 50) who was elected by the chiefs of the South Thibet tribes was a Lichchhavi the son of Prasenadjit of Kosala (Rockhill's Life of Buddha, 208). Between the seventh and ninth centuries (A.D. 635-854) a family of Lichchhavis was ruling in Nepal (Fleet's Corp. Ins. Ind. III. 134). The earliest historical member of the Nepal family is Jayadeva I. whose date is supposed to be about A.D. 330 to 355. Mr. Fleet (Ditto, 135) suggests that Jayadeva's reign began earlier and may be the epoch from which the Gupta era of A.D. 318-319 is taken. He holds (Ditto, 136) that in all probability the so-called Gupta era is a Lichchhavi era.

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अप्रतिरथराजन्‌यकीर्ति (र) मम विजयते. Apratiratharájanyakírti(r)mama vijáyate.¹ Triumphant is the glory of me the unrivalled sovereign.

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¹ Compare Wilson's Ariana Antiqua, Pl. XVIII. Fig. 8, which has the same legend with me for mama.

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Coins with the attribute Kritánta paraśu the Death-like-battle-axe have on the obverse a royal figure grasping a battle-axe.² In front of the royal figure a boy, perhaps Samudragupta's son Chandragupta, holds a standard. Coins with the attribute Aśvamedhaparákramaḥ Able-to-hold-a-horse-sacrifice have on the obverse a horse standing near a sacrificial post yúpa and on the reverse a female figure with a flyflap.³ The legend on the obverse is imperfect and hard to read. The late Mr. Thomas restores it:

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² Smith J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. Pl. I. 4.

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³ Smith J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. Pl. J. Mr. Smith reads Lichchhavayaḥ (the Lichchhavis) and assigns this type to Chandragupta I.

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नवजमधः राजाधिराज पृथिवीं जियतय. Navajamadhaḥ rájádhirája prithivíṁ jiyatya. Horse sacrifice, after conquering the earth, the great king (performs).

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Coins with the legend Lichchhaveyaḥ, a coin abbreviation for Lichchhaviduhitra Daughter's son of Lichchhavi (?), have on the obverse a standing king grasping a javelin.⁴ Under the javelin hand are the letters Chandraguptaḥ. Facing the king a female figure with trace of the letters Kumáradeví seems to speak to him. These figures of his mother and father are given to explain the attribute Lichchhaveya or scion of Lichchhavi. This coin has been supposed to belong to Chandragupta I. but the attribute Lichchhaveyaḥ can apply only to Samudragupta.

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⁴ Corpus Ins. Ind. III. 1.

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A fuller source of information regarding Samudragupta remains in his inscription on the Allahábád Pillar.⁵ Nearly eight verses of the first part are lost. The first three verses probably described his learning as what remains of the third verse mentions his poetic accomplishments, and line 27 says he was skilled in poetry and music, a trait further illustrated by what are known as his Lyrist coins where he is shown playing a lute.⁶ The fourth verse says that during his lifetime his father chose Samudragupta to rule the earth from among others of equal birth. His father is mentioned as pleased with him and this is followed by the description of a victory during which several opponents are said to have submitted. The seventh verse records the sudden destruction of the army of Achyuta Nágasena and the punishment inflicted on a descendant of the Kota family.

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⁵ Smith J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. Pl. I. 5, 6.

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⁶ Apparently South Kosala, the country about Raipur and Chhattisgarh.

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Lines 19 and 20 record the conquest, or submission, of the following South Indian monarchs, Mahendra of Kosala, Vyághrarája of Mahá Kántára,⁷ Mundarája of Kauráttá,⁸ Svámidatta of Paishtapura Mahendra-Giri and Auṭṭura⁹, Damana of Airaṇḍapallaka, Vishnu of Káñchí, Nilarája Sápávamukta,¹⁰ Hastivarman of Veṅgí, Ugrasena of Pálaka,¹¹

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⁷ Fleet reads Mauṭarája of Kerala.

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⁸ Fleet divides the words differently and translates "Mahendra of Pishtapura, Svámidatta of Koṭṭūra on the hill."

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⁹ Fleet reads "Nilarája of Avamukta."

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¹⁰ Fleet reads Pálakka or Pálakka.

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Samudragupta, A.D. 370-395.

