The Classical Accounts of India c13: VI. Periplus Maris Erythraei
The Classical Accounts of India c13
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VI. Periplus Maris Erythraei
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(The Commerce and Navigation of the Erythraean Sea).
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The Erythraean Sea is the name given by the Greek and Roman geographers to the Indian Ocean, including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf This Greek text gives an account of the trade of the settlements on the coast of this ocean and many interesting details of the voyage, partly along the coast and partly across the sea. The name of the author is unknown, but internal evidence seems to indicate that he was an Egyptian Greek and was probably himself actively engaged in trade in course of which he made the voyage from the head of the Red Sea to India. It is thus a very valuable and trustworthy account of the early trade and maritime activity between India and the western countries. It appears from certain statements made in the book that it was composed about the middle or second half of the first century A D It is generally regarded as earlier than Pliny's *Natural History* which was published between A D 73 and 77
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The text that follows is based on the English translation by McCrindle, published in 1879 There is another English translation, with copious notes, by W H Schoff published in 1912 Substantial differences between the two are indicated in the footnotes In transcribing the Greek names of persons and localities, the forms adopted by McCrindle have been slightly changed in order to bring them in a line with those generally used in modern times, and followed by Schoff The most important is the substitution of *c*, *u*, *ae*, and *o* respectively, for *k*, *ou*, *ai* and *u* The letter *u* is also used for *o* in the middle of a name A list of important geographical names, in the order in which they occur in the text is given at the end (Appendix I) with identifications which, however, in many cases cannot be regarded as definite Names, of which no reasonable identifications are possible, have been omitted
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A full bibliography of the manuscripts and published texts are given by Schoff on pp 17-21 of his translation Schoff also adds elaborate notes on the various articles of merchandise mentioned in the text These consist, in addition to well-known cereals, textiles, and gems and precious stones of various kinds, of a number of Indian drugs and perfumes, which were known in Europe at a very early date and a detailed account of them is given in the *History of Plants* by Theophrastus The general nature of these can be easily gathered from a dictionary
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It may be added that the elaborate notes given by both McCrindle and Schoff must be read with caution, as many of them are purely guesses or highly speculative hypotheses
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The text, reproduced below, is usually referred to as the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea*
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1. The first of the important roadsteads established on the Red Sea, and the first also of the great trading marts upon its coast, is the port of Myos-hormos¹ in Egypt. Beyond it at a distance of 1800 stadia is Berenike, which is to your right if you approach it by sea. These roadsteads are both situated at the furthest end of Egypt, and are bays of the Red Sea.
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2. The country which adjoins them on the right below Berenike is Barbaria. Here the sea board is peopled by the Ikhthyophagoi (Fish-eaters), who live in scattered huts² built in the narrow gorges of the hills, and further inland are the Berbers, and beyond them the Agriophagoi (Wild-flesh-eaters) and Moskhophagoi (Calf-eaters),—tribes under regular government by kings. Beyond these again, and still further inland towards the west is situated the metropolis called Meroe.
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3. Below the Moskhophagoi, near the sea, lies a little trading town distant from Berenîkê about 4000 stadia, called Ptolemaïs Thêrôn,¹ from which, in the days of the Ptolemies, the hunters employed by them used to go up into the interior to catch elephants.⁴ In this mart is procured the true (or marine) tortoise-shell and the land kind also, which, however, is scarce, of a white colour, and smaller size. A little ivory is also sometimes obtainable, resembling that of Adulî.⁵ This place has no port, and is approachable only by boats.
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4 Leaving Ptolemaïs Thêrôn we are conducted at the distance of about 3000 stadia, to Adulî, a regular and established⁶ port of trade situated on a deep bay the direction of which is due south Facing it, at a distance seaward of about 200 stadia from the inmost recess of the bay, lies an island called Oreinê (or the mountainous) which runs on either side parallel with the mainland. Ships, that come to trade with Adulî, nowadays anchor here, to avoid being attacked from the shore, for in former times when they used to anchor at the very head of the bay, beside an island called Diodôros, which was so close to land that the sea was fordable, the neighbouring barbarians, taking advantage of this, would run across to attack the ships at their moorings. At the distance of 20 stadia from the sea, opposite Oreinê, is the village of Adulî, which is not of any great size, and inland from this a three days' journey is a city Coloë, the first market where ivory can be procured. From Coloë it takes a journey of five days to reach the metropolis of the people called the Auxumitai, whereto is brought through the province called Cyeneion,⁷ all the ivory obtained on the other side of the Nile, before it is sent on to Adulî. The whole mass, I may say, of the elephants and rhinoceroses which are killed to supply the trade frequent the uplands of the interior, though at rare times they are seen near the coast, even in the neighbourhood of Adulî. Besides the islands already mentioned a cluster consisting of many small ones lies out in the sea to the right of this port. They bear the name of Alalaiou, and yield the tortoises⁸ with which the Ikhthyophagoi supply the market
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5 Below Adulî, about 800 stadia, occurs another very deep bay, at the entrance of which on the right are vast accumulations of sand, wherein is found deeply embedded the Opsian stone, which is not obtainable anywhere else. The king of all this country, from the Moskhophagoi to the other end of Barbaria, is Zoscales, a man at once of penurious habits and of a grasping disposition but otherwise honourable in his dealings and instructed in the Greek language.
