Later Mughals v1.c6.s29: Sec. 28.—The Dutch Embassy 1712—1713.
Later Mughals v1.c6.s29
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Sec. 28.—The Dutch Embassy 1712—1713.
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From 1616 the Dutch East India Company had been established as traders at Surat in the province of Gujarat, with stations subordinate thereto at Ahmadabad, Baroda and Agra, and in 1710 it was decided to send an embassy from that place to obtain certain concessions from Bahadur Shah.* Cornelis Bezuyen, the first person designted as envoy, died at Surat on the 18th October, 1710, and it was not till the following year that he was replaced as head of the proposed embassy by Johan Josua Ketelaar,† the Company's director of trade at Surat. He arrived at Sarai Khan Khanan a few miles from Lahor, the Court being then at that city, on the 10th December, 1711. That day Donna Juliana Dias da Costa, a Portuguese lady holding a position of trust in the harem, sent them some presents and the Emperor's French physician, M. Martin, with thirty Christians of various nationalities came out to greet them. On the 13th a noble, Khadim Beg Khan, at the head of 500 cavalry and 500 infantry, arrived as escort. He had an elephant with him, and also displayed four large and many small flags of white and green silk and four green silk standards, embroidered with gold. A deputation was sent out to meet him, in order to bring him to the envoy, and then to escort him to his tent outside the sarai. An Armenian bishop and some Jesuit fathers, who were in the imperial camp, were also among the visitors.
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∗ The following account is from a diary kept by Ernst Coenraad Graaf, first sworn clerk to the embassy.
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† Dr. G. A. Grierson informs me that in Miscellanea Orientalia, published by David Millins in 1743, there is a Hindustani grammar by J. J. Ketelaer 'societatis Indicae orientalis ad magnum mogulem quondam Legatus.' It is there said that he lived at Agra, which seems a mistake.
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On the 4th December a state entry was made. First came the introducer's elephant covered with a green trapping edged with red cloth bearing his standard of green and white silk and surrounded by men carrying small green and white flags fastened to rockets. Next was a large elephant intended for presentation to the Emperor. It was covered with gold brocade. Other elephants, with green and red cloths, followed in a row, each bearing a grenadier. Behind them rode the head elephant-man on horseback, Then came four great flags of the Company and forty small ones attached to rockets, followed by a man with kettle-drums on horseback, nine horses with rich gold and silver caparisons, for presentation to the Emperor, the master of the horse, and two trumpeters. Ensign Godlieb on horseback led six grenadiers, two and two, on horseback. Then came the submerchant, the secretary, the first clerk and his assistant, a sergeant and the subsurgeon, all on horseback. Next were two led horses attended by four silver stick-bearers, and the envoy's footmen and fusiliers. Here followed the envoy in a palki, accompanied by the introducers and M. Martin, also in palkis; then the first and second assistant envoys Rogier Beerendard and Dirk Huisinkveld, in palkis, preceded each by a led horse and surrounded by footmen and fusiliers. Close behind was a four-wheeled carriage of Dutch make, brought from Surat, bearing the Armenian Bishop and the Jesuits. In another similar coach rode the chief surgeon, H. Eppendorf, and after it were four native carriages (raths?), covered with red and green, carrying the rest of the clerks and soldiers. The procession was closed by a corporal on horseback, a loaded camel, a camel with kettle-drums and, last of all, the master of the camels on horseback.
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Altogether it was a brave show, and evidently there was much eagerness to see the strangers. About two miles from Lahor they met a four-wheeled carriage covered with red silk curtains and they were told that it contained Donna Juliana and four of the principal women of the harem. They had been sent out by Bahadur Shah to bring him an account of the procession. The three agents, or wakils, employed by the Dutch Company to watch their interests at Court, now appeared. One rode an elephant bearing a green and white silk banner, the other two were in *palkis*. Many horsemen and armed servants surrounded them. When they saw the envoy they alighted and came on foot to greet him, presenting several gold coins and Rupees, which he touched and remitted. They then remounted and took the head of the procession. At three o'clock they drew near their tents which were pitched in good order near the Emperor's artillery, and here several noblemen received them.
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Donna Juliana sent word that the Emperor would admit the envoy and all the Europeans to audience as soon as he pleased. Inayatullah Khan, Wazarat Khan, and Islam Khan had received orders to forward the negotiations. Khadim Beg Khan had been appointed as introducer. As the presents were not unpacked the audience was postponed and on the 16th and 17th December they moved their camp into two walled gardens, not far distant, in order to avoid the effluvium prevailing at their first station. On the 20th Donna Juliana with some ladies of the Court visited them and inspected the presents. She had been preceded by a dinner of fifty dishes from the Emperor's table, and after dinner she scented them with essence of roses and other rich perfumeries and presented betel covered with gold and silver leaf. On the 21st a dinner was sent on a small but massive golden table, having in the centre a large vessel for vegetables, and all round it holes containing small dishes filled with delicate food, such as were prepared for the Emperor himself. So far all seemed propitious, Zulfiqar Khan being known to be favourable. The only doubt was as to Azim-ush-shan and one or two nobles who hated Christians. It was believed, however, that Azim-ush-shan's goodwill could be brought.