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Kubera of Daivarāshtra, and Dhanamjaya of Kausthalapura. Line 21 gives a further list of nine kings of Āryāvarta exterminated by Samudragupta:

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Rudradeva. Matila. Nāgadatta. Chandravarman. Ganapatināga. Nāgasena. Achyuta. Nandin. Balavarman.

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As no reference is made to the territories of these kings they may be supposed to be well known neighbouring rulers. General Cunningham's coins and others obtained at Mathurā show that the fifth ruler Ganapatināga was one of the Nāga kings of Gwālior and Narwār.¹ The inscription next mentions that Samudragupta took into his employ the chiefs of the forest countries. Then in lines 22 and 23 follows a list of countries whose kings gave him tribute, who obeyed his orders, and who came to pay homage. The list includes the names of many frontier countries and the territories of powerful contemporary kings. The frontier kingdoms are:²

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¹ Arch. Surv. II. 310; J. B. A. S. 1865. 115-121.

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² Samatata is the Ganges delta: Davāka may, as Mr. Fleet suggests, be Dacca: for Karttrika Mr. Fleet reads Kartripura, otherwise Cuttack might be intended.

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Samatata. Davāka. Kāmarūpa. Nepāla. Karttrika.

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The Indian kingdoms are:³

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³ For the Mālavas see above page 24. The Arjunāyanas can hardly be the Kalachuris as Mr. Fleet (C. I. I. III. 18) has suggested, as Varāha Mihira (Br. S. XIV. 25) places the Arjunāyanas in the north near Trigarta, and General Cunningham's coin (Coins of Ancient India, 90) points to the same region. The Yaudheyas lived on the lower Sutlej: see above page 36. The Mādrakas lived north-east of the Yaudheyas between the Chenāb and the Sutlej (Cunningham Anc. Geog. 185). The Ābhīras must be those on the south-east border of Sindh. The Prārjunas do not appear to be identifiable. A Sanakānīka Mahārāja is mentioned (C. I. I. III. 3) as dedicating an offering at Udayagiri near Bhilsā, but we have no clue to the situation of his government. The name of his grandfather, Chhagalaga, has a Turki look. Kāka may be Kākupur near Bithūr (Cunningham Anc. Geog. 386). Kharaparika has not been identified. (A. M. T. J.)

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Mālava. Arjunāyana. Yauddheya. Mādraka. Ābhīra. Prārjuna. Sanakānīka. Kāka. Kharaparika.

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Mention is next made of kings who submitted, gave their daughters in marriage, paid tribute, and requested the issue of the Garuda or Eagle charter to secure them in the enjoyment of their territory.⁴ The tribal names of these kings are:⁵

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⁴ Mr. Fleet translates "(giving) Garuda-tokens, (surrendering) the enjoyment of their own territories."

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⁵ The first three names Devaputra, Shāhi, and Sháhánusháhi, belong to the Kushān dynasty of Kanishka (A.D. 78). Sháhánusháhi is the oldest, as it appears on the coins from Kanishka downwards in the form Shahanuano Shaho (Stein in Babylonina and Oriental Record, I. 163). It represents the old Persian title Shāhanshāh or king of kings. Shāhi, answering to the simple Shāh, appears to be first used alone by Vāsudeva (A.D. 128-176). The title of Devaputra occurs first in the inscriptions of Kanishka. In the present inscription all three titles seem to denote divisions of the Kushān empire in

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Devaputra. Shāhi. Sháhánusháhi. Saka. Mrunda. Saimhalaka. Island Kings.

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The inscribed pillar is said to have been set up by the great Captain or Dandanāyaka named Tilabhaṭṭanāyaka.

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This important inscription shows that Samudragupta’s dominions included Mathurā, Oudh, Gorakhpur, Allahābād, Benares, Behār, Tirhut, Bengal, and part of East Rājputāna. The list of Dakhan and South Indian kingdoms does not necessarily imply that they formed part of Samudragupta’s territory. Samudragupta may have made a victorious campaign to the far south and had the countries recorded in the order of his line of march. The order suggests that he went from Behār, by way of Gayā, to Kosala the country about the modern Rāipur in the Central Provinces, and from Kosala, by Ganjām and other places in the Northern Circars, as far as Kāñchī or Conjeveram forty-six miles south-west of Madras. Mālwa is shown in the second list as a powerful allied kingdom. It does not appear to have formed part of Samudragupta’s territory nor, unless the Sakas are the Kshatrapas, does any mention of Gujarāt occur even as an allied state.

