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The Classical Accounts of India c14: VII. The Voyage of Nearchus in the Erythraean Sea

The Classical Accounts of India c14

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VII. The Voyage of Nearchus in the Erythraean Sea

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It is stated by Arrian that Alexander, before leaving India, sent Nearchus with a fleet to explore the Erythraean Sea, and he adds that he will write a separate work describing, on the authority of Nearchus himself, how he sailed from the river Indus to the Persian Sea (above, pp. 82, 92). This promise Arrian fulfilled by narrating the voyage of Nearchus in Part II of his *Indica*, of which the first part has been translated above (pp. 214 ff). Arrian's narrative, comprising Chapters XVIII to XLIII of his *Indica*, was practically copied from the journal of the voyage written by Nearchus himself which unfortunately is no longer extant. The following English translation of this, the second part of Arrian's *Indica*, was made by McCrindle¹ and included in the same volume in which he translated the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea*, for, as he aptly observed, the account of Nearchus forms an admirable supplement to the *Periplus*. Chapters XVIII and XIX are omitted in the following extract as they deal only with some technical details.

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As far back as 1797, Dr. William Vincent wrote an account of the voyage of Nearchus "collected from the original journal preserved by Arrian", illustrated by two maps.²

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As will be seen from the following extract, the account of Nearchus contains many things which appear quite incredible. Writers, both ancient and modern, have therefore been reluctant to attach much historical value to this work. It "has been condemned as spurious by Dodwell, and impeached in point of veracity by Hardouin and Huet." Among ancient writers Strabo has joined Nearchus "with Daimachus, Megasthenes and Onesicritus as a retailer of fables", and Pliny even went so far as to deny the existence of Nearchus's journal. A number of modern scholars have refuted these allegations.³

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Dr. Vincent belongs to this group as the following remarks will show:

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"The narrative of this voyage has been preserved to us by Arrian, who professes to give an extract from the journal of Nearchus, and notwithstanding its authenticity has been disputed (which is a question that will be fully discussed hereafter), we may venture to assert, that it presents to an unprejudiced mind every internal evidence of fidelity and truth".⁴ He further observes that Strabo "is indebted to Nearchus for many facts which, however extraordinary they might appear in his age, have been confirmed by modern observation."⁵ Regarding the value and importance of this work Dr. Vincent observe:

'The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates is the first event of general importance to mankind, in the history of navigation, ... and the consequences of this voyage were such, that, as, in the first instance, it opened a communication between Europe and the most distant countries of Asia, so, at a later period, was it the source and origin of the Portuguese discoveries, the foundation of the greatest commercial system ever introduced into the world, and consequently the primary cause, however remote, of the British establishments in India.'⁶

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**XX.** Nearchus himself has supplied a narrative of this voyage, which runs to this effect. Alexander, he informs us, had set his heart on navigating the whole circuit of the sea which extends from India to Persia, but the length of the voyage made him hesitate, and the possibility of the destruction of his fleet, should it be cast on some desert coast either quite harbourless or too barren to furnish adequate supplies, in which case a great stain tarnishing the splendour of his former actions would obliterate all his good fortune. His ambition, however, to be always doing something new and astonishing prevailed over all his scruples. Then arose a difficulty as to what commander he should choose, having genius sufficient for working out his plans, and a difficulty also with regard to the men on ship board how he could overcome their fear, that in being despatched on such a service they were recklessly sent into open peril Nearchus here tells us that Alexander consulted him on the choice of a commander, and that when the king had mentioned one man after another, rejecting all, some because they were not inclined to expose themselves for his sake to danger, others because they were of a timid temper, others because their only thought was how to get home, making this and that objection to each in turn, Nearchus then proffered his own services in these terms: "I then, O king, engage to command the expedition, and, under the divine protection, will conduct the fleet and the people on board safe into Persia, if the sea be that way navigable, and the undertaking within the power of man to perform" Alexander made a pretence of refusing the offer, saying that he could not think of exposing any friend of his to the distresses and hazard of such a voyage, but Nearchus, so far from withdrawing his proposal, only persisted the more in pressing its acceptance upon him Alexander, it need not be said, warmly appreciated the promptitude to serve him shown by Nearchus, and appointed him to be commander-in-chief of the expedition. When this became known, it had a great effect in calming the minds of the troops ordered on this service and on the minds of the sailors, since they felt assured that Alexander would never have sent forth Nearchus into palpable danger unless their lives were to be preserved. At the same time the splendour with which the ships were equipped, and the enthusiasm of the officers vying with each other who should collect the best men, and have his complement most effective, inspired even those who had long hung back with nerve for the work, and a good hope that success would crown the undertaking. It added to the cheerfulness pervading the army that Alexander himself sailed out from both the mouths of the Indus into the open main when he sacrificed victims to Poseidon and all the other sea-deities, and presented gifts of great magnificence to the sea; and so the men trusting to the immeasurable good fortune which had hitherto attended all the projects of Alexander, believed there was nothing he might not dare—nothing but would to him be feasible.