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On the 26th December the presents wrapped in red cloth were sent in charge of two Dutchmen and the native *wakils* to the Emperor's tents and made over to Khadim Beg Khan. The assistants were detained all night as Bahadur Shah wished them to show and explain the presents one by one. The Emperor took them one by one into his own hands and showed himself much pleased. Intimation came from Donna Juliana that the first audience was fixed for the next day, but the weather being bad a delay was accorded.
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The audience took place at last on the 3rd January 1712. The envoy marched to the imperial enclosure in the same state as upon the day of his entry, through Muizz-ud-din’s camp stretching for one *kos*, and then for two *kos* beyond through the imperial camp, which lay along the Ravi. In the afternoon they reached the tent that had been pitched for them, where Donna Juliana entertained them. At three o’clock they set out again and drew near to the screens in front of the Emperor’s tents. They were surrounded by three lines of strong netting placed at a little distance from each other. At the gate they delivered up their firearms. The ambassador and his suite kept their swords and were allowed to advance as far as the enclosure in their *palkis* or on horseback. The clerks and soldiers followed on foot, as no wheeled vehicle was allowed to proceed further. The Emperor not having yet taken his seat, they were shown into the tent of Islam Khan, general of artillery, with whom they held a friendly conversation until the clang of drums and cymbals announced the arrival of the Emperor.
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Re-entering their *palkis* they were carried as far as the screens (*kanats*), in which there were three gates. These screens were made of old carpet and the ground they enclosed was fully two miles in circumference. In the middle stood a very large tent of carpet wrought in silk, gold and silver. At the back was the throne raised on a platform of earth, about five feet in height, covered with very handsome carpets wrought in gold and surrounded by a silver railing at the distance of a hand’s breath. From the middle gate to the large tent a road was marked out by small red silk flags and a lattice-work partition, the ground being covered with carpets. At the gate they were received by the introducer Khadim Beg Khan. It was ordered that all Europeans should be admitted. The introducer took the envoy’s hand, and led him followed by his assistants to the position from which the nobles saluted the Emperor. He was taken past a first railing of wood, close to the silver railing and on the Emperor’s left hand among the group of nobles, with his assistants a few steps behind him. The rest of the Europeans were kept outside the wooden rail. The envoy presented his offering of gold coins and a gold box containing a letter from the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. The assistants also presented their nazars. Islam Khan received that of the envoy ; those of the assistants were taken by Khadim Beg Khan and passed on to Islam Khan. They were shown to the Emperor, who accepted them.
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Next, they were led on one side past the silver railings by Khadim Beg Khan to a place behind the throne, where the envoy put on a robe of honour of gold brocade over his European clothes and tied a turban round his hat. The assistants received dresses of silver brocade. Thus altered, they were conducted again before the Emperor and there made four bows, bending the body down, touching the ground with the right hand, and each time on rising bringing the hand up to the forehead. They were then taken close up to the silver railings, but just at that moment the Emperor rose and left accompanied by his two sons Jahandar Shah and Jahan Shah, who had been seated on his right hand on a somewhat lower level. Everybody then retired and the crowd was so great that there was a risk of being crushed. Outside the kanats they returned to their palkis, and reached home at nine o'clock at night.
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Owing to the late hour of the audience, neither the elephants nor the horses had been presented. These were sent on the 4th January, but according to custom sent back again, the object being to ensure that everybody should notice the valuable nature of the present. In the afternoon an officer arrived with a complete dinner prepared after the Mughal fashion, and half an hour later another with apples, pears, pomegranates, oranges and other fruits. These favours were acknowledged by three bows, or salams, made with the face turned towards the imperial quarters. Even the Emperor's wives and sons were required to observe this ceremonial. The men who carried the gifts were regaled with betel leaves, attar of roses, and received a considerable sum of money. An omission of these gifts might be fatal, for the Emperor was in the habit of enquiring what had been given and thereby gauging the value set upon his presents. On the 5th the envoy went to audience taking the nine elephants and nine horses. The horses were accepted, but there was no time before the night fell to present the elephants. The envoy received a gift of a dagger studded with fine stones which he stuck into his sword belt and acknowledged by three low bows.