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Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II. whose mother was the queen Dattādevī. He was the greatest and most powerful king of the Gupta dynasty and added largely to the territory left by Samudragupta. His second name Vikramāditya or the Sun of Prowess appears on his coins. Like his father Chandragupta II. struck gold coins of various types. He was the first Gupta ruler who spread his power over Mālwa and Gujarāt which he apparently took from the Kshatrapas as he was the first Gupta to strike silver coins and his silver coins of both varieties the eastern and the western are modifications of the Kshatrapa type. The expedition which conquered Mālwa seems to have passed from Allahābād by Bundelkhand to Bhilsā and thence to Mālwa. An undated inscription in the Udayagiri caves at Vidiśā (the modern Besnagar) near Bhilsā records the making of a cave of Mahādeva by one Śāba of the Kautsa gotra and the family name of Vīrasena, a poet and native of Pāṭaliputra who held the hereditary office of minister of peace and war sandhivigrahika, and who is recorded to have arrived with the king who was intent upon conquering the whole earth.¹ A neighbouring cave bears an inscription of a feudatory of Chandragupta who was chief of Sanakānīka.² The chief’s name is lost, but the names of his father Viṣṇudāsa and of his grandfather Chhagalaga remain. The date is the eleventh of the bright half of

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¹ Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 6.

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² Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 3.

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India. The title of Shāhi was continued by the Turks (A.D. 600?-900) and Brahmans (A.D. 900-1000) of Kābul (Alberuni, II. 10) and by the Shāhis (Elliot, I. 138) of Alor in Sindh (A.D. 490?-631). Unless it refers to the last remnants of the Gujarāt Mahākshatrapas the word Saka seems to be used in a vague sense in reference to the non-Indian tribes of the North-West frontier. The Muruṇḍas may be identified with the Muruṇḍas of the Native dictionaries, and hence with the people of Lampāka or Lamghān twenty miles north-west of Jalālābād. It is notable that in the fifth century A.D. Jayanātha, Mahārāja of Uchchakalpa (not identified) married a Muruṇḍadevī (Corp. Ins. Ind. III. 128, 131, 136).

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The mention of the king of Simhala and the Island Kings rounds off the geographical picture. Possibly after the Chinese fashion presents from these countries may have been magnified into tribute. Or Simhala may here stand, not for Ceylon, but for one of the many Simhapuras known to Indian geography. Sihor in Kāthiāvāda, an old capital, may possibly be the place referred to. The Island Kings would then be the chiefs of Cutch and Kāthiāvāda.--(A. M. T. J.)

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Chandragupta II. A.D. 396-415

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Áshádha Samvatsara 82 (A.D. 401). From this Chandragupta's conquest of Vidísá may be dated about Samvatsara 80 (A.D. 399) or a little earlier.

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A third inscription is on the railing of the great Sánchi stúpa.¹ It is dated the 4th day of Bhádrapada Samvat 93 (A.D. 412) and records the gift of 25 dínáras and something called Ísvaravásaka (perhaps a village or a field) to the monks of the great monastery of Kákanádabotaśrí for the daily maintenance of five bhikshus and the burning of a lamp in the ratnagriha or shrine of the Buddhist triratna, for the merit of the supreme king of great kings Chandragupta who bears the popular name of Devarája or god-like.² The donor a feudatory of Chandragupta named Ámrakárdava is described as having the object of his life gratified by the favour of the feet of the supreme ruler of great kings the illustrious Chandragupta, and as showing to the world the hearty loyalty of a good feudatory. Ámrakárdava seems to have been a chief of consequence as he is described as winning the flag of glory in numerous battles. The name of his kingdom is also recorded. Though it cannot now be made out the mention of his kingdom makes it probable that he was a stranger come to pay homage to Chandragupta. The reference to Chandragupta seems to imply he was the ruler of the land while the two other inscriptions show that his rule lasted from about 80 (A.D. 399) to at least 93 (A.D. 412). During these years Chandragupta seems to have spread his sway to Ujjain the capital of west Málwa, of which he is traditionally called the ruler. From Ujjain by way of Bágh and Tánda in the province of Ráth he seems to have entered South Gujarát and to have passed from the Káthiáváda. He seems to have wrested Káthiáváda from its Kshatrapa rulers as he is the first Gupta who struck silver coins and as his silver coins are of the then current Kshatrapa type. On the obverse is the royal bust with features copied from the Kshatrapa face and on the reverse is the figure of a peacock, probably chosen as the bearer of Kártikasvámi the god of war. Round the peacock is a Sanskrit legend. This legend is of two varieties. In Central Indian coins it runs:

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¹ Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 5.