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6. The articles which these places import are the following:
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Cloth undressed, of Egyptian manufacture, for the Barbarian market; robes manufactured at Arsinoe; cloaks, made of a poor cloth imitating a better quality, and dyed. Linens; striped cloths and fringed; mantles with a double fringe, many sorts of glass or crystal, and of that other transparent stone called Murrhina, made at Diospolis, yellow copper, for ornaments and cut into pieces to pass for money, sheets of soft copper used for culinary vessels and cutting into bracelets and anklets worn by certain classes of women. Iron, used in making spearheads for hunting the elephant and other animals and in making weapons of war, hatchets, adzes; swords, drinking vessels of brass, large and round; a small quantity of denarii for the use of merchants resident in the country; wine, Laodikean, i.e. Syrian, from Laodike (now Latakia), and Italian, but not much; gold and silver plate made according to the fashion of the country for the king; Cloaks for riding or for the camp; dresses simply made of skins with the hair or fur on. These two articles of dress are not of much value.
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The articles imported from Ariake across the sea are:
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Indian iron, sharp blades,⁹ Indian cotton cloth of great width; cotton for stuffing, sashes or girdles; dresses of skin with the hair or fur on; webs of cloth mallow tinted; fine muslins in small quantity; coloured lac.
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The articles locally produced for export are. ivory, tortoise shell, and rhinoceros;¹⁰ Most of the goods which supply the market arrive¹¹ any time from January to September—that is, from Tybi to Thoth. The best season, however, for ships from Egypt to put in here is about the month of September
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7. From this bay the Arabian Gulf trends eastward, and at Avalites is contracted to its narrowest. At a distance of about 4000 stadia (from Aduli), if you still sail along the same coast, you reach other marts of Barbaria, called the marts beyond (the Straits), which occur in successive order, and which, though harbourless, afford at certain seasons of the year good and safe anchorage. The first district you come to is that called Avalites, where the passage across the strait to the opposite point of Arabia is shortest. Here is a small port of trade, called, like the district, Avalites, which can be approached only by little boats and rafts.
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The imports of this place are—
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Flint glass of various sorts, juice of the sour grape of Diospolis; cloths of different kinds worn in Barbaria dressed by the fuller; corn; wine; a little tin. The exports which are sometimes conveyed on rafts across the straits by the Berbers themselves to Ocelis and Muza on the opposite coast, are . Odoriferous gums; ivory in small quantity; tortoise shell, myrrh in very small quantity, but of the finest sort; macer. The barbarians forming the population of the place are rude and lawless men
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8 Beyond Avalites there is another mart, superior to it, called Malao, at a distance by sea of 800 stadia. The anchorage is an open road, sheltered, however, by a cape protruding eastward. The people are of a more peaceable disposition than their neighbours. The imports are such as have been already specified, with the addition of—
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Tunics in great quantity, coarse cloaks (or blankets) manufactured at Arsinoe, prepared by the fuller and dyed; a few utensils, sheets of soft copper; iron; specie, gold and silver, but not much. The exports from this locality are—Myrrh, frankincense which we call peratic i e from beyond the straits, a little only; cinnamour of a hard grain, douaka (an inferior kind of cinnamon); the gum (for fumigation) *Kangkamon*; ‘dekamali’, gum; the spice macer, which is carried to Arabia; slaves, a few.
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9. Distant from Malao a two days’ sail is the trading port of Moundou, where ships find a safer anchorage by mooring at an island which lies very close to shore. The exports and imports are similar to those of the preceding marts, with the addition of the fragrant gum called Mocrotu, a peculiar product of the place. The native traders here are uncivilized in their manners.
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10. After Mundu, if you sail eastward as before for two or three days, there comes next Mosullon, where it is difficult to anchor. It imports the same sorts of commodities as have been already mentioned, and also utensils of silver and others of iron but not so many, and glass ware. It exports a vast amount of cinnamon (whence it is a port requiring ships of heavy burden) and other fragrant and aromatic products, besides tortoise shell, but in no great quantity, and the incense called mokrotu inferior to that of Moundou, and frankincense brought from parts further distant, and ivory and myrrh though in small quantity.
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11. After leaving Mosullon, and sailing past a place called Neiloptolemaios, and past Tapatege¹² and the Little Laurel grove, you are conducted in two days to Cape Elephant. Here is a stream called Elephant River, and the Great Laurel grove called Akannai, where and where only, is produced the peratic frankincense. The supply is most abundant, and it is of the very finest quality.
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12. After this, the coast now inclining to the south, succeeds the mart of Aromata,¹³ and a bluff headland running out eastward which forms the termination of the Barbarine coast. The roadstead is an open one, and at certain seasons dangerous, as the place lies exposed to the north wind A coming storm gives warning of its approach, by a peculiar prognostic, for the sea turns turbid at the bottom and changes its colour. When this occurs, all hasten for refuge to the great promontory called Tabai, which affords a secure shelter. The imports into this mart are such as have been already mentioned, while its products are cinnamon, gizeir (a finer sort of cinnamon), asuphe (an ordinary sort), fragrant gums, magla, moto (an inferior cinnamon) and frankincense.
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13. If, on sailing from Tabai, you follow the coast of the peninsula formed by the promontory, you are carried by the force of a strong current to another mart 400 stadia distant called Opone which imports the commodities already mentioned but produces most abundantly cinnamon spice, moto, slaves of a very superior sort, chiefly for the Egyptian market, and tortoise shell of small size but in large quantity and of the finest quality known.