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XXI. When the Etesian winds, which continue all the hot season blowing landward from the sea, making navigation on that coast impracticable, had subsided, then the expedition started on the voyage in the year when Kephisidoros was Archon at Athens, on the 20th day of the month Boedromion according to the Athenian Calendar, but as the Macedonians and Asiatics reckon\*\*, in the 11th year of the reign of Alexander. Nearchus, before putting to sea sacrifices to Zeus the Preserver, and celebrates, as Alexander had done, gymnastic games. Then clearing out of harbour they end the first day's voyage by anchoring in the Indus at a creek called Stoura, where they remain for two days. The distance of this place from the station they had just left was 100 stadia. On the third day they resumed the voyage, but proceeded no further than 20 stadia, coming to an anchor at another creek, where the water was now salt, for the sea when filled with the tide ran up the creek, and its waters even when the tide receded commingled with the river The name of this place was Kaumana The next day's course, which was of 20 stadia only, brought them to Koreatis, where they once more anchored in the river. When again under weigh their progress was soon interrupted, for a bar was visible which there obstructed the mouth of the Indus; and the waves were heard breaking with furious roar upon its strand which was wild and rugged Observing, however, that the bar at a particular part was soft, they made a cutting through this, 5 stadia long, at low water, and on the return of the flood tide carried the ships through by the passage thus formed into the open sea. Then following the winding of the coast they ran a course of 120 stadia, and reach Krokala, a sandy island where they anchored and remained all next day The country adjoining was inhabited by an Indian race called the Arabies, whom I have mentioned in my longer work, where it is stated that they derive their name from the River Arabis, which flows through their country to the sea, and parts them from the Oreitai Weighing from Krokala they had on their right hand a mountain which the natives called Eiros, and on their left a flat island almost level with the sea, and so near the mainland to which it runs parallel that the intervening channel is extremely narrow Having quite cleared this passage they come to anchor in a well sheltered harbour, which Nearchus, finding large and commodious, designated Alexander's Haven This harbour is protected by an island lying about 2 stadia off from its entrance. It is called Bibakta, and all the country round about Sangada. The existence of the harbour is due altogether to the island which opposes a barrier to the violence of the sea. Here heavy gales blew from seaward for many days without intermission, and Nearchus fearing lest the barbarians might, some of them, combine to attack and plunder the camp, fortified his position with an enclosure of stones. Here they were obliged to remain for 24 days. The soldiers we learn from Nearchus caught mussels and oysters, and what is called the razor fish, these being all of an extraordinary size as compared with the sorts found in our own sea. He adds that they had no water to drink but what was brackish.

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XXII. As soon as the monsoon ceased they put again to sea, and having run fully 60 stadia came to anchor at a sandy beach under shelter of a desert island that lay near, called Domai. On the shore itself there was no water, but 20 stadia inland it was procured of good quality. The following day they proceeded 300 stadia to Saraṅga, where they did not arrive till night. They anchored close to the shore, and found water at a distance of about 8 stadia from it. Weighing from Saranga they reach Sakala, a desert place, and anchored. On leaving it they passed two rocks so close to each other that the oar-blades of the galleys grazed both, and after a course of 300 stadia they came to anchor at Morontobara. The harbour here was deep and capacious, and well sheltered all round, and its waters quite tranquil, but the entrance into it was narrow In the native language it was called Women’s Haven, because a woman had been the first sovereign of the place. They thought it a great achievement to have passed those two rocks in safety, for when they were passing them the sea was boisterous and running high. They did not remain in Morontobara, but sailed the day after their arrival, when they had on their left hand an island which sheltered them from the sea, and which lay so near to the mainland that the intervening channel looked as if it had been artificially formed. Its length from one end to the other was 70 stadia. The shore was woody and the island throughout overgrown with trees of every description. They were not able to get fairly through this passage till towards daybreak, for the sea was not only rough, but also shoal, the tide being at ebb. They sailed on continuously, and after a course of 120 stadia anchored at the mouth of the river Arabis, where there was a spacious and very fine haven. The water here was not fit for drinking for the sea ran up the mouths of the Arabis. Having gone, however, about 40 stadia up the river, they found a pool from which, having drawn water, they returned to the fleet. Near the harbour is an island high and bare, but the sea around it supplied oysters and fish of various kinds. As far as this, the country was possessed by the Arabies, the last Indian people living in this direction; and the parts beyond were occupied by the Oreitai.

