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The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c13: 7. India on the Eve of Muhammad of Ghur’s Invasion

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c13

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7. India on the Eve of Muhammad of Ghur’s Invasion

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In the last quarter of the twelfth century A.D. there were three foreign kingdoms in north-western India. They were the Panjab, Multan and Sindh.

The Ghaznavide Panjab

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Since its conquest and annexation by Mahmud in the first quarter of the eleventh century, the Panjab had remained an integral part of the Ghaznavide empire until its extinction in 1186 A.D. As has already been related, Khusrav Shah, driven from his ancestral home by the Ghuzz Turks, sought refuge in the Panjab. From that time onwards his successors abandoned Ghazni altogether and made the Panjab their home and Lahore their capital. After Sindh the Panjab may be considered to have become the next Muslim kingdom in India. This kingdom included Peshawar and Sialkot in the north and the Hindu state of Jammu lay to the north-east, while its boundary on the south and the south-west was constantly fluctuating. The Chauhan ruler, Prithvi Raj I, fought with the Muslims. His successor Ajayaraf lost Nagor to Bahlim, a Ghaznavide officer, in 1112 A.D. Vigraharaj III recovered Hansi from the Ghaznavide Sultan of the Panjab in 1167 A.D. and his successor Prithvi Raj II fortified it as an outpost against the Turks. A few years later, Prithvi Raj II wrested Bhatinda, situated further north, and thus shifted the Chauhan frontier in the north to very near modern Firozpur. The Turkish kingdom of the Panjab suffered from decline and deterioration during the reigns of Mahmud’s successors. Corruption and inefficiency were the rule. Khusrav Malik, the last ruler of the Ghaznavide dynasty, was a pleasure-loving, worthless prince, who allowed his servants to exercise practically independent power. Inspite of this natural decay, sometimes an enterprising commander of the sultan’s army would undertake a distant raid into the territory of a neighbouring Hindu chief, devastate it and bring valuable spoils; but such a daring character in the effete Ghaznavides was an exception and not the rule. In fact, the Ghaznavide sultan of Lahore lived in daily fear of the Rajput attack on his kingdom.

Multan under the Karmathians

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The province of Multan, situated in the upper valley of the Indus, was ruled over by Qaramitah Muslims who were Shias. This province had been conquered by Mahmud, but it regained its independence under the Qaramitahs after that monarch's death. Uch also seems to have been a part of the Qaramitah kingdom.

Sindh under the Sumras

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South of Multan lay Lower Sindh with its capital at Debal. Mahmud had conquered these parts also, but not long after his death a local tribe, called the Sumras, re-asserted its independence. The Sumras were Muhammadans of an obscure origin. Like the Qaramitahs they too were Shia Muslims.

The Rajputs : their virtues and faults

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The rest of India was ruled by the Rajputs who claimed descent from the ancient Kshatriyas and traced their pedigree to the Sun and the Moon. Historians, however, are of opinion that the Rajputs were a mixed race, having in their veins the blood of the ancient Kshatriyas and also that of some foreign invaders who eventually found a place in Hindu society. The Rajputs were a brave people. They excelled their adversary, the Turk, in reckless bravery and chivalric sense of honour. They prided themselves on their swordsmanship and made warfare their hobby. Their great qualities were, however, marred by the presence of clannishness among them. The structure of society in which they lived and had their being was essentially feudal. Their thirst for military glory made them subordinate other activities to this their all-absorbing passion, and this proved to be the cause of their downfall.

The Chalukyas of Anhilwara

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The most important Rajput dynasty in western India, so close to the three north-western provinces held by foreigners, was the Chalukya ruling family of Anhilwara. Jaya Singh Siddharaja (1102-1143) raised this dynasty to eminence and conquered a large portion of the Paramara kingdom of Malwa. He reduced the Guhilot kingdom of Chittor, and rounded off his conquest by the reduction of Nadol and Girnar in Kathiawar. He came into clash with the Chauhan ruler of Ajmer and the warfare between these two houses eventually reduced the Chalukyas to a second-rate power. One by one, Malwa, Chittor and other parts of western and southern Rajputana re-asserted their independence. Only Gujarat and Kathiawar remained under the Chalukyas. Moola Raj II was the Chalukya ruler at the time of Muhammad of Ghur’s invasion.

The Chauhans of Ajmer

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The next important Rajput power was that of the Chauhans of Ajmer. This dynasty was founded by Samanta. Ajayapala founded Ajmer in the eleventh century A.D. For a brief period under Arno Raja (c. 1153-1164) the Chauhans had to acknowledge the Chalukya suzerainty. Very soon after, however, the Chauhans regained their independence and even rose to eminence and subjugated northeastern Rajputana. Visala Deva (Vigraharaja III) captured Delhi about 1150 A.D. from the Tomaras and, a little later, he captured Hansi from the Ghaznavides. An important ruler of this dynasty was Prithviraj II who ruled from 1167 to 1169 A.D. His son was the famous Prithviraj III (1178-1193 A.D.) popularly known as Rai Pithora. He conquered Mahoba from the Chandela ruler, Paramardi. He was reputed to have been a great warrior and fighter. He was, however, not on good terms with his neighbours.