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14. Ships set sail from Egypt for all these ports beyond the straits about the month of July—that is, Epiphi. The same markets are also regularly supplied with the products of places far beyond them—Ariake and Barygaza. These products are—
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Corn;¹⁴ rice; clarified butter, i.e. *ghī*; oil of sesamum; fine cotton called Monakhe, and a coarse kind for stuffing called Sagmatogene; sashes or girdles; honey of a reed, called sugar.
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Some traders undertake voyages expressly for these market-towns while others as they sail along the coast we are describing exchange their cargoes for such others as they can procure. There is no king who reigns paramount over all this region, but each separate seat of trade is ruled by an independent despot of its own.
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15. After Opone the coast now trending more to the south you come first to what are called the little and the great Apokopa (or Bluffs) of Azania, where there are no harbours but only roads in which one can conveniently anchor. The navigation of this coast, the direction of which is now to the south-west, occupies six days. Then follow the Little Coast and the Great Coast, occupying another six days, when in due order succeed the Dromoi (or Courses) of Azania, the one going by the name of Sarapion, and the other by that of Nikôn. Proceeding thence, you pass the mouths of numerous rivers, and then a succession of other roadsteads lying apart one from another a day's distance either by sea or by land. There are seven of them altogether, and they reach on to the Pyraloi islands and the narrow strait called the Canal, beyond which, where the coast changes its direction from south-west slightly more to south, you are conducted by a voyage of two days and two nights to Menuthias, an island stretching towards sunset, and distant from the mainland about 300 stadia. It is low-lying and woody, has rivers, and a vast variety of birds, and yields the mountain tortoise, but it has no wild beasts at all, except only crocodiles, which, however, are quite harmless The boats are here made of planks sewn together attached to a keel, or (canoes) hollowed from single logs of wood, and these are used for fishing and for catching turtle. This is also caught in another mode, peculiar to the island, by lowering wicker baskets instead of nets, and fixing them against the mouths of the cavernous rocks which lie out in the sea confronting the beach.
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16. At the distance of a two days' sail from this island lies the last of the marts of Azania, called Rhapta, a name which it derives from the sewn boats just mentioned. Ivory is procured here in the greatest abundance, and also turtle The indigenous inhabitants are men of huge stature, who live apart from each other. every man ruling like a lord his own domain ¹⁵ The whole territory is governed by the despot of Mopharitis, because the sovereignty over it, by some right of old standing, is vested in the kingdom of what is (called the Fist Arabia) The merchants of Muza farm its revenues from the king, and employ in trading with it a great many ships of heavy burden, on board of which they have Arabian commanders and factors who are intimately acquainted with the natives and have contracted marriage with them, and know their language and the navigation of the coast.
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17. The articles imported into these marts are principally javelins manufactured at Muza, hatchets, knives, awls, and glass of various sorts, to which must be added corn and wine in no small quantity landed at particular ports, not for sale, but to entertain and thereby conciliate the barbarians. The articles which these places export are ivory, in great abundance but of inferior quality to that obtained at Aduli, rhinoceros, and tortoise shell of fine quality, second only to the Indian, and little nauplius.¹⁶
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18. These marts, we may say, are about the last on the coast of Azania, the coast, that is, which is on your right as you sail south from Berenike. For beyond these parts an ocean, hitherto unexplored, curves round towards sunset, and stretching along the southern extremities of Ethiopia, Libya, and Africa, amalgamates with the Western Sea
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19. To the left, again, of Berenike, if you sail eastward from Myos Hormos across the adjacent gulf for two days or perhaps three you arrive at a place having a port and a fortress which is called Leuke Kome, and forming the point of communication with Petra, the residence of Malikhas, the king of the Nabataeans. It ranks as an emporium of trade, since small vessels come to it laden with merchandize from Arabia; and hence an officer is deputed to collect the duties which are levied on imports at the rate of twenty-five per cent of their value and also a centurion who commands the garrison by which the place is protected.
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20. Beyond this mart, and quite contiguous to it, is the realm of Arabia, which stretches to a great distance along the coast of the Red Sea. It is inhabited by various tribes, some speaking the same language with a certain degree of uniformity, and others a language totally different. Here also, as on the opposite continent, the sea board is occupied by Ikhthyophagoi, who live in dispersed huts, while the men of the interior live either in villages, or where pasture can be found, and are an evil race of men, speaking two different languages. If a vessel is driven from her course upon this shore she is plundered and if wrecked the crew on escaping to land are reduced to slavery. For this reason they are treated as enemies and captured by the chiefs and kings of Arabia. They are called Carnites. Altogether therefore, the navigation of this part of the Arabian coast is very dangerous: for apart from the barbarity of its people, it has neither harbours nor good roadsteads, and it is foul with breakers, and girdled with rocks which render it inaccessible. For this reason when sailing south we stand off from a shore in every way so dreadful, and keep our course down the middle of the gulf, straining our utmost to reach the more civilized part of Arabia, which begins at Burnt Island. From this onward the people are under a regular government and as their country is pastoral, they keep herds of cattle and camels.