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XXIII On weighing from the mouths of the Arabis, they coasted the shores of the Oreitai, and after running 200 stadia reached Pagala, where there was a surf but nevertheless good anchorage. The crew were obliged to remain on board, a party, however, being sent on shore to procure water They sailed next morning at sunrise and after a course of about 430 stadia, reached Kabana in the evening, where they anchored at some distance from the shore, which was a desert, the violence of the surf by which the vessels were much tossed preventing them from landing. While running the last course the fleet had been caught in a heavy gale blowing from seaward, when two galleys and a transport foundered. All the men, however, saved themselves by swimming, as the vessels at the time of the disaster were sailing close to the shore. They weighed from Kabana about midnight, and having proceeded 200 stadia arrived at Kokala, where the vessels could not be drawn ashore, but rode at anchor out at sea As the men, however, had suffered severely by confinement on board, and were very much in want of rest, Nearchus allowed them to go on shore, where he formed a camp, fortifying it in the usual manner for protection against the barbarians. In this part of the country Leonnatus, who had been commissioned by Alexander to reduce the Oreitai and settle their affairs, defeated that people and their allies in a great battle, wherein all the leaders and 6,000 men were slain, the loss of Leonnatus being only 15 of his horse, besides a few foot soldiers, and one man of note, Appollophanes, the satrap of the Gedrosians. A full account, however, of these transactions is given in my other work, where it is stated that for this service Leonnatos had a golden crown placed upon his head by Alexander in presence of the Macedonian army. Agreeably to orders given by Alexander, corn had been here collected for the victualling of the vessels, and stores sufficient to last for 10 days were put on board. Here also such ships as had been damaged during the voyage were repaired, while all the mariners that Nearchus considered deficient in fortitude for the enterprise, he consigned to Leonnatos to be taken on by land, but at the same time he made good his complement of men by taking in exchange others more efficient from the troops under Leonnatos.

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XXIV. From this place they bore away with a fresh breeze, and having made good a course of 500 stadia anchored near a winter torrent called the Tomeros, which at its mouth expanded into an estuary. The natives lived on the marshy ground near the shore in cabins close and suffocating. Great was their astonishment when they descried the fleet approaching, but they were not without courage, and collecting in arms on the shore, drew up in line to attack the strangers when landing. They carried thick spears about 6 cubits long, not headed with iron, but what was as good, hardened at the point by fire. Their number was about 600, and when Nearchus saw that they stood their ground prepared to fight, he ordered his vessels to advance, and then to anchor just within bowshot of the shore for he had noticed that the thick spears of the barbarians were adapted only for close fight, and were by no means formidable as missiles. He then issued his directions: those men that were lightest equipped, and the most active and best at swimming were to swim to shore at a given signal: when any one had swum so far that he could stand in the water he was to wait for his next neighbour, and not advance against the barbarians until a file could be formed of three men deep: that done, they were to rush forward shouting the war-cry. The men selected for this service at once plunged into the sea, and swimming rapidly touched ground, still keeping due order, when forming in file, they rushed to the charge, shouting the war-cry, which was repeated from the ships, whence all the while arrows and missiles from engines were launched against the enemy. Then the barbarians terrified by the glittering arms and the rapidity of the landing, and wounded by the arrows and other missiles, against which they had no protection, being all but entirely naked, fled at once without making any attempt at resistance. Some perished in the ensuing flight, others were taken prisoners, and some escaped to the mountains. Those they captured had shaggy hair, not only on their head but all over their body, their nails resembled the claws of wild beasts, and were used, it would seem, instead of iron for dividing fish and splitting the softer kinds of wood. Things of a hard consistency they cut with sharp stones, for iron they had none. As clothing they wore the skins of wild beasts, and occasionally also the thick skins of the large sorts of fish.

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XXV. After this action they draw the ships on shore and repair all that had been damaged. On the 6th day they weighed again, and after a course of 300 stadia reached a place called Malana, the last on the coast of the Oreitai. In the interior these people dress like the Indians, and use similar weapons, but differ from them in their language and their customs. The length of the coast of the Arabies, measured from the place whence the expedition had sailed, was about 1,000 stadia, and the extent of the coast of the Oreitai 1,600 stadia Nearchus mentions that as they sailed along the Indian coast (for the people beyond this are not Indians), their shadows did not fall in the usual direction, for when they stood out a good way to the southward, their shadows appeared to turn and fall southward. Those constellations, moreover, which they had been accustomed to see high in the heavens, were either not visible at all, or were seen just on the verge of the horizon while the Polar constellation which had formerly been always visible now set and soon afterwards rose again. In this Nearchus appears to me to assert nothing improbable, for at Syene in Egypt they show a well in which when the sun is at the Tropic, there is no shadow at noon. In Meroe also objects project no shadow at that particular time. Hence it is probable that shadow is subject to the same law in India which lies to the south, and more especially in the Indian ocean, which extends still further to the southward