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² Mr. Fleet (Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 33) prefers to take Devarája to be the name of Chandragupta's minister.

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श्री गुप्तकुलस्य महाराजाधिराज श्री चन्द्रगुप्तविक्रमाङ्कस्य Śrí Guptakulasya Mahárájádhirája Śrí Chandraguptavikramánkasya. (Coin) of the king of kings the illustrious Chandragupta Vikramánka, of the family of the illustrious Gupta.³

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³ J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI, 120.

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In the very rare Káthiáváda coins, though they are similar to the above in style, the legend runs:

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परमभागवत महाराजाधिराज श्री चन्द्रगुप्त विक्रमादित्य Paramabhágavata Mahárájádhirája Śrí Chandragupta Vikramáditya. The great devotee of Vishnu the supreme ruler of great kings, the illustrious Chandragupta Vikramáditya.⁴

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⁴ J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI, 121.

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Several gold coins of Chandragupta show a young male figure behind the king with his right hand laid on the king's shoulder. This youthful figure is apparently Chandragupta's son Kumáragupta who may have acted as Yuvarája during the conquest of Málwa.

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The rareness of Chandragupta's and the commonness of Kumāragupta's coins in Kāthiāwād, together with the date 90 (A.D. 409) on some of Kumāragupta's coins make it probable that on their conquest his father appointed Kumāragupta viceroy of Gujarāt and Kāthiāwād.

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As the first Gupta was a chief of no great power or influence it is probable that though it is calculated from him the Gupta era was established not by him but by his grandson the great Chandragupta II.¹ This view is confirmed by the absence of dates on all existing coins of Chandragupta's father Samudragupta. It further seems probable that like the Mālavas in B.C. 57 and the Kshatrapas in A.D. 78 the occasion on which Chandragupta established the Gupta era was his conquest of Mālwa. The Gupta era did not remain long in use. After the fall of Gupta power (A.D. 470) the old Mālava era of B.C. 57 was revived. The conjecture may be offered that, in spite of the passing away of Gupta power, under his title of Vikramāditya, the fame of the great Gupta conqueror Chandragupta II. lived on in Mālwa and, drawing to itself tales of earlier local champions, the name Vikramāditya came to be considered the name of the founder of the Mālava era.²

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¹ Mr. Fleet (Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Introd. 130ff) argues that the era was borrowed from Nepal after Chandragupta I. married his Lichchhavi queen. Dr. Bühler thinks there is no evidence of this, and that the era was started by the Guptas themselves (Vienna Or. Jl. V. Pt. 3).

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² The further suggestion may be offered that if as seems probable Dr. Bhagvānlāl is correct in considering Chandragupta II. to be the founder of the Gupta era this high honour was due not to his conquest of Mālwa but to some success against the Indo-Scythians or Sakas of the Panjāb. The little more than nominal suzerainty claimed over the Devaputras, Shāhis, and Shāhānushāhis in Chandragupta's father's inscription shows that when he came to the throne Chandragupta found the Saka power practically unbroken. The absence of reference to conquests is no more complete in the case of the Panjāb than it is in the case of Gujarāt or of Kāthiāwād which Chandragupta is known to have added to his dominions. In Kāthiāwād, though not in Gujarāt, the evidence from coins is stronger than in the Panjāb. Still the discovery of Chandragupta's coins (J. R. A. S. XXI. 5 note 1) raises the presumption of conquests as far north and west as Panipat and as Ludhiāna (in the heart of the Panjāb). Chandragupta's name Devarāja may, as Pandit Bhagvānlāl suggests, be taken from the Saka title Devaputra. Further, the use of the name Vikramāditya and of the honorific Srī is in striking agreement with Beruni's statement (Sachau, II. 6) that the conqueror of the Sakas was named Vikramāditya and that to the conqueror's name was added the title Srī. Mr. Fleet (Corp. Ins. Ind. III. 37 note 2) holds it not improbable that either Chandragupta I. or II. defeated the Indo-Scythians. The fact that Chandragupta I. was not a ruler of sufficient importance to issue coins and that even after his son Samudragupta's victories the Sakas remained practically independent make it almost certain that if any subjection of the Sakas to the Guptas took place it happened during the reign of Chandragupta II. Corp. Ins. Ind. III, Ins. 10.