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21. Beyond this tract, and on the shore of a bay which occurs at the termination of the left (or east) side of the gulf is Muza, an established and notable mart of trade at a distance south from Berenike of not more than 12,000 stadia The whole place is full of Arabian shipmasters and common sailors, and is absorbed in the pursuits of commerce, for with ships of its own fitting out it trades with the marts beyond the Straits on the opposite coast, and also with Barygaza.
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22. Above this a three days' journey off lies the city of Saue, in the district called Mopharitis It is the residence of Cholaibos, the despot of that country.
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23 A journey of nine days more conducts us to Saphar, the metropolis of Charibael, the rightful sovereign of two contiguous tribes, the Homerites and the Sabitai, and, by means of frequent embassies and presents, the friend of the Emperors.
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24. The mart of Muza has no harbour, but its sea is smooth and the anchorage good, owing to the sandy nature of the bottom. The commodities which it imports are—
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Purple cloth, fine and ordinary: garments made up in the Arabian fashion, some plain and common, and others wrought in needlework and inwoven with gold, saffron; the aromatic rush Kyperos, muslins; cloaks, quilts in small quantity, some plain, others adapted to the fashion of the country; sashes of various shades of colour, perfumes a moderate quantity; specie as much as is required,¹⁷ wine and corn, but not much.
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The country produces a little wheat and a great abundance of wine. Both the king and the despot above mentioned receive presents consisting of horses, pack saddle mules, gold plate, silver plate embossed, robes of great value, and utensils of brass. Muza exports its own local products: myrrh of the finest quality that has oozed in drops from the trees, both the Gabiraean and Minoean kinds; white marble (or alabaster), in addition to commodities brought from the other side of the Gulf, all such as were enumerated at Aduli. The most favourable season for making a voyage to Muza is the month of September, that is Thoth, but there is nothing to prevent it being made earlier.
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25. If on proceeding from Muza you sail by the coast for about a distance of 300 stadia, there occurs, where the Arabian mainland and the opposite coast of Barbaria at Avalites now approach each other, a channel of no great length which contracts the sea and encloses it within narrow bounds. This is 60 stadia wide, and in crossing it you come midway upon the island of Diodorus, to which it is owing that the passage of the straits is in its neighbourhood exposed to violent winds which blow down from the adjacent mountains. There is situated upon the shore of the straits an Arabian village subject to the same ruler (as Muza), Ocelis by name, which is not so much mart of commerce as a place for anchorage and supplying water, and where those who are bound for the interior first land and halt to refresh themselves.
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²⁶ Beyond Ocelis, the sea again widening out towards the east, and gradually expanding into the open main, there lies, at about the distance of 1,200 stadia, Eudaemon Arabia, a maritime village subject to that kingdom of which Charibael is sovereign, a place with good anchorage, and supplied with sweeter and better water than that of Ocelis, and standing at the entrance of a bay where the land begins to retire inwards. It was called Eudaemon (rich and prosperous) because in bygone days, when the merchants from India did not proceed to Egypt and those from Egypt did not venture to cross over to the marts further east, but both came only as far as this city, it formed the common centre of their commerce, as Alexandria receives the wares which pass to and fro between Egypt and the ports of the Mediterranean. Now, however, it lies in ruins, the Emperor (Charibael) having destroyed it not long before our own times
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²⁷ To Eudaemon Arabia at once succeeds a great length of coast and a bay extending 2,000 stadia or more, inhabited by nomadic tribes and Ikhthyophagoi settled in villages. On doubling a cape which projects from it you come to another trading seaport, Cana, which is subject to Eleazus, king of the incense country. Two barren islands lie opposite to it, 120 stadia off—one called Orneon, and the other Troullas. At some distance inland from Cana is Sabbatha the principal city of the district, where the king resides. At Cana is collected all the incense that is produced in the country, this being conveyed to it partly on camels, and partly by sea on floats supported on inflated skins, a local invention, and also in boats. Cana carries on
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trade with ports across the ocean—Barygaza, Scythia, and Omana, and the adjacent coast of Persis.
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28. From Egypt it imports like Muza, corn and a little wheat,¹⁸ cloths for the Arabian market both of the common sort and the plain, and large quantities of a sort that is spurious; also copper, tin, coral, styrax and all the other articles enumerated at Muza. Besides these there are brought also, principally for the king, wrought silver plate, and specie as well as horses and carved images, and plain cloth of a superior quality. Its exports are its indigenous products, frankincense and aloes, and such commodities as it shares in common with other marts on the same coast. Ships sail for this port at the same season of the year as those bound for Muza but earlier.
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29. As you proceed from Cana the land retires more and more and there succeeds another very deep and far-stretching gulf, Sachalites by name, and also the frankincense country, which is mountainous and difficult of access, having a dense air loaded with vapours and the frankincense exhaled from the trees. These trees, which are not of any great size or height, yield their incense in the form of a concretion on the bark, just as several of our trees in Egypt exude gum. The incense is collected by the hand of the king's slaves, and malefactors condemned to this service as a punishment. The country is unhealthy in the extreme:—pestilential even to those who sail along the coast, and mortal to the poor wretches who gather the incense, who also suffer from lack of food, which readily cuts them off.