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XXVI Next to the Oreitai lies Gedrosia, an inland province through which Alexander led his army, but this with difficulty, for the region was so desolate that the troops in the whole course of the expedition never suffered such direful extremities as on this march. But all the particulars relating to this I have set down in my larger work (VI 22-27). The seaboard below the Gedrosians is occupied by a people called the Ikhthyophagi, and along this country the fleet now pursued its way. Weighing from Malana about the second watch they ran a course of 600 stadia, and reached Bagisra Here they found a commodious harbour, and at a distance of 60 stadia from the sea a small town called Pasira, whence the people of the neighbourhood were called Pasirees. Weighing early next morning they had to double a headland which projected far out into the sea, and was high and precipitous. Here having dug wells, and got only a small supply of bad water, they rode at anchor that day because a high surf prevented the vessels approaching the shore. They left this place next day, and sailed till they reached Kolta after a course of 200 stadia. Weighing thence at daybreak they reached Kalama, after a course of 600 stadia, and there anchored. Near the beach was a village around which grew a few palm trees, the dates on which were still green. There was here an island called Karbine, distant from the shore about 100 stadia The villagers by way of showing their hospitality brought presents of sheep and fish to Nearchus, who says that the mutton had a fishy taste like the flesh of sea birds for the sheep fed on fish, there being no grass in the place. Next day they proceeded 200 stadia, and anchored off a shore near which lay a village called Kissa, 30 stadia inland. That coast was however called Karbis. There they found little boats such as might belong to miserably poor fishermen, but the men themselves they saw nothing of, for they had fled when they observed the ships dropping anchor. No corn was here procurable, but a few goats had been left, which were seized and put on board, for in the fleet provisions now ran short. On weighing they doubled a steep promontory which projected about 150 stadia into the sea, and then put into a well sheltered haven called Mosarna, where they anchored. Here the natives were fishermen, and here they obtained water.

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XXVII. From this place they took on board, Nearchus says, as pilot of the fleet, a Gedrosian called Hydrakes, who undertook to conduct them as far as Karmania. Thenceforth until they reached the Persian Gulf, the voyage was more practicable and the names of the stations more familiar. Departing from Mosarna at night, they sailed 750 stadia, and reached the coast of Balomon. They touched next at Barna, which was 400 stadia distant. Here grew many palm trees, and here was a garden wherein were myrtles and flowers from which the men wove chaplets for their hair. They saw now for the first time cultivated trees, and met with natives in a condition above that of mere savages. Leaving this they followed the winding of the coast, and arrived at Dendrobosa, where they anchor in the open sea. They weighed from this about midnight, and after a course of about 400 stadia gained the haven of Kophas. The inhabitants were fishermen possessed of small and wretched boats, which they did not manage with oars fastened to a row-lock according to the Grecian manner, but with paddles which they thrust on this side, and on that into the water, like diggers using a spade. They found at this haven plenty of good water. Weighing about the first watch they ran 800 stadia, and put into Kyiza, where was a desert shore with a high surf breaking upon it. They were accordingly obliged to let the ships ride at anchor and take their meal on board. Leaving this they ran a course of 500 stadia, and came to a small town built on an eminence not far from the shore. On turning his eyes in that direction Nearchus noticed that the land had some appearance of being cultivated, and thereupon addressing Arkhias (who was the son of Anaxidotos of Pella, and sailed in the Commander's galley, being a Macedonian of distinction) pointed out to him that they must take possession of the place, as the inhabitants would not willingly supply the army with food It could not however be taken by assault, a tedious siege would be necessary, and they were already short of provisions But the country was one that produced corn as the thick stubble which they saw covering the fields near the shore clearly proved. This proposal being approved of by all, he ordered Arkhias to make a feint of preparing the fleet, all but one ship to sail, while he himself, pretending to be left behind with that ship, approached the town as if merely to view it.

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XXVIII When he approached the walls the inhabitants came out to meet him, bringing a present of tunny fish broiled in pans (the first instance of cookery among the Ikhthyophagi, although these were the very last of them), accompanied with small cakes and dates. He accepted their offering with the proper acknowledgments, but said he wished to see their town, which he was accordingly allowed to enter. No sooner was he within the gates he ordered two of his archers to seize the portal by which they had entered, while he himself with two attendants and his interpreter mounting the wall hard by, made the preconcerted signal, on seeing which the troops under Arkhias were to perform the service assigned to them. The Macedonians, on seeing the signal, immediately ran their ships towards land, and without loss of time jumped into the sea. The barbarians, alarmed at these proceedings, flew to arms. Upon this Nearchus ordered his interpreter to proclaim that if they wished their city to be preserved from pillage they must supply his army with provisions. They replied that they had none, and proceeded to attack the wall, but were repulsed by the archers with Nearchus, who assailed them with arrows from the summit of the wall. Accordingly, when they saw that their city was taken, and on the point of being pillaged, they at once begged Nearchus to take whatever corn they had, and to depart without destroying the place. Nearchus upon this orders Arkhias to possess himself of the gates and the ramparts adjoining and sends at the same time officers to see what stores were available, and whether these would be all honestly given up. The stores were produced, consisting of a kind of meal made from fish roasted, and a little wheat and barley, for the chief diet of these people was fish with bread added as a relish The troops having appropriated these supplies returned to the fleet, which then hauled off to a cape in the neighbourhood called Bagia, which the natives regarded as sacred to the sun.

