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The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c30: Appendix C: The Principal Authorities

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c30

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Appendix C: The Principal Authorities

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Our chief sources of information for a history of the Sultanate period are mainly in Persian and partly in Arabic. The chroniclers were foreign Turks or Afghans who, as a rule, were interested in the progress of Islam in India and the affairs at the court. They were not scientific historians and confined their attention to the doings of the monarchs and paid little attention to the activity of the people. The works can be divided into three classes, namely, (a) Chronicles, (b) Travels, and (c) Modern works.

Chronicles

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**1. Chach-Nama.** This work is a history of the Arab conquest of Sindh and was originally written in Arabic. It was translated into Persian by Muhammad Ali bin Abu Bakr Kufi in the time of Nasir-ud-din Qubachah to whom it was dedicated by the translator. It has recently been edited and published by Dr. Daudpota of Karachi. The work gives a brief account of Sindh before and after Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion. It is full of names of places and details of important incidents. It is our principal authority on the condition of Sindh at the time of its conquest by the Arabs and on the circumstances leading to that conquest.

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**2. Tarikh-i-Sindh alias Tarikh-i-Masumi,** by Mir Muhammad Masum of Bhakkra. This is a detailed history of Sindh and was written about 1600 A.D. It gives the history of the province from the date of its conquest by the Arabs and comes down to the time of Akbar. It is divided into four chapters. Although it is not a contemporary work and is based principally on *Chach-Nama*, it gives a fairly accurate picture of the circumstances that led to the Arab invasion and also the causes of Muhammad bin Qasim's success.

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**3. Kitab-ul-Yamini,** by Abu Nasr bin Muhammad al Jabbarul Utbi. This work gives the history of the reigns of Subuktigin and Mahmud of Ghazni and comes down to 1020. It is more a work of literature than of history, as it is full of figures of speech and roundabout expressions. Utbi does not give details. He has practically the same thing to say about the various invasions of Mahmud. He is deficient in dates too. Inspite of these defects, it ranks as a first-rate authority on the early life and activity of Mahmud.

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**4. Zain-ul-Akhbar**, by Abu Said. It is primarily a history of Persia and throws some light on the career of Mahmud of Ghazni. It gives a good account of that monarch’s activities. It is precise in dates and accurate in events.

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**5. Tarikh-i-Masudi**, by Abul Fazl Muhammad bin Husain-al-Baihaqi. It gives a history of Mahmud of Ghazni and of Masud. It describes court life and intrigues of officials. It is a valuable work.

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**6. Tarikh-ul-Hind**, by Al-Beruni. The author of this work was born in 970-71 A.D. and belonged to Khwarizm. He came to India and took up service under Mahmud of Ghazni. He was a great scholar of Arabic and Persian. He was profoundly interested in mathematics, medicine, logic, philosophy, theology and religion, and was one of the greatest scholars of his age. He stayed in India for many years and studied Sanskrit and Hindu religion and philosophy. He translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic and a number of Arabic works into Persian. He was the author of many books, the most important among which, for our purpose, is his *Tarikh-ul-Hind*. It gives an account of the literature, sciences and religion of the Hindus as he found them at the commencement of the 11th century. He was a very sympathetic observer of things and his accounts are noted for their accuracy and scholarly presentation. *Tarikh-ul-Hind* is the primary authority on the condition of India at the time of Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasions. This book is written in masterly Arabic. It was translated into Persian. Sachau has rendered it into good English. Al-Beruni died in 1038-39.

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**7. Kamil-ut-Tawarikh**, by Shaikh Abdul Hasan, popularly known as ‘Ibn-ul-Asir’. The author belonged to Mesopotamia. He completed his work in 1230. This work is mainly a history of Central Asia, particularly of the rise of the Shansbani dynasty of Ghur, but he also gives an account of Muhammad of Ghur’s conquest of Hindustan. Ibnul Asir was a contemporary writer and his work is characterised by a critical judgment. His description of Indian affairs, though correct in dates and essential facts, is meagre and seems to have been based on hearsay.

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**8. Taj-ul-Maasir,** by Hasan Nizami. This book gives a narrative of the occurrences from 1192 to 1228 and is thus an important authority on the career and reign of Qutub-ud-din Aibak and on the early years of Iltutmish. It is written a highly florid style. Hasan Nizami was a foreigner who came to India during one of the invasions of Muhammad of Ghur and settled down in the country. Being a contemporary writer with opportunities to acquire first-hand information about important happenings, his work is a primary authority on the early history of the Sultanate of Delhi.