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30. Now at this gulf is a promontory the greatest in the world, looking towards the east, and called Syagrus, at which is a fortress which protects the country and a harbour and a magazine to which the frankincense which is collected is brought. Out in the open sea, facing this promontory, and lying between it and the promonotory of Aromate (Cape of Spices) which projects from the opposite coast, though nearer to Syagrus, is the island going by the name of Dioscorida, which is of great extent, but desert and very moist, having rivers and crocodiles and a great many vipers, and lizards of enormous size, of which the flesh serves for food, while the grease is melted down and used as a substitute for oil. This island does not, however, produce either the grape or corn. The population which is but scanty, inhabits the north side of the island—that part of it which looks towards the mainland (of Arabia). It consists of an intermixture of foreigners, Arabs, Indians, and even Greeks, who resort hither for the purposes of commerce. The island produces the tortoise,—the genuine, the land, and the white sort, the latter very abundant, and distinguished for the largeness of its shell; also the mountain sort which is of extraordinary size and has a very thick shell, whereof the underpart cannot be used, being too hard to cut, while the serviceable part is made into money-boxes, tablets, escritoires, and ornamental articles of that description. It yields also the vegetable dye called Indicum (or Dragon’s blood),¹⁹ which is gathered as it distils from trees.
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31. The island is subject to the king of the frankincense country, in the same way as Azania is subject to Charibael and the despot of Mapharitis. It used to be visited by some (merchants) from Muza, and others on the homeward voyage from Limyrike²⁰ and Barygaza would occasionally touch at it, importing rice, corn, Indian cotton and female slaves, who, being rare, always commanded a ready market In exchange for these commodities they would receive as fresh cargo great quantities of tortoise shell The revenues of the island are at present day farmed out by its sovereigns, who, however, maintain a garrison in it for the protection of their interests.
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32. Immediately after Syagrus follows a gulf deeply indenting the mainland of Omana, and having a width of 600 stadia. Beyond it are high mountains, rocky and precipitous, and inhabited by men who live in caves The range extends onward for 500 stadia, and beyond where it terminates lies an important harbour called Moscha, the appointed port to which the Sachalitic frankincense is forwarded It is regularly frequented by a number of ships from Cana; and such ships as come from Limyrike and Barygaza too late in the season put into harbour here for the winter, where they dispose of their muslins, corn and oil to the king's officers, receiving in exchange frankincense, which lies in piles throughout the whole of Sachalitis without a guard to protect it, as if the locality were indebted to some divine power for its security. Indeed, it is impossible to procure a cargo, either publicly or by stealth, without the king’s permission. Should one take furtively on board were it but a single grain, his vessel can by no possibility escape from harbour.
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³³ From the port of Moscha onward to Asich, a distance of about 1,500 stadia, runs a range of hills pretty close to the shore, and at its termination there are seven islands bearing the
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name of Zenobios, beyond which again we come to another barbarous district not subject to any power in Arabia, but to Persis. If when sailing by this coast you stand well out to sea so as to keep a direct course, then at about a distance from the island of Zenobios of 2,000 stadia you arrive at another island, called that of Sarapis, lying off shore, say, 120 stadia. It is about 200 stadia broad and 600 long, possessing three villages inhabited by a savage tribe of Ikhthyophagoi, who speak the Arabic language and whose clothing consists of a girdle made from the leaves of the cocoa-palm The island produces in great plenty tortoise of excellent quality, and the merchants of Cana accordingly fit out little boats and cargo ships to trade with it.
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34 If sailing onward you wind round with the adjacent coast to the north, then as you approach the entrance of the Persian Gulf you fall in with a group of islands which lie in a range along the coast for 2,000 stadia, and are called the islands of Calaeou. The inhabitants of the adjacent coast are cruel and treacherous, and see imperfectly in the daytime.²¹
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35. Near the last headland of the islands of Calaeou is the mountain called Calon (Pulcher), to which succeeds, at no great distance, the mouth of the Persian Gulf, where there are very many pearl fisheries. On the left of the entrance, towering to a vast height, are the mountains which bear the name of Assaboi, and directly opposite on the right you see another mountain high and round called the hill of Semiramis The strait which separates them has a width of 600 stadia and through this opening the Persian Gulf pours its vast expanse of waters far up into the interior At the very head of this gulf there is a regular mart of commerce, called the city of Apologus, situated near Pasinou-Kharax and the river Euphrates.
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36. If you coast along the mouth of the gulf you are conducted by a six days' voyage to another seat of trade belonging to Persis, called Omana. Barygaza maintains a regular commercial intercourse with both these Persian ports despatching thither large vessels freighted with copper, sandalwood, beams for rafters, horn and logs of sasamina and ebony Omana imports also frankincense from Cana, while it exports to Arabia a particular species of vessels called *madara*, which have their planks sewn together. But both from Apologus and Omana there are exported to Barygaza and to Arabia great quantities of pearl, of mean quality however campared with the Indian sort, together with purple, cloth for the natives, wine, dates in great quantity, and gold and slaves.
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37. After leaving the district of Omana the country of the Parsidae succeeds, which belongs to another government, and the bay which bears the name of Terabdoi,²² from the midst of which a cape projects. Here also is a river large enough to permit the entrance of ships, with a small mart at its mouth called Oraca. Behind it in the interior, at the distance of a seven days’ journey from the coast, is the city where the king resides, called Rhambacia. This district, in addition to corn, produces wine, rice. and dates, though in the tract near the sea, only the fragrant gum called bdellium.