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XXIX. They weighed from this cape about midnight, and having made good a course of 1,000 stadia, put into Talmena, where they found a harbour with good anchorage. They sailed thence to Kanasis, a deserted town 400 stadia distant, where they find a well ready dug and wild palm trees These they cut down, using the tender heads to support life since provisions had again run scarce They sailed all day and all night, suffering great distress from hunger, and then came to an anchor off a desolate coast Nearchus fearing lest the men, if they landed, would in despair desert the fleet ordered the ships to be moved to a distance from shore Weighing from this they ran a course of 850 stadia, and came to anchor at Kanate, a place with an open beach and some water courses Weighing again, and making 800 stadia, they reach Taoi, where they drop anchor The place contained some small and wretched villages, which were deserted by the inhabitants upon the approach of the fleet Here the men found a little food and dates of the palm tree beside seven camels left by the villagers which were killed for food. Weighing thence about daybreak they ran a course of 300 stadia, and came to anchor at Dagasira, where the people were nomadic. Weighing again they sailed all night and all day without intermission, and having thus accomplished a course of 1,100 stadia, left behind them the nation of the Ikhthyophagi, on whose shores they had suffered such severe privations. They could not approach the beach on account of the heavy surf, but rode at anchor out at sea. In navigating the Ikhthyophagi coast the distance traversed was not much short of 10 000 stadia. The people, as their name imports, live upon fish Few of them, however, are fishermen, and what fish they obtain they owe mostly to the tide at whose reflux they catch them with nets made for this purpose. These nets are generally about 2 stadia long, and are composed of the bark (or fibres) of the palm, which they twine into cord in the same way as the fibres of flax are twined. When the sea recedes, hardly any fish are found among the dry sands, but they abound in the depressions of the surface where the water still remains. The fish are for the most part small, though some are caught of a considerable size, these being taken in the nets. The more delicate kinds they eat raw as soon as they are taken out of the water. The large and coarser kinds they dry in the sun, and when properly dried grind into a sort of meal from which they make bread. This meal is sometimes also used to bake cakes with. The cattle as well as their masters fare on dried fish for the country has no pastures and hardly even a blade of grass In most parts crabs, oysters and mussels add to the means of subsistence. Natural salt is found in the country, \*\*\*\* from these they make oil. Certain of their communities inhabit deserts where not a tree grows, and where there are not even wild fruits Fish is their sole means of subsistence. In some few places, however, they sow with grain some patches of land, and eat the produce as a viand of luxury along with the fish which forms the staple of their diet The better class of the population in building their houses use, instead of wood, the bones of whales stranded on the coast, the broadest bones being employed in the framework of the doors. Poor people, and these are the great majority, construct their dwellings with the backbones of fish

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XXX. Whales of enormous size frequent the outer ocean, beside, other fish larger than those found in the Mediterranean. Nearchus relates that when they were bearing away from Kyiza, the sea early in the morning was observed to be blown up into the air as if by the force of a whirlwind The men greatly alarmed enquired of the pilots the nature and cause of this phenomenon, and were informed that it proceeded from the blowing of the whales as they sported in the sea. This report did not quiet their alarm, and through astonishment they let the oars drop from their hands Nearchus, however, recalled them to duty, and encouraged them by his presence, ordering the prows of those vessels that were near him to be turned as in a sea fight towards the creatures as they approached, while the rowers were just then to shout as loud as they could the alala and swell the noise by dashing the water rapidly with the oars. The men thus encouraged, on seeing the preconcerted signal, advanced to action. Then, as they approached the monsters, they shouted the *alala* as loud as they could bawl, sounded the trumpets, and dashed the water noisily with the oars. Thereupon the whales, which were seen ahead, plunged down terror-struck into the depths, and soon after rose astern, when they vigorously continued their blowing The men by loud acclamations expressed their joy at this unexpected deliverance, the credit of which they gave to Nearchus, who had shown such admirable fortitude and judgment.

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We learn further, that on many parts of the coast whales are occasionally stranded, being left in shallow water at ebb-tide, and thus prevented from escaping back to sea, and that they are sometimes also cast ashore by violent storms Thus perishing their flesh rots away, and gradually drops off till the bones are left bare. These are used by the natives in the construction of their huts, the larger ribs making suitable bearing beams, and the smaller serving for rafters. The jaw bones make arches for the doorways, for whales are sometimes five and twenty orguiae (fathoms) in length