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On the 6th the elephants were paraded and accepted with great satisfaction, and the Emperor's wives, having taken a fancy to the European carriage, oxen were yoked on it, and it was sent to them with all its appurtenances. This gift gave rise to quarrels, but it was at last assigned by Bahadur Shah to his principal wife, Mihr-Parwar. The lady was so pleased with this new toy that she harnessed her eunuchs to it and made them draw her every day round the enclosure formed by the kanats or screens. She conferred robes of honour on the envoy and his assistants by way of thanks for the gift.
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Presents were selected and sent to the four Princes with a view to propitiate them, and on Donna Juliana's advice some extra gifts were sent to Prince Azim-ush-shan, who had charge of the imperial seal and was besides held to be of an avaricious nature. A part of the presents were received graciously and the rest returned. On the 12th presents were sent to Zulfiqar Khan, whose father, Asad Khan, is called "the Company's faithful friend"; and three days later others were sent to Inayatullah Khan, who is described as "provisional chancellor" meaning Wazir, and a great favourite of Azim-ush-shan. Inayatullah Khan took three pairs of spectacles, and returned the other things with assurance of his friendly feelings.
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A few days afterwards, on the 18th January, a visit was paid to Zulfiqar Khan. The envoy and his assistants having been asked to sit down, Mr. Ketelaar paid his host a few compliments "in the Hindu language", and hoped that he would favour the Company's interests at Court, as they always recollected the friendship shown to them by his father, Asad Khan, when chief minister. The Khan said he would try to aid them and doubted not that they would succeed, but he objected to the erection of a new factory outside Surat. The envoy was very anxious to hear the grounds of his objection, but could not continue the interview, as the etiquette of the Court forbids a long stay or much talk upon a first visit. Zulfiqar Khan, pleased at their allusion to his father, asked if they had called upon him on their way through Dihli, but they explained that it having been the month of fasting, during which no visits are received, they had been unable to pay their respects. In conclusion they asked for an order to the governor of Surat allowing the transfer of the other presents sent from Batavia. The order was made out and after sealing was handed over. No dresses of honour were given openly; they were to be forwarded afterwards.
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On the 24th January the envoy appeared again before the throne and received a gold ornament with pearl tassels for the dagger already given to him. Bahadur Shah asked that the Dutch musicians might be sent to perform. Three men were accordingly sent at night and played on the violin, harp and hautboy before His Majesty and his queens who were seated behind a screen. In return the envoy was invited to an inspection of the Shalimar garden, of which he gives a description, and a few days afterwards he visited the Pari Mahal or ‘nymphs’ palace’ in the town, where in a large gallery he saw an artificial alabaster image representing Our Saviour surrounded by angels. A visit to the eldest Prince Jahandar Shah followed, and he also asked for the musicians to be sent to him and witnessed the manoeuvres of the Dutch soldiers commanded by Ensign Nythart. After this the envoy fell ill, and on the 16th February Bahadur Shah sent to enquire for him. On the 21st Mr. Ketelaar reappeared at darbar. He was so well received that he thought his affairs wore a most promising aspect and that they would be able “to leave that unhealthy climate” and return to Surat. On the 27th they learnt that in spite of Azim-ush-shan’s opposition the first request of the Company had been granted and the order signed and sealed by the diwan Wazarat Khan and the other officials. The other demands were agreed to, and His Majesty had ordered their reduction to writing without delay.
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These fond hopes of a speedy and successful return were dissipated in a moment. That very night the Emperor fell ill and was not expected to recover, the Princes set their troops in motion and the roads to Lahor were rendered impassable by crowds of fugitives and their baggage. Bahadur Shah died on the 28th as they learnt from a friend at Court, and on the 29th Donna Juliana wrote advising them to take precautions against plundering. Thereupon they walled up the gate of one garden to which they transferred all the Company's goods, going in and out by the gate of the adjacent garden. Two hundred natives were enlisted as a guard.
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Although by strict chronological order the conclusion of the envoy's story should appear in the next chapter, it seems better to make no break but carry it on to its conclusion. During the contest for the crown, the details of which we shall soon come to, no notice was taken either of the ambassadors or of the Company's affairs, much time was thus lost and much expense incurred. Nor were their persons and property altogether safe. To add to the difficulties of the position Jahandar Shah called upon them for military aid. After much consultation together this was refused, the chief plea being the ill-health of M. Ketelaar. Jahandar Shah accepted the excuses, and advised the Dutchmen to remove into the city so that they might evade similar demands from the other competitors for the throne. They rented three katras, or walled enclosures, in Lahor and succeeded in removing their baggage thither without loss, although the country was now swarming with plunderers.