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38. After this region. where the coast is already deeply indented by gulfs caused by the land advancing with a vast curve from the east, succeeds the seaboard of Scythia, a region which extends to northward It is very low and flat, and contains the mouths of the Sinthus (Indus) the largest of all the rivers which fall into the Erythraean Sea, and which, indeed, pours into it such a vast body of water that while you are yet far off from the land at its mouth you find the sea turned of a white colour by its waters
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The sign by which voyagers before sighting land know that it is near is their meeting with serpents floating on the water, but higher up and on the coasts of Persia the first sign of land is seeing them of a different kind, called graai (Sanskrit *graha*—an alligator). The river has seven mouths, all shallow, marshy and unfit for navigation except only the middle stream, on which is Barbaricum, a trading seaport. Before this town lies a small islet, and behind it in the interior is Minnagara, the metropolis of Scythia, which is governed, however, by Parthian princes, who are perpetually at strife among themselves, expelling each the other.
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39. Ships accordingly anchor near Barbaricum, but all their cargoes are conveyed by the river up to the king, who resides in the metropolis. The articles imported into this emporium are.—clothing, plain and in considerable quantity, clothing, mixed,²³ not much; flowered cottons,²⁴ yellow stone, topazes, coral, Storax, frankincense, glass vessels, silver plate, specie, wine, but not much. The exports are:—Costus, a spice, bdellium, a gum; (a yellow dye, spikenard, emeralds or green stones, Sapphires), furs from China, cottons, silk thread, indigo.
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Ships destined for this port put out to sea when the Indian monsoon prevails, that is, about the month of July or Epiphi. The voyage at this season is attended with danger, but being shorter is more expeditious.
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40. After the river Sinthus is passed we reach another gulf, which cannot be easily seen. It has two divisions, the Great and the Little by name—both shoal with violent and continuous eddies²⁵ extending far out from the shore, so that before ever land is in sight ships are often grounded on the shoals or being caught within the eddies are lost. Over this gulf hangs a promontory which, curving from Eirinon first to the east, then to the south and finally to the west, encompasses the gulf called Baraca, in the bosom of which lie seven islands Should a vessel approach the entrance of this gulf, the only chance of escape for those on board is at once to alter their course and stand out to sea, for it is all over with them if they are once fairly within the womb of Baraca, which surges with vast and mighty billows, and where the sea, tossing in violent commotion, forms eddies and impetuous whirlpools in every direction The bottom varies, presenting in places sudden shoals, in others being scabrous with jagged rocks, so that when an anchor grounds its cable is either at once cut through or soon broken by friction at the bottom. The sign by which voyagers know they are approaching this bay is their seeing serpents floating about on the water of extraordinary size and of a black colour, for those met with lower down and in the neighbourhood of Barygaza are of less size, and in colour green and golden.
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41. To the gulf of Baraca succeeds that of Barygaza and the mainland of Ariaca, a district which forms the frontier of the kingdom of Mombarus²⁶ and of all India. The interior part of it which borders on Scythia is called Abiria, and its sea-board Syrastrene. It is a region which produces abundantly corn and rice and the oil of sesamum, butter, muslins and the coarser fabrics which are manufactured from Indian cotton. It has also numerous herds of cattle The natives are men of large stature and coloured black. The metropolis of the district is Minnagar, from which cotton cloth is exported in great quantity to Barygaza. In this part of the country, there are preserved even to this very day memorials of the expedition of Alexander, old temples, foundations of camps, and large wells. The extent of this coast, reckoned from Barbaricum to the promontory called Papica, near Astacapra,²⁷ which is opposite Barygaza, is 3,000 stadia.
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42. After Papica there is another gulf, exposed to the violence of the waves and running up to the north Near its mouth is an island called Baeones, and at its very head it receives a vast river called the Mais. Those bound for Barygaza sail up this gulf (which has a breadth of about 300 stadia), leaving the island on the left till it is scarcely visible in the horizon, when they shape their course east for the mouth of the river that leads to Barygaza. This is called the Namadus
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43. The passage into the gulf of Barygaza is narrow and difficult of access to those approaching it from the sea for they are carried either to the right or to the left, the left being the better passage of the two On the right, at the very entrance of the gulf, lies a narrow strip of shoal, rough and beset with rocks. It is called Herone, and lies opposite the village of Cammoni. On the left side right against this is the promontory of Papica, which lies in front of Astacapra, where it is difficult to anchor, from the strength of the current and because the cables are cut through by the sharp rocks at the bottom. But even if the passage into the gulf is secured, the mouth of the Barygaza river is not easy to hit, since the coast is low and there are no certain marks to be seen until you are close upon them Neither, if it is discovered, is it easy to enter, from the presence of shoals at the mouth of the river.
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44. For this reason native fishermen appointed by Government are stationed with well-manned long boats called *trappaga* and *cotymba* at the entrance of the river, whence they go out as far as Syrastrene to meet ships and pilot them up to Barygaza. At the head of the gulf the pilot, immediately on taking charge of a ship, with the help of his own boat's crew, shifts her head to keep her clear of the shoals, and tows her from one fixed station to another moving with the beginning of the tide, and dropping anchor at certain roadsteads and basins when it ebbs. These basins occur at points where the river is deeper than usual, all the way up to Barygaza, which is 300 stadia distant from the mouth of the river if you sail up the stream to reach it.