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XXXI. When they were sailing along the Ikhthyophagi coast, they were told about an island which was said to be about 100 stadia distant from the mainland, and uninhabited. Its name was Nosala, and it was according to the local tradition sacred to the sun. No one willingly visited this island, and if any one was carried to it unawares, he was never more seen Nearchus states that a transport of his fleet, manned with an Egyptian crew, disappeared not far from this island, and that the pilots accounted for their disappearance by saying that they must have landed on the island in ignorance of the danger which they would thereby incur. Nearchus, however, sent a gally of 30 oars to sail round the island, instructing the men not to land, but to approach as near as they could to the shore, and hail the men, shouting out the name of the captain or any other name they had not forgotten. No one answered to the call, and Nearchus says that he then sailed in person to the island, and compelled his company much against their will to go on shore. He too landed, and showed that the story about the island was nothing but an empty fable. Concerning this same island he heard also another story, which ran to this effect: it had been at one time the residence of one of the Nereids, whose name, he says, he could not learn. It was her wont to have intercourse with any man who visited the island, changing him thereafter into a fish, and casting him into the sea. The sun, however, being displeased with the Nereid, ordered her to remove from the island. She agreed to do this, and seek a home elsewhere, but stipulated that she should be cured of her malady. To this condition the sun assented, and then the Nereid, taking pity upon the men whom she had transformed into fish, restored them to their human shape. These men were the progenitors of the Ikhthyophagi, the line of succession remaining unbroken down to the time of Alexander. Now, for my part I have no praise to bestow on Nearchus for expending so much time and ingenuity on the not very difficult task of proving the falsehood of these stories, for to take up antiquated fables merely with a view to prove their falsehood, I can only regard as a contemptible piece of folly.

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XXXII. To the Ikhthyophagi succeed the Gadrosii, who occupy a most wretched tract of country full of sandy deserts in penetrating which Alexander and his army were reduced to the greatest extremities, of which an account is to be found in my other work But this is an inland region, and therefore when the expedition left the Ikhthyophagi, its course lay along Karmania Here, when they first drew towards shore, they could not effect a landing, but had to remain all night on board anchored in the deep, because a violent surf spread along the shore and far out to sea. Thereafter the direction of their course changed, and they sailed no longer towards sunset, but turned the heads of the vessels more to the north west Karmania is better wooded and produces better fruit than the country either of the Ikhthyophagi or the Oreitai. It is also more grassy, and better supplied with water. They anchor next at Badis, an inhabited place in Karmania, where grew cultivated trees of many different kinds, with the exception of the olive, and where also the soil favoured the growth of the vine and of corn Weighing thence they ran 800 stadia, and came to an anchor off a barren coast, whence they descried a headland projecting far out into the sea, its nearest extremity being to appearance about a day's sail distant. Persons acquainted with those regions asserted that this cape belonged to Arabia, and was called Maketa, whence cinnamon and other products were exported to the Assyrians. And from this coast where the fleet was now anchored, and from the headland which they saw projecting into the sea right opposite, the gulf in my opinion (which is also that of Nearchus) extends up into the interior, and is probably the Red Sea. When this headland was now in view Onesicritus, the chief pilot, proposed that they should proceed to explore it, and by so shaping their course, escape the distressing passage up the gulf, but Nearchus opposed this proposal. Onesicritus, he said, must be wanting in ordinary judgment if he did not know with what design Alexander had sent the fleet on this voyage He certainly had not sent it, because there were no proper means of conducting the whole army safely by land, but his express purpose was to obtain a knowledge of the coasts they might pass on their voyage, together with the harbours and islets, and to have the bays that might occur explored, and to ascertain whether there were towns, bordering on the ocean, and whether the countries were habitable or desert They ought not therefore to lose sight of this object, seeing that they were now near the end of their toils and expecially that they were no longer in want of the necessary supplies for prosecuting the voyage He feared, moreover, since the headland stretched towards the south, lest they should find the country there a parched desert destitute of water and insufferably hot This argument prevailed, and it appears to me that by this counsel Nearchus saved the expedition, for all accounts represent this cape and the parts adjacent as an arid waste where water cannot possibly be procured

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XXXIII On resuming the voyage they sailed close to land and after making about 700 stadia anchored on another shore called Neoptana From this they weighed next day at dawn, and after a course of 100 stadia anchored at the mouth of the river Anamis in a country called Harmozeia Here at last they found a hospitable region,—one which was rich in every production except only the olive Here accordingly they landed, and enjoyed a welcome respite from their many toils—heightening their pleasure by calling to remembrance what miseries they had suffered at sea and in the Ikhthyophagi country, where the shores were so sterile, and the natives so brute-like and where they had been reduced to the last extremities of want Here, also, some of them in scattered parties, leaving the encampment on the shore, wandered inland searching for one thing and another that might supply their several requirements. While thus engaged they fell in with a man who wore a Greek mantle, and was otherwise attired as a Greek and spoke the Greek language Those who first discovered him declared that tears started to their eyes, so strange did it appear, after all they had suffered, to see once more a countryman of their own, and to hear the accents of their native tongue. They asked him whence he came, and who he was.

