Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v1.c7.s7: Chapter VII. The Annamite Invasions
Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v1.c7.s7
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Chapter VII. The Annamite Invasions
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For nearly a century after the death of Indravarman III. the history of Champā is obscure in the extreme. Excepting one doubtful case, to be noticed later on, no epigraphic evidence comes to our help, and we are solely dependent on the Chinese and Annamite annals for guiding us in this dark period. The outstanding event of this period is the Annamite invasion, leading to internal disintegration of the kingdom of Champā, and this sufficiently explains the absence of epigraphic records bearing upon the history of the period.
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Indravarman III. seems to have been succeeded by a king whose name is differently spelt in Chinese histories and may be taken to be equivalent to Parameśvaravarman. He sent embassies to China in 972, 973, 974, 976, 977, and 979 A. D. But he was soon involved in a quarrel with the Annamites which brought ruin upon himself and his kingdom.
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As the Annamites began to play an increasingly predominant part in the history of Champā from this time forward till that kingdom was finally subjugated by them, it is necessary to give a brief review of the rise and growth of this new power.
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It has already been related in Chapter II how a section of the widely spread Yue race had ultimately established itself in Tonkin and northern Annam, and developed a distinct nationality. It has also been pointed out that when this country passed into the hands of China (111 B. C.) during the Han period, the territory inhabited by the Annamites was comprised within the two Chinese provinces of Kiaotche and Kieou-tchen corresponding to modern Hanoi and Thanh Hoa regions.
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These two provinces were ruled by Chinese governors. The central authority in China, however, could not always keep a firm hold upon these distant provinces. Si-Kouang, the governor of Kiao-tche (in the first quarter of the first century A. D.) behaved practically as an independent king. His administration was memorable for the large measure of success which attended his efforts to introduce the Chinese civilisation in the province. But the tyranny of the Chinese, both officials and colonists, weighed heavily upon the people. In 36 A. D. To Dinh, the successor of of Si Kouang put to death the husband of Tru'ng Trac, and the exasperated people at once broke into revolt under the leadership of this spirited lady and her sister Tru'ng Nhi The Chinese governor fled in haste and Tru'ng Trac began to rule as an independent sovereign (40 A. D.). But her power was short-lived. A Chinese army under Ma Youen easily overran the country. The two sisters were taken captive and beheaded, and the Chinese authority was again established in the country.
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The conqueror Ma Youen planted a column of bronze at Co-lau as a token of his victory, and also probably to mark the boundary of the province. He did not pass beyond Than Hoa in the south, but according to later legends, he passed far to the south, in the heart of Annam, planted a small Chinese colony there, and erected two copper columns to mark the southern frontier of the Chinese possessions.
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The Annamites again revolted in 183 A. D., but were subjugated in 226 A. D. In 541 Ly Bon or Ly Bi, an Annamite of Chinese origin revolted against the Chinese governor and declared himself king. He and his two successors ruled for 62 years, but the Chinese general Lieou Fang reconquered the province in 603 A. D. Ly Bon ruled over the whole of Tonkin and in the south his kingdom reached the frontier of Champā. His fight with Rudravarman has been referred to in Chapter IV.
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From 603 to 939 A. D. the Chinese remained the undisputed master of Tonkin. Under the T'ang dynasty a new province was created embracing all the Chinese possessions from the northern extremity of Tonkin to the borders of the kingdom of Champā. It was named Ngan-nan (pronounced by the Annamites as An Nam) meaning “pacified south”. In 722 an Annamite chief, Mai Thuc Loan, made alliance with the kings of Champā and revolted against the Chinese governor. But the revolt was easily suppressed by the Chinese generals.
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Towards the close of the ninth century A. D. troubles arose in the country. The political changes in China, involving frequent changes in the provincial administration, led to a state of anarchy and confusion in Tonkin. At last, unable to bear the miseries of Chinese yoke, the Annamites broke into revolt early in the 10th century A. D. The moment was very opportune. The downfall of the Imperial T'ang dynasty in 907 A. D. was followed by a period of anarchy and disintegration in China, lasting for more than half a century. The Annamites took full advantage of this situation and freed themselves from the iron yoke of the Chinese. Henceforth Annam became an independent country, nominally acknowledging the suzerainty of China at times, but quite free from Chinese control for all practical purposes. A new power thus came into existence which was ultimately destined to play an important part in the history of south-eastern Asia.¹
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¹ The short historical account of Annam is mainly based on the following books. (1) Cordier-Histoire Generale de
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The first independent royal Annamite dynasty was founded by Ngo Quyen in 939 A. D. But the supreme power did not remain with a single chief for a long time. By 965 A. D. twelve important chiefs had partitioned the country among themselves. In 968 A. D. Dinh Bo Linh defeated the twelve chiefs and proclaimed himself emperor. He ruled for 12 years but was murdered in 979 A. D. Ngo Nhut Khanh, one of the twelve chiefs defeated by the emperor, had taken refuge in the court of Champā. As soon as the news of emperor's death reached him, he planned to seize the throne and asked for the aid of Parameśvaravarman.