The Gahadwaras of Kanauj

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The most important Rajput ruling family at this time was the Gahadwara dynasty of Kanauj. Originally the Gahadwara kingdom consisted of Kashi (Banaras), Kaushala (Awadh), Kaushik (Allahabad region) and Indraprastha (Delhi region), but gradually the Gahadwaras expanded in all directions and, by a systematic policy of conquest, made Kanauj one of the most extensive kingdoms in the country. Govinda Chand was one of the most notable rulers of this dynasty. During his reign the eastern boundary of Kanauj was pushed to Patna. Gobinda Chand was succeeded by Vijaya Chand who ruled from about 1155 to 1170 A.D. He continued the policy of aggressive warfare which he had inherited from his predecessors. Jaya Chand, a contemporary of Muhammad of Ghur, was the last ruler of this dynasty.

The Chandelas of Bundelkhand and the Kalachuris of Chedi

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Two other Rajput ruling families deserve mention, for they were not only virile, but also in constant warfare with their neighbours. They were the Chandelas of Kalinjar and Mahoba and the Kalachuris of Chedi. The Chandelas established their dominion over the southern parts of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, including western Bundelkhand in the tenth century A.D. Madan Varma, a noble ruler of this dynasty, defeated the Paramaras of Malwa and held his own against Siddharaja of Gujarat. He defeated the Kalachuris, who ruled at Tripuri in the modern Jabalpur district of the Madhya Pradesh. The Kalachuris seemed to have ultimately become feudatories to the Chandela prince about the end of the twelfth century. But the Chandelas themselves were finally beaten by the Gahadwaras. The last important king of this dynasty, named Paramardi Deva, was defeated by Prithviraj II of Ajmer and compelled to cede a portion of his territory to the Chauhans. At the opening of our period the Chandela dominion comprised Mahoba, Khajuraho, Kalinjar and Ajaigarh. It probably included Jhansi also.

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The Paramaras of Malwa with their capital at Dhar, so powerful and famous in the time of their greatest ruler, Bhoja (c. 1010-1055), had sunk low in the twelfth century. The representative of this dynasty at the time of Muhammad of Ghur’s invasion was an insignificant prince and a virtual vassal of the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

The Palas of North Bangal

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In eastern India there were two well-known Rajput kingdoms. They were the Pala empire and the Sena kingdom. Once upon a time the Pala empire included the whole of Bangal and the whole of Bihar. But it was fast undergoing decay. In the twelfth century Ramapala, a king of this dynasty, was able to revive for a short period the imperial glory of his ancestors by a number of victories in Utkal, Kalinga and Kamarupa. After his death, however, the Pala dynasty relapsed into lethargy. The Brahmaputra Valley declared its independence. Similarly, southern Bangal cut itself off and everywhere petty governors not only raised their heads, but also behaved as independent chiefs. The later rulers of this dynasty, such as Kumarapala (1126-1130) and Madanapala (1130-1150), were weaklings and under them the once formidable Pala empire dwindled into a small kingdom confined to north Bangal. They lost most of Bihar. In Gaya and Hazaribagh district new dynasties came into existence.

The Sena kingdom of Bangal

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The Sena family profited most owing to the decay and downfall of the Pala empire. The Senas are supposed to have come from southern India and established themselves in eastern India in the eleventh century A.D. One of the members of this family, named Vijaya Sena (1097-1159), seized East Bangal. He obtained possession of North Bangal also. He was in constant warfare with the rulers of Kamarupa, Kalinga and South Bangal and is reputed to have obtained victories over them. He is said to have defeated Nanya Deva of Mithila (North Bihar). The later rulers of this dynasty were Ballala Sena (1159-1170) and his son, Lakshmana Sena (1170-1206). Their dominion consisted of North and East Bangal and included Mithila and, perhaps, some districts lying on the western border of Mithila. Lakshmana Sena's administration was torn by internal dissensions and weakened by his old age.

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It is clear from the foregoing narrative that northern India was divided into many small kingdoms which were on terms of hostility with one another. More than one dynasty claimed pre-eminence and paramountcy over others. This claim could be decided by sword alone, and hence throughout our period the Rajput rulers of the north engaged themselves in constant warfare with their neighbours and paid little attention to the developments in the north-western provinces of India which were in foreign hands, namely, the Panjab, Multan and Sindh. Owing to this state of affairs it was not possible for them, much less for the Indian people (for the people hardly existed as such in that age), to combine against a foreign invader. Was it not still more difficult for them to make a common effort to expel the Turk from the Panjab, Multan and Sindh, where he had secured a permanent lodgement ?

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The administrative, economic, cultural and social conditions had hardly witnessed any fundamental change since the eleventh century. In fact, our civilization had become practically static and, hence, was inclined to a downward trend. The reader is referred to the fifth chapter of this volume for a perusal of those conditions.