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45. India has everywhere a great abundance of rivers, and her seas ebb and flow with tides of extraordinary strength, which increase with the moon both when new and when full, and for three days after each, but fall off in the intermediate space. About Barygaza they are more violent than elsewhere; so that all of a sudden you see the depths laid bare, and portions of the land turned into sea, and the sea, where ships were sailing but just before, turned without warning into dry land. The rivers, again, on the access of flood tide rushing into their channels with the whole body of the sea, are driven upwards against their natural course for a great number of miles with a force that is irresistible.
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46. This is the reason why ships frequenting this emporium are exposed, both in coming and going, to great risk, if handled by those who are unacquainted with the navigation of the gulf or visit it for the first time, since the impetuosity of the tide when it becomes full, having nothing to stem or slacken it, is such that anchors cannot hold against it. Large vessels, moreover, if caught in it are driven athwart from their course by the rapidity of the current till they are stranded on shoals and wrecked, while the smaller craft are capsized, and many that have taken refuge in the side channels, being left dry by the receding tide, turn over on one side and if not set erect on props are filled upon the return of the tide with the very first head of the flood, and sunk. But at new moons, especially when they occur in conjunction with a night tide, the flood sets in with such extraordinary violence that on its beginning to advance, even though the sea be calm, its roar is heard by those living near the river’s mouth, sounding like the tumult of battle heard far off, and soon after the sea with its hissing waves bursts over the bare shoals.
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47. Inland from Barygaza the country is inhabited by numerous races—the Aratrioi, and the Arachosioi, and the Gandaraeoi,²⁸ and the people of Proclais,,²⁹ in which is Bucephalus Alexandria. Beyond these are the Bactrianoi, a most warlike race, governed by their own independent sovereign. It was from these parts Alexander issued to invade India when he marched as far as the Ganges without, however, attacking Limyrike and the southern parts of the country. Hence up to the present day old *drachmai* bearing the Greek inscriptions of Apollodotus and Menander are current in Barygaza
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48 In the same region eastward is a city called Ozene, formerly the capital wherein the king resided. From it there is brought down to Barygaza every commodity for the supply of the country and for export to our own markets—onyx-stones, porcelain,³⁰ fine muslins, mallow-coloured muslins, and no small quantity of ordinary cottons. At the same time there is brought down to it from the upper country by way of Proclais, for transmission to the coast, Kattybourine, Patropapigic, and Cabalitic³¹ spikenard, and another kind which reaches it by way of the adjacent province of Scythia; also costus and bdellium.
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49. The imports of Barygaza are—Wine, principally Italian. Laodicean wine and Arabian, brass or copper and tin and lead, coral and Gold stone or Yellow stone,³² cloth, plain and mixed, of all sorts, variegated sashes half a yard wide, storax, sweet clover, (meliot, white glass Gum Sandarach (Stibium) Tincture for the eyes):³³ gold and silver specie, yielding a profit when exchanged for native money, perfumes or unguents, neither costly nor in great quantity. In those times, moreover, there were imported, as presents to the king, costly silve. vases, instruments of music,³⁴ handsome young women for concubinage, superior wine, apparel, plain but costly, and the choicest unguents The exports from this part of the country are—
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Spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, onyx-stones³⁵ and porcelain,³⁶ box-thorn,³⁷ cottons of all sorts, silk, mallow coloured cottons, silk thread, long pepper and other articles supplied from the neighbouring ports The proper season to set sail for Barygaza from Egypt is the month of July or Epiphi
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50 From Barygaza the coast immediately adjoining stretches from the north directly to the south and the country is therefore called Dakhnabades, because *Dakhan* in the language of the natives signifies south. Of this country that part which lies inland towards the east comprises a great space of desert country, and large mountains abounding with all kinds of wild animals, leopards, tigers, elephants, huge snakes, hyenas, and baboons of many different sorts, and is inhabited right across to the Ganges by many and extremely populous nations.
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51. Among the marts in this South Country there are two of more particular importance—Paethana, which lies south from Barygaza, a distance of twenty days, and Tagara, ten days east of Paethana, the greatest city³⁸ in the country. Their commodities are carried down on wagons to Barygaza along roads of extreme difficulty,—that is, from Paithana a great quantity of onyx-stone and from Tagara ordinary cottons in abundance, many sorts of muslins, mallow coloured cottons, and other articles of local production brought into it from the parts along the coast. The length of the entire voyage as far as Limyrike is 700 stadia, and to reach Aigialus³⁹ you must sail very many stadia further.
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52. The local marts which occur in order along the coast after Barygaza are Akabaru,⁴⁰ Suppara, Kalliena, a city which was raised to the rank of a regular mart in the times of the elder Saraganus, but after Sandanes⁴¹ became its master its trade was put under the severest restrictions; for if Greek vessels even by accident enter its ports, a guard is put on board and they are taken to Barygaza.