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The latter readily consented and led a naval expedition against Tonkin in person. The Cham fleet made good progress and reached within a few miles of the capital. At night, however, a storm broke out and destroyed the whole fleet with the exception of the royal vessel which safely returned to Champā. A large number, including Nhut Khanh, was drowned and the rest fell into the hands of the Annamites (979 A. D.).
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Shortly after, Le Hoan was elected by the Annamite chiefs as their emperor (980 A. D.). He successfully opposed a Chinese expedition sent by the Emperor K'ouang-Yi to reconquer the province. He sent an ambassador to Parameśvaravarman, but the latter imprisoned him against diplomatic convention of all ages and countries. Le Hoan was naturally furious, and led an expedition in person against Champā. Parameśvaravarman was defeated and killed at the first encounter, and the Annamite king marched towards the capital. Although a new king was hastily set up, he could not save the capital city which fell into the hands of the Annamites. After pillaging the city and
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la Chine [Paris 1920] [2], E. Luro — Le Pays D' Annam [Paris 1878].
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burning its temples Le Hoan made arrangements for governing the province and returned with an immense booty (982 A. D.). Among others, he took with him 100 ladies of the royal harem and an Indian Bhikṣu.
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The new king—whose name has been restored from Chinese Annals as Indravarman (IV)—took refuge in his southern territories and sent a Brāhmaṇa envoy to the Chinese court complaining against the Annamite occupation of Champā. But the emperor was not in a mood to renew the fight with the Annamites and advised the king of Champā to protect his own kingdom and live on friendly terms with his neighbours.
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In the meantime the Annamite chiefs were quarrelling among themselves. The history of the internal quarrels and dissensions is but imperfectly known to us but they ultimately led to the usurpation of the throne of Champā by Lu’u-Ky-Tong, an Annamite chief, who revolted against Le Hoan. Le Hoan advanced with an army to punish him but the difficulties of the route, added to the inclemency of the weather, forced him to retreat (983 A. D.).
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Lu’u-Ky-Tong was now quite secure in his dominions in northern Champā. His power was on the increase, and after the death of Indravarman IV he was officially proclaimed king of Champā. The foreign domination, however, pressed hard on the people, and they began to emigrate to the Chinese territories in large numbers. Fortunately, a national hero appeared at this time at Vijaya. Lu’u-Ky-Tong disappeared and the former was crowned king under the name of Vijaya Śrī Harivarman (II)¹ (989 A. D.). The capital was fixed at Vijaya in Binh-Dinh.
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¹ Maspero reads this name as Sri Indravarman [T'oung Pao 1911, p. 72] but cf. Finot's remarks in B. E. F. vol. XV, No. 2, p. 48 fn (2).
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This king has left a short Cham inscription of four lines on a block of sandstone lying in the vestibule of a temple at Myson (No 51). It records the installation of the god Śrī Jaya Īśāna Bhadreśvara in the year 991 A. D., and is probably a reminiscence of the work of restoration that must have slowly followed the cruel devastation by the Annamites.
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Shortly after his accession Harivarman II found his territories again ravaged by Le Hoan. He sent an embassy with rich presents to the Imperial court of China complaining about the conduct of Le Hoan, and the emperor commanded Le Hoan to keep within his own territory. Hari Varman II also wanted to conciliate the Annamite king and refused assistance to an Annamite chief who had rebelled against Le Hoan. The latter, touched by this signal mark of friendship, and probably also intimidated by the order of the Chinese emperor, not only stopped his incursions, but also released a number of Cham prisoners (992 A. D.). During the same year the Chinese emperor sent a rich present to Harivarman II, who was, glad beyond measure at such an unexpected honour, and sent in return an envoy with a rich tribute. In a letter to the emperor which he sent along with this envoy, the king poured forth his feelings of gratitude and helplessness in a pathetic manner:
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"I am a chief of small renown. The foreigners always invaded and devastated my country, and my subjects, unable to defend, were scattered like straw before a storm. Then you extended your protection to me and sent me a present of magnificent horses, standards and equipments of war. Learning the Imperial favour vouchsafed to me, my neighbours no longer entertain any desire of ruining me. Now my kingdom is again enjoying peace, and the scattered people are coming back... My country has the same reverence for you as for the heaven above which covers us, and the earth below which bears us, and my gratitude is unlimited. 10,000 li of sea divides your august
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capital from my country, and yet your goodwill is extended towards me" The humble epistle ended with a request that three hundred of his subjects which had taken refuge in the Chinese territory might be repatriated to Champā.