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**9. Tabqat-i-Nasiri,** by Minhaj-ud-din Abu Umar bin Siraj-ud-din al-Juzjani, popularly known as Minhaj-us-Siraj. It is a contemporary work and describes the general history of the Muslim world. It was completed in 1260. Its chief value lies in the fact that it gives a first-hand account of the conquest of Hindustan by Muhammad of Ghur and the history of the newly established Turkish kidgdom in India from its birth down to the year 1260. Minhaj-us-Siraj was not only a contemporary but also an actual participator in some of the events described by him, as he held the high office of chief *qazi* at Delhi under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. But Minhaj is not an impartial writer. He is biased in favour of Muhammad of Ghur and the dynasty of Iltutmish. •He was a great admirer of Balban. He paints him as a great hero and administrator free from faults. Inspite of the author's avowed partiality, the *Tabqat-i-Nasiri* is a first-rate authority on the early history of the Sultanate of Delhi. The author gives a connected account of the occurrences and is generally correct in dates and facts. It is a pity that though he lived till the accession of Balban, Minhaj did not continue his history down to the death of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. Owing to this omission the history of the period, from 1260 to 1265, is a blank. The work has been translated into English by Raverty and enriched by valuable notes and explanations. The translation is, on the whole, free from defects.

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**10. The Khaza'in-ul-Futuh,** by Amir Khusrav. The author of this work was pre-eminently a poet and successfully tried all forms of poetical composition. He held the office of poet-laureate from 1290 till his death in 1325. He was, therefore, a contemporary of all the rulers of Delhi from Jalal-ud-din Khalji to Muhammad bin Tughluq. He intended the *Khaza'in-ul-futuh* to be a court history of Ala-ud-din, and consequently the author did not take notice of the facts that went against his patron. He makes no mention of the murder of Jalal-ud-din or of the defeats of Ala-ud-din at the hands of the Mongols. He has exaggerated his patron’s achievements. In spite of these defects, the work is of solid merit. The author has avoided telling lies and his work gives correct dates of events. He was an eye-witness of most of the happenings and, consequently, his narrative is of special value. The work is written in a highly ornate Persian. It has been translated into English by Prof. M. Habib (with an introduction by the late S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar) under the title of “The Campaigns of Ala-ud-din Khalji” (1931).

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**11. Tarikh-i-Firozshahi,** by Zia-ud-din Barani. The author of this book was a man of noble descent and his ancestors held high offices under the Khalji monarchs. Barani himself was an exact contemporary of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, Muhammad bin Tughluq and Firoz Tughluq and was on terms of intimate friendship with Muhammad bin Tughluq. His work commences with the accession of Balban and comes down to the sixth year of the reign of Firoz Tughluq. The work is, thus, our most important authority on the Khalji period and on the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq and a part of that of Firoz Tughluq. It was completed in 1359. The work is full of anecdotes, but it is very deficient in dates and details. Barani seems to be very fond of long discourses and is, at times, guilty of distortion of facts. Sometimes he colours his account with his own personal opinions. He has ignored chronological arrrangement in his narrative. The chief merit of the book is that, as the author held an important post in the revenue department, he was fully acquainted with the revenue administration which he has described in detail.

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Barani was a highly educated man and he knew the duties and responsibilities of a historian. Yet he was not free from prejudice. His style is obscure. Hence at places it is difficult to comprehend the meaning of the text. It has been published by the Asiatic Society of Bangal.

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**12. Fatawah-i-Jahandari,** by Zia-ud-din Barani. This work was completed early in the 14th century. In this work he gives his own views about government policy—secular and religious. It is an ideal political code which Barani would like a Muslim ruler to follow.

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**13. Futuh-us-Salatin,** by Khwaja Abu Malik Isami. This is a poetical history of the Sultanate of Delhi from the time of the Ghaznavide dynasty to that of Muhammad big Tughluq. It was completed in 1349. It was written in the Dakhin and dedicated to Ala-ud-din Hasan, the first ruler of the Bahamani dynasty. The book has been published by Dr. Mahdi Husain. It is useful for the history of the Sultanate of Delhi.