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53. After Kalliena other local marts occur—Semylla, Mandagora, Palaepatmae, Melızeigara, Byzantion, Toparon,⁴² and Tyrannosboas.⁴³ You come next to the islands called Sesecreienae⁴⁴ and the island of the Aigidioi and that of the Kaeneitae, near what is called the Chersonesus, places in which are pirates, and after this the island Leuke⁴⁵ (or the White'). Then follow Naura and Tyndis, the first marts of Limyrike, and after these Muziris and Nelcynda, the seats of Government ⁴⁶
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54. To the kingdom under the sway of Ceprobotras⁴⁷ Tyndis is subject, a village of great note situate near the sea. Muziris, which pertains to the same realm, is a city at the height of prosperity,⁴⁸ frequented as it is by ships (from Ariake and Greek ships from Egypt).⁴⁹ It lies near a river at a distance from Tyndis of 500 stadia, whether this is measured from river to river or by the length of the sea voyage, and it is 20 stadia distant from the mouth of its own river. The distance of Nelcynda from Muziris is also nearly 500 stadia, whether measured from river to river or by the sea voyage, but it belongs to a different kingdom. that of Pandion. It likewise is situated near a river and at about a distance from the sea of 120 stadia.
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55. At the very mouth of this river lies another village, Bacare to which the ships despatched from Nelcynda come down empty and ride at anchor off shore while taking in cargo: for the river, it may be noted, has sunken reefs and shallows which make its navigation difficult⁵⁰. The sign by which those who come hither by sea know they are nearing land is their meeting with snakes, which are here of a black colour, not so long as those already mentioned, like serpents about the head, and with eyes the colour of blood
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56. The ships which frequent these ports are of a large size, on account of the great amount and bulkiness of the pepper and betel⁵¹ of which their lading consists. The imports here are principally great quantities of specie; (topaz?), gold stone,⁵² chrysolite;⁵³ a small assortment of plain cloth, flowered robes; Stibium,⁵⁴ a pigment for the eyes; coral, white glass, copper or brass, tin, lead; wine, but not much, but about as much as at Barygaza; sandarach,⁵⁵ arsenic (orpiment), yellow sulphuret of arsenic; and corn, only for the use of the ship company, as the merchants do not sell it
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The following commodities are brought to it for export : Pepper in great quantity, produced in only one of these marts, and called the pepper of Cottonara, pearls in great quantity and of superior quality, ivory, fine silks, spikenard from the Ganges, betel, all brought from countries further east, transparent or precious stones of all sorts, diamonds, jacinths,⁵⁶ tortoise-shell from the Golden Island, and another sort which is taken in the islands which lie off the coast of Limyrikê. The proper season to set sail from Egypt for this part of India is about the month of July, that is, Epiphi
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57. The whole round of the voyage from Cana and Eudaemon Arabia, which we have just described, used to be performed in small vessels which kept close to shore and followed its windings, but Hippalus was the pilot who first, by observing the bearings of the ports and the configuration of the sea, discovered the direct course across the ocean For, at the same time when our own Etesian winds are blowing, a periodical wind from the ocean likewise blows in the Indian Sea, and this wind, which is the south-west, is, it seems, called in these seas Hippalus after the name of the pilot who first discovered the passage by means of it. From the time of this discovery to the present day, merchants who sail for India either from Cana, or as others do, from Aromata, if Limyrike be their destination, (must often change their tack),⁵⁷ but if they are bound for Barygaza and Scythia, they are not retarded for more than three days.⁵⁸ after which, committing themselves to the monsoon which blows right in the direction of their course, they stand far out to sea, leaving all the gulfs we have mentioned in the distance
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58. After Bacare occurs the mountain called Pyrrhos (or the Red) towards the south, near another district of the country called Paralia (where the pearl fisheries are which belong to king Pandion), and a city of the name of Colchoi.⁵⁹ In this tract the first place met with is called Balita, which has a good harbour and a village on its shore. Next to this is another place called Comar,⁶⁰ where is the cape of the same name and a haven. Those who wish to conscreate the closing part of their lives to religion come hither and bathe and engage themselves to celibacy. This is also done by women; since it is related that the goddess (Kumari) once on a time resided at the place and bathed.
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59. From Comari (towards the south) the country extends as far as Colchoi, where the fishing for pearls is carried on. Condemned criminals are employed in this service. King Pandion is the owner of the fishery. To Colchoi succeeds another coast lying along a gulf having a district in the interior bearing the name of Argalu.⁶¹ In this single place are obtained the pearls (collected near the island of Epiodoros).⁶² From it are exported the muslins called ebargareitides.⁶³
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⁶¹ 61
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⁶² 62
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⁶³ 63
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60 Among the marts and anchorages along this shore to which merchants from Limyrikê and the north resort, the most conspicuous are Camara, Poduca, and Sopatma, which occur in the order in which we have named them. In these marts are found those native vessels for coasting voyages which trade as far as Limyrikê, and another kind called *sangara*, large vessels formed by fastening together single logs; and also others, called *kolandiophonta*,⁶⁴ which are of great bulk and employed for voyages to Chryse and the Ganges These marts import all the commodities which reach Limyrike for commercial purposes, absorbing likewise nearly every species of goods brought from Egypt, and most kinds of all the goods exported from Limyrike and (disposed of on this coast of India) ⁶⁵
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⁶⁴ 64
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⁶⁵ 65
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61 Near the region which succeeds, where the course of the voyage now bends to the east, there lies out in the open sea stretching towards the west the island now called Palaesimundu, but by the ancients Taprobane To cross over to the northern side of it takes a day. In the south part it gradually stretches towards the west till it nearly reaches the opposite coast of Azania. It produces pearl, precious (transparent) stones, muslins, and tortoise-shell.
First 89 of 132 passages. Read on