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It was not until the 1st April that negotiations could be reopened. The envoy paid a visit to Zulfiqar Khan, now Wazir, from whom he received promises of earnest support. The next day, to save the excessive house-rent, they returned to the walled gardens outside the town. The Emperor's audience was attended on the 7th and 10th. A petition was then sent in praying for the confirmation of what had been already granted by Bahadur Shah, the father of the new Emperor. This prayer was granted. On the 14th April Jahandar Shah passed their garden on his way from the mosque and received their gift or nazar in passing, and on the 25th the same was done to Lal Kunwar (Jahandar Shah's concubine, who is styled "the Empress"). The same ceremony was performed for both Jahandar Shah and Lal Kunwar, on their return from hunting.
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In a few days they were assured by Zulfiqar Khan that all the documents were ready, and signatures only were wanting.
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On the 10th May Jahandar Shah left Lahor on his march to Dihli. There the envoy attended the first public audience, which took place on the 10th July. They were much struck with the peacock and other thrones, of which the Diary gives a full description. They were at darbar again on the 11th August. They were now buoyed up with hopes of an early departure, and hearing that the documents were signed, enquiry was made from Zulfiqar Khan, who sent word on the 15th that the Emperor had consented to their going. But, as the matter-of-fact Dutchmen soon found, "these were only words," and in spite of the daily presents sent to the subordinates of the minister delay after delay took place. At length five farmans were made ready in legal form and their early transmission was promised. On the 31st August the final presents were ordered; a farman addressed to Abraham van Riebeek, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, put up like all the others in a bag of gold cloth, accompanied by a dagger studded with rubies, a dress of honour, a piece of velvet, a stomacher of diamonds and other stones, set in gold, and fifty tolas of attar of roses. Eighty dresses of honour were subsequently added. For the envoy were sent a horse and gold trappings, a dress of honour, a dagger and a kalghi or plume studded with diamonds. The two assistants received each a dress and a dagger. At this juncture M. Martin the French physician raised some trouble by some story about a house in Surat known as Itibar Khan's, but his plots were exposed by Donna Juliana, and on the 21st September as a punishment the Frenchman's mansab was reduced one half by Zulfiqar Khan.
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On the 11th September the attar of roses was delivered, and at the audience of the 19th the gifts for the Governor-General were made over to the envoy. On the 22nd the audience of leave-taking took place and the usual dresses and the presents were conferred. The horse given to Mr. Ketelaar was a piebald valued by the courtiers at 1200 rix-dollars, but F. Valentyn, who saw it afterwards at Batavia, in the square before the castle, found in him "no particular virtue, having often seen superior to it at the price of 100 rix-dollars.'' Not an infrequent state of things in regard to darbar presents! On the 25th September they bade farewell to Zulfiqar Khan, and the envoy gave him a short letter in Persian thanking him for his favours, saying a few words in Hindustani, to which Mr. Beerenaard added a speech in Persian. Zulfiqar Khan promised to continue his favour towards them. Three days afterwards they saw the old Nawab, Asad Khan, and received from him promises of aid on all occasions. He was carried through his garden in a curious portable chair adorned with gold borne by four women.
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Having received on the 29th September a hasb-ul-hukm directing the new governor of Surat, Mahmud Beg Khan, to restore to the Company the house of Itibar Khan and a new sealed farman for Ahmadabad, a few more farewell visits were paid; on the 1st October to Khan Jahan Kokaltash, on the 3rd to Sadullah Khan Mutaqid, the Khan-saman, and to Raza Quli (Shafat) Khan, general of artillery, on the 6th to Rajah Sabha Chand, diwan of Zulfiqar Khan, and to Khadim Beg Khan. On the 7th they went to the palace to take farewell of the Empress; they made four low bows (salam) before a window where she was. On the 9th they said good-bye to their friend Donna Juliana, and left the same day for Barahpula. On the 13th October they received the last of the documents and made ready for a start.
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They started on the 14th, and reached Agra on the 20th October, 1712. Their stages were Faridabad, Palwal, Hodal, a sarai at "Tojalla", one kos from Mathura, a sarai at "Gosia Attebar Chan", and a sarai at Gaughat. The road was much infested by robbers. From Agra they returned to Surat. After exertions extending over one year and a great expenditure concessions of value had been obtained. Besides the heavy cost of the presents, the envoy's expenses amounted, it is said, to 30,000 guilders. The return presents were estimated to be worth 5500 rix-dollars. Yet, in the end, the whole of this expenditure was thrown away. Before the close of 1712 Farrukh-siyar had defeated Jahandar Shah, and the dead bodies of that luckless sovereign and of his Prime Minister were paraded through the streets of Dihli. After that revolution Jahandar Shah’s *farmans* were so much waste paper, and his reign was blotted out from the records of the Empire.