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Working back from Gupta Samvat 80 (A.D. 400) the date of Chandragupta's conquest of Mālwa we may allot 1 to 12 (A.D. 319-332) to the founder Gupta: 12 to 29 (A.D. 332-349) to Gupta's son Ghatotkacha: 29 to 49 (A.D. 349-369) to Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I.: and 50 to 75 (A.D. 370-395) to Chandragupta's powerful son Samudragupta who probably had a long reign. As the latest known date of Chandragupta II. is 93 (A.D. 413) and as a Bilsad inscription of his successor Kumāragupta is dated 96 (A.D. 416) the reign of Chandragupta II. may be calculated to have lasted during the twenty years ending 95 (A.D. 415).

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THE GUPTAS, A.D. 410-170.

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Kumāragupta, A.D. 416-453

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Chandragupta II. was succeeded by his son Kumāragupta whose mother was the queen Dhruva-Deví. On Kumāragupta's coins three titles occur: Mahendra, Mahendra-Vikrama, and Mahendrá-ditya. As already noticed the circulation of Kumāragupta's coins in Káthiáváḍa during his father's reign makes it probable that on their conquest his father appointed him viceroy of Káthiáváḍa and Gujarát. Kumāragupta appears to have succeeded his father about 96 (A.D. 416). An inscription at Mankuwar near Prayága shows he was ruling as late as 129 (A.D. 449) and a coin of his dated 130 (A.D. 450) adds at least one year to his reign. On the other hand the inscription on the Girnár rock shows that in 137 (A.D. 457) his son Skandagupta was king. It follows that Kumāragupta's reign ended between 130 and 137 (A.D. 450-457) or about 133 (A.D. 453).

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None of Kumāragupta's four inscriptions gives any historical or other details regarding him.¹ But the number and the wide distribution of his coins make it probable that during his long reign he maintained his father's dominions intact.

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¹ Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 8, 9, 10 and 11.

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Large numbers of Kumāragupta's coins of gold silver and copper have been found. The gold which are of various types are inferior in workmanship to his father's coins. The silver and copper coins are of two varieties, eastern and western. Both varieties have on the obverse the royal bust in the Kshatrapa style of dress. In the western pieces the bust is a copy of the moustached Kshatrapa face with a corrupted version of the corrupt Greek legend used by the Kshatrapas. The only difference between the obverses of the Western Gupta and the Kshatrapa coins is that the date is in the Gupta instead of in the Kshatrapa era. On the reverse is an ill formed peacock facing front as in Chandragupta II.'s coins. The legend runs:

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परम भागवत महाराजाधिराज श्री कुमारगुप्त महेन्द्रादित्य. Paramabhágavata Mahárájádhirája Śrí Kumáragupta Mahendráditya. The great Vaishnava the supreme ruler of great kings, the illustrious Kumáragupta Mahendráditya.²

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² J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. 123.

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In Kumāragupta's eastern silver and copper coins the bust on the obverse has no moustache nor is there any trace of the corrupt Greek legend. The date is in front of the face in perpendicular numerals one below the other instead of behind the head as in the Kshatrapa and Western Kumāragupta coins. On the reverse is a well-carved peacock facing front with tail feathers at full stretch. Round the peacock runs the clear cut legend:

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विजितावनिरवनिपति कुमारगुप्तो देवं जयति. Vijitávaniravanipati Kumáragupto devaṃ jayati. This legend is hard to translate. It seems to mean: Kumáragupta, lord of the earth, who had conquered the kings of the earth, conquers the Deva.

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Probably the Deva whose name suggested the antithesis between the kings of the earth and the gods was one of the Devaputra family of Indo-Scythian rulers.¹

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¹ J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. 126. That Kumāragupta's two successors, Skandagupta and Budhagupta, use the same phrase *devam jayati* makes the explanation in the text doubtful. As Mr. Smith (Ditto) suggests *devam* is probably a mistake for *devo*, meaning His Majesty. The legend would then run; Kumāraguptadeva lord of the earth . . . . is triumphant. Dr. Bhagvānlāl would have preferred *devo* (see page 70 note 2) but could not neglect the *anusvāra*.—(A. M. T. J.)