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**14. Kitab-ur-Rahlab.** This is a book of travels composed by the famous Moorish traveller, Ibn Battuta. He started on his travels in 1325 and visited Northern Africa, Arabia, Iran, the Levant and Constantinople. Then he came to India and reached Sindh on the 12th September, 1333. He remained in our country upto 1342. He was appointed *qazi* of Delhi by Muhammad bin Tughluq. He held this office for eight years. Then he lost the emperor’s favour and was imprisoned. He was released sometime after and sent as an ambassador to China in 1342. He met with a mishap on the way owing to his ship being wrecked and returned to Delhi. Then he proceeded to Maldive Islands where he stayed for a year and was appointed a judge. In 1345 he travelled to Ceylon whence he returned to southern India and stayed at Madura. Finally he went to perform the pilgrimage at Macca. Thence he returned to his native country Morocco in 1349. A little later he performed another short journey to Central Africa and finally settled down in Morocco in 1353. Here he wrote the above account of his journey. He died at the age of 73 in 1377-78. Ibn Battuta was a highly learned man and wrote his book in Arabic. As he stayed in our country for over eight years, during which period he was closely connected with the court, he had a good opportunity of knowing facts. His work is, therefore, a primary authority on the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq and also on the manners and customs and the condition of the country during the period. The work suffers from some defects. The author is, sometimes, inclined to be gossipy. Moreover, he was not well acquainted with Persian or Hindi and, therefore, could not derive information from all sources.

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**15. Tarikh-i-Firozshahi,** by Shams-i-Siraj Afif. It is a history of the reign of Firoz Tughluq. The author was born in 1350 and became a member of Firoz Shah’s court. He wrote this book after Timur’s departure in 1398. It is a first-rate authority on the reign of Firoz Tughluq.

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**16. The Sirat-i-Firozshahi.** It is an anonymous work and was compiled in 1370. It was written at the monarch's dictation and is very useful for the history of his reign.

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**17. Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi,** by Yahia bin Ahmad. It is the only contemporary authority on the Sayyid dynasty. It is a valuable work and is generally accurate in dates and description of events.

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**18. Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghana,** by Ahmad Yadgar. This compilation deals with the history of the Afghans in India. It gives an account of the rise and fall of the Lodis and those of the Surs. It is not a contemporary work, as the author wrote this book in the time of Akbar. Nevertheless, it is very useful for a history of the Lodi period.

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**19. Tarikh-i-Shershahi *alias* Tohfa-i-Akbarshahi,** by Abbas Sarwani. Though primarily a history of the Surs, it gives some account of the Lodis. It was written at the orders of Akbar and is, therefore, not a contemporary work. Yet it is very useful for a history of the Lodi period.

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**20. Makhzan-i-Afghana,** by Niamatullah. This work was composed in the reign of Jahangir. It gives a geneological account of the various Afghan tribes. *There is another work by the same author called Tarikh-i-Khan Jahan Lodi wa Makhzan-i-Afghana.* Both these are important for the Lodi period.

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**21. Tarikh-i-Daudi,** by Abdullah. This work was also written during the reign of Jahangir. Like all other Afghan works, it is full of anecdotes and undue praise of the Afghan rulers. It is deficient in dates. Nevertheless, it is indispensable for a history of the Lodis. A copy of this MS is found at Khudabux Library, Patna.

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Some of the general works composed in the time of Akbar are also useful for this period; for example, *Akbarnama* and *Ain-i-Akbari* of Abul Fazl, *Muntakhav-ut-Tawarikh* of Badauni, *Tabqat-i-Akbari* of Nizam-ud-din Ahmad and *Tarikh-i-Farishta* of Hindu Beg. *Tuzuk-i-Baburi* is indispensable for the history of the closing phase of the Lodi dynasty.

Travels

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**1. Al-Beruni.** The great Turkish savant, Al-Beruni may be regarded as one of the earliest travellers to India. As has been related, he came from Khwarizm and stayed in our country for some time. His famous work, popularly known as *Al-Beruni's India*, has been translated into English by Sachau (Trubner's Oriental Series). (See No. 6 of the Chronicles)

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**2. Ibn Battuta.** He was primarily a traveller who reached Sindh in 1333 and stayed in our country for eight years. He recorded the result of his observations in his well-known *Rahlab*, an account of which has already been given (*vide* No. 13 of the Chronicles). One translation into English is by Lee and the other is by Gibbs.