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He replied that he had straggled from the army of Alexander, and that the army led by Alexander in person was not far off. On hearing this they hurry the man with shouts of tumultuous joy to the presence of Nearchus, to whom he repeated all that he had already said, assuring him that the army and the king were not more than a 5 days' march distant from the sea. The Governor of the province, he added, was on the spot, and he would present him to Nearchus and he presented him accordingly Nearchus consulted this person regarding the route he should take in order to reach the king, and then they all went off, and made their way to the ships. Early next morning the ships by orders of Nearchus were drawn on shore, partly for repair of the damage which some of them had suffered on the voyage, and partly because he had resolved to leave here the greater part of his army. Having this in view, he fortified the roadstead with a double palisade, and also with an earthen rampart and a deep ditch extending from the banks of the river to the dockyard where the ships were lying

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XXXIV While Nearchus was thus occupied, the Governor being aware that Alexander was in great anxiety about the fate of this expedition, concluded that he would receive some great advantage from Alexander should he be the first to apprize him of the safety of the fleet and of the approaching visit of Nearchus. Accordingly he hastened to Alexander by the shortest route and announced that Nearchus was coming from the fleet to visit him. Alexander, though he could scarcely believe the report, nevertheless received the tidings with all the joy that might have been expected

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Day after day, however, passed without confirmation of the fact. till Alexander. on comparing the distance from the sea with the date on which the report had reached him, at last gave up all belief in its truth, the more especially as several of the parties which he had successively despatched to find Nearchus and escort him to the camp, had returned without him, after going a short distance, and meeting no one, while others who had prosecuted the search further, and failed to find Nearchus and his company were still absent. He therefore ordered the Governor into confinement for having brought delusive intelligence and rendered his vexation more acute by the disappointment of his hopes, and indeed his looks and perturbation of mind plainly indicated that he was pierced to the heart with a great grief. Meanwhile, however, one of the parties that had been despatched in search of Nearchus, and his escort being furnished with horses and wagons for their accommodation, fell in on the way with Nearchus and Arkhias, who were followed by five or six attendants. At first sight they recognized neither the admiral himself nor Arkhias, so much changed was their appearance, their hair long and neglected, their persons filthy, encrusted all over with brine and shrivelled, their complexion sallow from want of sleep and other severe privations. On their asking where Alexander was, they were told the name of the place Arkhias, then perceiving who they were, said to Nearchus—"It strikes me, Nearchus, these men are traversing the desert by the route we pursue, for no other reason than because they have been sent to our relief. True, they did not know us, but that is not at all surprising, for our appearance is so wretched that we are past all recognition Let us tell them who we are, and ask then why they are travelling this way". Nearchus, thinking he spoke with reason, asked the men whither they were bound They replied that they were searching for Nearchus and the fleet "Well! I am Nearchus," said the admiral, "and this man here is Arkhias. Take us under your conduct, and we will report to Alexander the whole history of the expedition"

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XXXV. They were accordingly accommodated in the wagons, and conducted to the camp. Some of the horsemen, however, wishing to be the first to impart the news, hastened forward, and told Alexander that Nearchus himself, and Arkhias with him, and five attendants, would soon arrive, but to enquiries about the rest of the people in the expedition they had no information to give. Alexander, concluding from this that all the expedition had perished except this small band, which had been unaccountably saved, did not so much feel pleasure for the preservation of Nearchus and Arkhias as distress for the loss of his whole fleet. During this conversation Nearchus and Arkhias arrived. It was not without difficulty Alexander after a close scrutiny recognized who the hirsute, ill-clad men who stood before him were, and being confirmed by their miserable appearance in his belief that the expedition had perished, he was still more overcome with grief. At length he held out his hand to Nearchus and leading him apart from his attendants and his guards he burst into tears, and wept for a long time. Having, after a good while, recovered some composure, "Nearchus"! he says, "since you and Arkhias have been restored to me alive, I can bear more patiently the calamity of losing all my fleet; but tell me now, in what manner did the vessels and my people perish". "O my king!" replied Nearchus, "the ships are safe and the people also, and we are here to give you an account of their preservation". Tears now fell much faster from his eyes than before, but they were tears of joy for the salvation of his fleet which he had given up for lost. "And where are now my ships", he then enquired. "They are drawn up on shore", replied Nearchus, "on the beach of the river Anamis for repairs". Upon this Alexander, swearing by Zeus of the Greeks and Ammon of the Libyans, declared that he felt happier at receiving these tidings than in being the conqueror of all Asia, for, had the expedition been lost, the blow to his peace of mind would have been a counterpoise to all the success he had achieved.