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Kumāragupta was succeeded by his son Skandagupta. An inscription of his on a pillar at Bhitarī near Saidpur in Ghāzīpur bearing no date shows that on his father's death Skandagupta had a hard struggle to establish his power.² The text runs: "By whom when he rose to fix fast again the shaken fortune of his house, three months³ were spent on the earth as on a bed," an apparent reference to flight and wanderings. A doubtful passage in the same inscription seems to show that he was opposed by a powerful king named Pushyamitra on whose back he is said to have set his left foot.⁴ The inscription makes a further reference to the troubles of the family stating that on re-establishing the shaken fortune of his house Skandagupta felt satisfied and went to see his weeping afflicted mother. Among the enemies with whom Skandagupta had to contend the inscription mentions a close conflict with the Hūṇas that is the Ephthalites, the Hets, or White Huns.⁵ Verse 3 of Skandagupta's Girnār inscription confirms the reference to struggles stating that on the death of his father by his own might he humbled his enemies to the earth and established himself. As the Girnār inscription is dated 136 (A.D. 456) and as Kumāragupta's reign ended about 134, these troubles and difficulties did not last for more than two years. The Girnār inscription further states that on establishing his power he conquered the earth, destroyed the arrogance of his enemies, and appointed governors in all provinces. For Surāshtra he selected a governor named Parnadatta and to Parnadatta's son Chakrapālita he gave a share of the management placing him in charge of Junāgadh city. During the governorship of Parnadatta the Sudarsāna lake close to Junāgadh, which had been strongly rebuilt in the time of the Kshatrapa Rudradāman (A.D. 150), again gave way during the dark sixth of Bhādrapada of the year 136 (A.D. 456). The streams Palāsini Sikatā and Vilāsini⁶ burst through the dam and flowed unchecked. Repairs were begun on the first of bright Grīshma 137 (A.D. 457) and finished in two months. The new dam is said to have been 100 cubits

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² *Corp. Ins. Ind. III.* Ins. 13.

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³ Mr. Fleet (Corp. Ins. Ind. III. 53, 55) reads "*nitā triyāmā*" and translates "a (whole) night was spent." Dr. Bhagvānlāl read "*nītās trimāsāh*."

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⁴ Mr. Fleet finds that Pushyamitra is the name of a tribe not of a king. No. VI. of Dr. Bühler's Jain inscriptions from Mathurā (Ep. Ind. I. 378ff) mentions a Pushyamitriya-kula of the Vāranagana, which is also referred to in Bhadrabāhu's Kalpa-sūtra (Jacobi's Edition, 80), but is there referred to the Chāraṇa-gaṇa, no doubt a misreading for the Vāraṇa of the inscription. Dr. Bühler points out that Varaṇa is the old name of Bulandshahr in the North-West Provinces, so that it is there that we must look for the power that first weakened the Guptas.—(A. M. T. J.)

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⁵ See V. de St. Martin's Essay, *Les Huns Blancs*; Specht in *Journal Asiatique* Oct. - Dec. 1883 and below page 74.

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⁶ In Rudradāman's inscription the Palāsini is mentioned, and also the Suvarṇa-sikatā "and the other rivers." In Skandagupta's inscription Mr. Fleet translates: Sikatāvilāsini as an adjective agreeing with Palāsini.

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Skandagupta, A.D. 451-470

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long by 63 cubits broad and 7 men or about 38 feet high. The probable site of the lake is in the west valley of the Girnár hill near what is called Bhavanātha’s pass.¹ The inscription also records the making of a temple of Vishnu in the neighbourhood by Chakrapālita, which was probably on the site of the modern Dámodar’s Mandir in the Bhavanātha pass, whose image is of granite and is probably as old as the Guptas. A new temple was built in the fifteenth century during the rule of Mandalika the last Chudāsami ruler of Junágadh. At the time of the Musalmán conquest (A.D. 1484) as violence was feared the images were removed and buried. Mandalika’s temple was repaired by Amarji Diván of Junágadh (1750-1784). It was proposed to make and consecrate new images. But certain old images of Vishnu were found in digging foundations for the enclosure wall and were consecrated. Two of these images were taken by Girnāra Brāhmans and consecrated in the names of Baladevji and Revatí in a neighbouring temple specially built for them. Of the original temple the only trace is a pilaster built into the wall to the right as one enters. The style and carving are of the Gupta period.

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¹ Remains of the dam were discovered in 1890 by Khán Bahádúr Ardesir Jamsetji Special Diván of Junágadh. The site is somewhat nearer Junágadh than Dr. Bhagvánlál supposed. Details are given in Jour. R. B. R. A. S. XVIII. Number 48 page 47.