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**3. Travels of Marco Polo.** (Edited by Yule) This world-famous traveller visited southern India in the 13th century and left an account of his impressions in his travel book. Although he does not give many details, yet the work is useful for our period.

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**4. Abdur Razzaq.** Razzaq was a Persian who came as an envoy to the court of the king of Vijayanagar where he stayed from 1442 to 1443. He has left a good account of the conditions—political, administrative, economic and cultural—of Vijayanagar. No history of that state can be complete without making use of the description left by Abdur Razzaq.

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**5. Nicolo Conti.** Conti was an Indian traveller who visited our country in 1520. His account of our country, its manners and customs and the condition of the people is as that of Abdur Razzaq.

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**6. Domingos Paes.** Paes was a Portuguese traveller who visited southern India like the above two travellers. He has left a detailed description of Vijayanagar. His description is full of matter of fact things and is valuable.

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**7. Edoardo Barbosa.** Barbosa visited India in 1516 and his description of Vijayanagar in particular, and southern India in general, is important.

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Besides the above, there are some literary works which throw considerable light on the condition of the country during the period. The most important among them are Amir Khusrav's, such as, *Qiran-us-Sadain* and others and *Munsha-i-Mahru* of Ain-ul-Mulk Multani.

Modern Works

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1. Aiyangar, K. S., *South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders.*
2. Ali, Amir, *History of the Saracens.*
3. Ashraf, K. M., *Life and Condition of the People of Hindustan.*
4. Beal, S., *Life of Hiuen Tsang.*
5. Bhandarkar, R. G., *Early History of the Deccan.*
6. Dorn, *History of the Afghans.*
7. Dubril, J., *Ancient History of the Deccan.*
8. Elliot and Dowson, *History of India as Told by its own Historians.*
9. Farquhar, *Outline of the Religious Literature of India.*

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10. Grierson, Sir George, *Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindustan.*
11. Habib, Muhammad, *Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.*
12. ——*Life and Times of Mahmud of Ghazni.*
13. Habibullah, *The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India.*
14. Haig, Woolseley, *Cambridge History of India.*
15. Havell, F. B., *Indian Architecture.*
16. Hitti, Phillip K., *The Arabs.*
17. Hussain, Mahdi, *Rise and Fall of Muhammad bin Tughluq.*
18. Hussain, Wahed, *Administration of Justice in Muslim India.*
19. Lal, K. S., *History of the Khaljis.*
20. Lanepoole, Stanley, *Medieval India.*
21. Majumdar, R. C., *History of Bengal*, Vol. I.
22. ——*Arab Invasion of India.*
23. ——*The Classical Age.*
24. Majumdar, Ray-Chaudhary and Datta, *Advanced History of India*, Vol. I.
25. Mallet, *History of Sindh.*
26. Nadvi, Sulaiman, *Arabs and India* (Hindi and Urdu editions).
27. Nilkantha Shastri, K. A., *The Cholas.*
28. ——*The Pandya Kingdom.*
29. Ojha, G. H., *History of Rajasthan* (Hindi edition).
30. Pannikar, K. M., *A Survey of Indian History.*
31. Prasad, Ishwari, *A History of the Qaraunah Turks in India*, Vol. I.
32. Qureshi, I. H., *Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi.*
33. Ray, H. C., *Dynastic History of Northern India*, Vol. II.
34. Ray-Chaudhary, *Political History of Ancient India.*
35. Saletore, *Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagar Empire.*
36. Sewell, *A Forgotten Empire.*
37. Sherwani, H. K., *Mahmud Gawan.*
38. Smith, V. A., *The Oxford History of India.*
39. Tara Chand, *Influence of Islam on Indian Culture.*
40. Thomas, Edward, *The Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Delhi.*
41. Titus, *Indian Islam*
42. Tripathi, R. P., *History of Kanauj.*
43. ——*Some Aspects of Muslim Administration.*
44. Vaidya, C. V., *Downfall of Hindu India.*
45. Venkataramanayya, N., *Vijayanagar—Origin of the City and Empire.*
46. Warsi, *History of Ala-ud-din.*
47. Watters, Thomas, *On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India*, Vol. I.

Cites (8)