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XXXVI But the Governor whom Alexander had put into confinement for bringing intelligence that appeared to be false, seeing Nearchus in the camp, sunk on his knees before him, and said. "I am the man who brought to Alexander the news of your safe arrival You see how I am situated" Nearchus interceded with Alexander on his behalf, and he was then liberated Alexander next proceeded to offer a solemn sacrifice in gratitude for the preservation of his fleet unto Zeus the Preserver, and Herakles, and Apollo the Averter of Destruction, and unto Poseidon, and every other deity of ocean He celebrated likewise a contest in gymnastics and music, and exhibited a splendid procession wherein a foremost place was assigned to Nearchus. Chaplets were wreathed for his head, and flowers were showered upon him by the admiring multitude. At the end of these proceedings the king said to Nearchus, "I do not wish you. Nearchus, either to risk your life or expose yourself again to the hardships of sea-voyaging, and I shall therefore send some other officer to conduct the expedition onward to Susa" But Nearchus answered, and said: "It is my duty, O king! as it is also my desire in all things to obey you, but if your object is to gratify me in some way, do not take the command from me until I complete the voyage by bringing the ships in safety to Susa I have been trusted to execute that part of the undertaking in which all its difficulty and danger lay; transfer not, then, to another the remaining part, which hardly requires an effort, and that, too, just at the time when the glory of final success is ready to be won". Alexander scarcely allowed him to conclude his request, which he granted with grateful acknowledgment of his services. Then he sent him down again to the coast with only a small escort, believing that the country through which he would pass was friendly. He was not permitted however to pursue his way to the coast without opposition, for the barbarians, resenting the action of Alexander in deposing their satrap, had gathered in full force and seized all the strongholds of Karmania before Tlepolemos, the newly appointed Governor, had yet succeeded in fully establishing his authority. It happened therefore that several times in the course of a day Nearchus encountered bands of the insurgents with whom he had to do battle. He therefore hurried forward without lingering by the way, and reached the coast in safety, though not without severe toil and difficulty. On arriving he sacrificed to Zeus the Preserver, and celebrated gymnastic games.

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XXXVII These pious rites having been duly performed they again put to sea, and after passing a desolate and rocky island, arrived at another island, where they anchored This was one of considerable size and inhabited, and 300 stadia distant from Harmozeia, the harbour which they had last left The desert island was called Organa, and that where they anchored Oarakta It produced vines, palm-trees, and corn Its length is 800 stadia Mazenes, the chief of this island, accompanied them all the way to Susa, having volunteered to act as pilot of the fleet The natives of the island professed to point out the tomb of the very first sovereign of the country, whose name they said was Erythres, after whom the sea in that part of the world was called the Erythraean Weighing thence their course lay along the island, and they anchored on its shores at a place whence another island was visible at a distance of about 40 stadia They learned that it was sacred to Poseidon, and inaccessible Next morning, as they were putting out to sea, the ebbtide caught them with such violence that three of the galleys were stranded on the beach, and the rest of the fleet escaped with difficulty from the surf into deep water. The stranded vessels were however floated off at the return of the tide, and the day after rejoined the fleet. They anchored at another island distant from the mainland somewhere about 300 stadia, after running a course of 400 stadia. Towards daybreak they resumed the voyage, passing a desert island which lay on their left, called Pylora, and anchored at Sisidone, a small town which could supply nothing but water and fish Here again the natives were fish-eaters, for the soil was utterly sterile. Having taken water on board, they weighed again, and having run 300 stadia, anchored at Tarsia, the extremity of a cape which projects far into the sea. The next place of anchorage was Kataia, a desert island, and very flat. It was said to be sacred to Hermes and Aphrodite. The length of this course was 300 stadia. To this island sheep and goats are annually sent by the people of the adjoining continent who consecrate them to Hermes and Aphrodite. These animals were to be seen running about in a wild state, the effect of time and the barren soil

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XXXVIII. Karmania extends as far as this island, but the parts beyond appertain to Persia. The extent of the Karmanian coast was 3,700 stadia. The people of this province live like the Persians, on whom they border, and they have similar weapons and a similar military system. When the fleet left the sacred island its course lay along the coast of Persis, and it first drew to land at a place called Ila, where there is a harbour under cover of a small and desert island called Kaïkander. The distance run was 400 stadia. Towards daybreak they came to another island which was inhabited, and anchored thereon. Nearchus notices that there is here a fishery for pearl as there is in the Indian Sea. Having sailed along the shores of the promontory in which this island terminates, a distance of about 40 stadia, they came to an anchor upon its shores The next anchorage was in the vicinity of a lofty hill called Okhos, where the harbour was well sheltered and the inhabitants were fishermen. Weighing thence they ran a course of 400 stadia, which brought them to Apostana, where they anchored. At this station they saw a great many boats, and learned that at a distance of 60 stadia from the shore there was a village From Apostana they weighed at night and proceeded 400 stadia to a bay, on the borders of which many villages were to be seen Here the fleet anchored under the projection of a cape which rose to a considerable height Palm-trees and other fruit-bearing trees similar to those of Greece, adorned the country round On weighing thence they sailed in a line with the coast, and after a course of somewhere about 600 stadia reached Gogana which was an inhabited place, where they anchored at the mouth of a winter torrent called the Areon. It was difficult to anchor, for the approach to the mouth of the river was by a narrow channel, since the ebbing of the tide had left shoals which lay all round in a circle. Weighing thence they gained after running as many as 800 stadia, the mouth of another river called the Sitakos, where also it was troublesome to anchor. Indeed all along the coast of Persis the fleet had to be navigated through shoals and breakers and oozy channels. At the Sitakos they took on board a large supply of provision, which under orders from the king had been collected expressly for the fleet. They remained at this station one and twenty days in all occupied in repairing and kareening the ships, which had been drawn on shore for the purpose

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