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As almost all the Gupta coins found in Cutch are Skandagupta’s and very few are Kumāragupta’s, Skandagupta seems to have added Cutch to the provinces of Gujarát and Káthiávád inherited from his father. In Káthiávád Skandagupta’s coins are rare, apparently because of the abundant currency left by his father which was so popular in Káthiávád that fresh Kumāragupta coins of a degraded type were issued as late as Valabhi times.

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Like his father, Skandagupta issued a gold coinage in his eastern dominions but no trace of a gold currency appears in the west. Like Kumāragupta’s his silver coins were of two varieties, eastern and western. The eastern coins have on the obverse a bust as in Kumāragupta’s coins and the date near the face. On the reverse is a peacock similar to Kumāragupta’s and round the peacock the legend:

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विजितावनिरवनिपति जयति देवं स्कन्दगुप्तो यं Vijitāvaniravanipati jayati devaṃ Skandagupto’yaṃ. This king Skandagupta who having conquered the earth conquers the Deva.²

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² The reading dero is to be preferred but the anusvāra is clear both on these coins and on the coins of his father. For these coins see J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. Pl. IV.

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Skandagupta’s western coins are of three varieties, one the same as the western coins of Kumāragupta, a second with a bull instead of a peacock on the reverse, and a third with on the reverse an altar with one upright and two side jets of water. Coins of the first two varieties are found both in Gujarát and in Káthiávád. The third water-jet variety is peculiar to Cutch and is an entirely new feature in the western Gupta coinage. On the reverse of all is the legend:

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परमभागवत महाराजाधिराज स्कन्दगुप्त क्रमादित्य Paramabhāgavata Mahārājādhirāja Skandagupta Kramāditya. The great Vaishnava the supreme ruler of great kings, Skandagupta the Sun of Prowess.³

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³ J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. Pl. IV. 67.

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The beginning of Skandagupta’s reign has been placed about Gupta 133 or A.D. 453: his latest known date on a coin in General Cunningham’s collection is Gupta 149 or A.D. 469.¹

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¹ The known dates of Skandagupta are 136 and 137 on his Girnár inscription, 141 in his pillar inscription at Kahaon in Gorakhpur, and 146 in his Indor-Khera copperplate. The coin dates given by General Cunningham are 144, 145, and 149.

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With Skandagupta the regular Gupta succession ceases.² The next Gupta is Budhagupta who has a pillar inscription³ in a temple at Eran in the Saugor district dated 165 (A.D. 485) and silver coins dated Samvat 174 and 180 odd (A.D. 494-500 odd). Of Budhagupta’s relation or connection with Skandagupta nothing is known. That he belonged to the Gupta dynasty appears from his name as well as from his silver coins which are dated in the Gupta era and are the same in style as the eastern coins of Skandagupta. On the obverse is the usual bust as in Skandagupta’s coins with the date (174, 180 odd) near the face. On the reverse is the usual peacock and the legend is the same as Skandagupta’s:

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² But see below page 73.

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³ Dr. Bhauvánlál examined and copied the original of this inscription. It has since been published as Number 19 in Mr. Fleet’s Corp. Ins. Ind. III.

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देवं जयति विजितावनिरवनिपति श्री बुवगुप्तो
Devaṁ jayati vijitāvaniravanipati Śrī Budhagupto.
The king the illustrious Budhagupta who has conquered the earth conquers the Deva.⁴

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⁴ J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. 134.

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Since the coins are dated Samvat 174 and 180 odd (A.D. 494 and 500 odd) and the inscription’s date is 165 (A.D. 485) the inscription may be taken to belong to the early part of Budhagupta’s reign the beginning of which may be allotted to about 160-162 (A.D. 480-482). As this is more than ten years later than the latest known date of Skandagupta (G. 149 A.D. 469) either a Gupta of whom no trace remains must have intervened or the twelve blank years must have been a time of political change and disturbance. The absence of any trace of a gold currency suggests that Budhagupta had less power than his predecessors. The correctness of this argument is placed beyond doubt by the pillar inscription opposite the shrine in the Eran temple where instead of his predecessor’s title of monarch of the whole earth Budhagupta is styled protector of the land between the Jamna (Kālindī) and the Narbádá implying the loss of the whole territory to the east of the Jamna.⁵ In the west the failure of Gupta power seems still more complete. Neither in Gujarát nor in Káthiávádá has an inscription or even a coin been found with a reference to Budhagupta or to any other Gupta ruler later than Skandagupta (G. 149 A.D. 469). The pillar inscription noted above which is of the year 165 (A.D. 485) and under the rule of Budhagupta states that the pillar was a gift to the temple by Dhanya Vishṇu and his brother Mátṛi Vishṇu who at the time of the gift seem to have been local Bráhman governors. A second inscription on the lower part of the neck of a huge Boar or Varáha image in a corner shrine of the same temple records that the image was completed on the tenth day of Phálguna in the first year of the reign of A.D. 410-470. Budhagupta, A.D. 485.