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Outwardly Harivarman was on equally good terms with Le Hoan, the Annamite king, and sent diplomatic missions to him. Nevertheless the soldiers of Champā ravaged the Annamite territory to the north. Once, Le Hoan rebuked the Cham envoy and refused to accept the tribute brought by him. Harivarman hastened to pacify him and sent his own grandson as hostage to his court (995 A. D.). But the Chams nevertheless continued to raid the Annamite territory. In 997 a Cham army marched upto the borders of Tonkin but returned without invading it.
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Harivarman II was succeeded by a king, the first part of whose name alone has reached us in a Chinese form,¹ viz. Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Śrī. He ascended the throne sometime before 999 A. D. when he sent an envoy to China. King Harivarman II, although proclaimed king at Vijaya, had re-established the Court at the ancient capital Indrapura. But that city was sacked by Le Hoan and had suffered all the horrors of foreign domination. Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Śrī definitely abandoned it, and, in order to avoid the domination of the Annamites, retired to Vijaya which henceforth became the capital of Champā and remained as such till the end.
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¹ Yang p'ou Kin P'i t'ou yi Che li.
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In 1004 Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Śrī sent an ambassador to the Chinese Court who met there a deputation from Arab. Three years later, he sent another ambassador to the Emperor with a long letter and rich presents. Questioned by the Emperor the ambassador reported that their capital had been removed to Vijaya, 700 li to the south of the old capital.
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Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Śrī was succeeded by a king, the Chinese form of whose name¹ has been doubtfully restored to Śrī Harivarmadeva III. He sent three embassies to China in 1010, 1011, and 1015, and one to Tonkin in 1011. With his envoy to China in 1011 he sent a few lions which were objects of great curiosity to the Imperial Court.
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¹ Che li Hia li pi ma ti.
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His successor, the Chinese form of whose name² has been doubtfully restored to Parameśvaravarman II, sent tribute to China in 1018 A. D. Early in the year 1021, the Annamites all on a sudden attacked the camp of Bo Chanh which protected the northern frontier of Champā. The Cham general opposed them, but was killed, and his army retreated in disorder. The invading army, however, also suffered great loss and did not dare to advance any further.
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² Che Mei P'ai mo tie
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The next king, the Chinese form of whose name³ has been doubtfully restored as Yan Pu Ku Śrī Vikrāntavarman (IV) was on the throne in 1030 A. D. when he sent an embassy to China with tribute. His reign seems to be full of civil wars and revolutions. For twice, in 1038 and 1039 A. D., his son sought protection at the court of Tonkin, and a few months later, the entire garrison of the camp of Bo Chinh sought refuge with the Annamite Emperor. Vikrāntavarman died in 1041 A. D., and the year following, his son Jaya Simhavarman II asked for investiture from the Chinese court.
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³ Yang P'ou Kou Che-li P'i lan To Kia pan motie.
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Jaya Simhavarman’s indiscretion brought another terrible calamity upon the unfortunate kingdom of Champā. In 1043 his navy harassed the Annamite coast but was forced to retreat in the face of a large force sent against them. The Annamite Emperor Phat Ma now decided on an expedition on a large scale to chastise his turbulent neighbours, who had besides, ceased to perform any act of vassalage for the last sixteen years. He constructed 100 new vessels and drilled his soldiers for both offensive and defensive war. At length, on the 12th January, 1044, he led the expedition in person against Champā. The flotilla safely reached the bank of the river Ngu Bo where Jaya Simhavarman was waiting with his troops. The Annamites disembarked and offered battle. The Cham army was completely routed. Jaya Simhavarman himself lay dead on the field which was covered by the dead bodies of 30,000 of his soldiers. Moved by pity Phat Ma at last stopped this fearful carnage and marched towards the capital city Vijaya. Vijaya was easily captured and ravaged by his army. At last the Annamite Emperor turned back with an immense quantity of booty and large number of prisoners, including all the women of the palace. It is recorded about one of these that when summoned to the royal vessel she threw herself into the sea, preferring death to dishonour in the hands of her foreign foe. The emperor admired her fidelity and gave her a posthumous title meaning ‘very chaste and very sweet lady.’
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1. Parameśvaravarman (972—982 A. D.)
2. Indravarman IV (c. 982—983 A. D.)
3. Lu’u-Ky-Tong (983—989 A. D.) ( Annamite usurper )
4. Vijaya Śrī Harivarman II (989—c. 998 A. D.)
5. Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Śrī (c. 998—c. 1008 A. D.)
6. Śrī Harivarmadeva III (c. 1008—c. 1016 A. D.)
7. Parameśvaravarman II (c. 1016—c. 1028 A. D.)
8. Vikrāntavarman IV (c. 1028—1041 A. D.)
9. Jayasimhavarman II (1041—1044 A. D.)