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⁵ It is now known that the main Gupta line continued to rule in Magadha. See page 73 below.

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Toramāṇa the supreme ruler of great kings and was the gift of the same Dhanya Viṣṇu whose brother Mātri Viṣṇu is described as gone to heaven.¹ Since Mātri was alive in the Budhagupta and was dead in the Toramāṇa inscription it follows that Toramāṇa was later than Budhagupta. His name and his new era show that Toramāṇa was not a Gupta. A further proof that Toramāṇa wrested the kingdom from Budhagupta is that except the change of era and that the bust turns to the left instead of to the right, Toramāṇa’s silver coins are directly adapted from Gupta coins of the eastern type.

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¹ Published by Mr. Fleet Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 36.

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Certain coin dates seem at variance with the view that Toramāṇa flourished after Budhagupta. On several coins the date 52 is clear. As Toramāṇa’s coins are copies of the coins of Kumāragupta and Skandagupta and as most of these coins have a numeral for one hundred the suggestion may be offered that a one dropped out in striking Toramāṇa’s die and that this date should read 152 not 52. Accepting this view Toramāṇa’s date would be 152 (A.D. 472) that is immediately after the death of Skandagupta.

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The Gwālior inscription² mentions prince Mihirakula as the son of Toramāṇa and a second inscription from a well in Mandasor³ dated Mālava Saṃvat 589 (A.D. 533) mentions a king named Yaśodharman who was ruler of Mālwa when the well was built and who in a second Mandasor inscription⁴ is mentioned as having conquered Mihirakula. This would separate Mihirakula from his father Toramāṇa (A.D. 471) by more than sixty years. In explanation of this gap it may be suggested that the [1]52 (A.D. 472) coins were struck early in Toramāṇa’s reign in honour of his conquest of the eastern Gupta territory. A reign of twenty years would bring Toramāṇa to 177 (A.D. 497). The Gwālior inscription of Mihirakula is in the fifteenth year of his reign that is on the basis of a succession date of 177 (A.D. 497) in Gupta 192 (A.D. 512). An interval of five years would bring Yaśodharman’s conquest of Mihirakula to 197 (A.D. 517). This would place the making of the well in the twenty-first year of Mihirakula’s reign.

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² Fleet Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 37.

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³ Fleet Corp. Ins. Ind. III. Ins. 35.

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⁴ Fleet Corp. Ins. Ind. III, Ins. 33.

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Bhānugupta, A.D. 511.

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After Budhagupta neither inscription nor coin shows any trace of Gupta supremacy in Mālwa. An Eraṇ inscription⁵ found in 1869 on a liṅga-shaped stone, with the representation of a woman performing satī, records the death in battle of a king Goparājā who is mentioned as the daughter’s son of Śarabharāja and appears to have been the son of king Mādhava. Much of the inscription is lost. What remains records the passing to heaven of the deceased king in the very destructive fight with the great warrior (pravīra) Bhānugupta brave as Pārtha. The inscription is dated the seventh of dark Bhādrapada Gupta 191 in words as well as in numerals that is in A.D. 511. This Bhānugupta would be the successor of Budhagupta ruling over a petty Mālwa principality which lasted till nearly the time of the Harṣavardhana the beginning of the seventh century (A.D. 607-650), as a Devagupta of Mālwa is one of Rājyavardhana’s rivals in the Śrīharṣacharita. While Gupta power failed in Mālwa and disappeared from Western India a fresh branch of the Guptas rose in Magadha or Behár and under Naragupta Báláditya, perhaps the founder of the eastern branch of the later Gupta dynasty, attained the dignity of a gold coinage.¹

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⁵ Fleet Corp. Ins. Ind. III, Ins. 20.

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¹ On Naragupta see below page 77, and for his coins J. R. A. S. (N. S.) XXI. note Pl. III. 11.

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