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The Early History of the Deccan (Parts I–XI) v2.c16.s1: Architecture

The Early History of the Deccan (Parts I–XI) v2.c16.s1

Language
English

Contents

Architecture

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IN the preliminary remarks made above it has been shown that the earliest specimens of architecture to be found in the Deccan belong to the Buddhist faith, which flourished there from about the third century B.C. to the seventh century A.D., when it became practically extinct. The Brāhmanic faith was patronized during this period by many of the rulers, but for the history of the architecture of the Deccan the revival of this latter system of belief begins in the sixth century A.D., under the Chālukyas, who were enthusiastic patrons of architecture. They adorned their capital, Bādāmi, with rock-hewn shrines, some of which still exist and represent the earliest Brāhmanic monuments of this style in the Deccan. The Chālukyas in the northern part of the Deccan were ousted by the Rāshṭrakūṭas, who built some temples of outstanding merit at Ellora during the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. These shrines are hewn out of the living rock although their plans, comprising a forecourt, a room for the sacred bull, Nandi, a hall with a portico in front and the cella or shrine at the back, are copied from temples built of brick and stone which were being constructed on the same model about that time. At Ellora there are also rock-hewn shrines belonging to the Jaina faith, and these were probably carved in the eighth and ninth centuries A.D. Among them the Indra Sabhā group is the most important, and indeed, both in ornamental detail and in workmanship, it is in no way inferior to the Brāhmanic caves.

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Among the oldest structural shrines which still exist, the temple at Aihole¹ is especially interesting, because, like the Buddhist chaityas, it has an apsidal plan, although the temple is dedicated to Vishṇu. It was probably built in the seventh century A.D., during the reign of Vikramāditya-Satyaśraya, the first Chālukyan king of this name.² About the same time, or a few decades later, was built the well-known Śaiva temple, Pāpanāth, at Paṭṭadakal.³ Its design comprises a square hall and a square cella with a porch of the same plan between them. The cella has a spire above it, the curvilinear form of which, although copied in the temples at Ālampur in the Raichur District, is more akin to the shape of the spires of Bhuvaneśvar and Koṇārak temples, and also to the form of the majority of spires in North India. The general form of the spires of the Deccan temples is that of a storied building, the dimensions of which gradually decrease as it rises upward. The spires are finally crowned with circular caps and finials of artistic design.

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¹ Aihole, a village in the Bijāpur district. It is not far from Bādāmi, the old capital of the Chālukyas.

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² Indian Antiquary, viii, 185-6.

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³ Paṭṭadakal is ten miles north-east of Bādāmi and eight miles south-west of Aihole.

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The structural temples of the Deccan, built between the tenth and twelfth centuries A.D., form a magnificent group, and their architectural features exhibit the influence of both North Indian and South Indian temples. The later Chālukyas, the Yādavas, and the Kākatīyas who ruled over the Deccan during this period were fond of architecture, and their buildings are characterized by a breadth of vision and loftiness of spirit on the hand and by superior craftsmanship on the other. The majority of these temples are dedicated to Śiva, but some belong to the Vaishṇavaite cult, while the number of fanes built by Jains is not inconsiderable.

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To give the reader a clear idea of the artistic merits and special features of the architecture of the Deccan it will be best to describe some of the typical monuments of the country. Taking the Buddhist shrines first, which are the oldest chronologically, it may be observed that the stūpas were perhaps the most sacred, each having been raised on a relic of the mortal remains of the Buddha. Originally the form of the stūpa as a burial-mound seems to have been adopted from the hemispherical tumuli of the Scythians,¹ or from the megalithic tombs (cairns) of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Deccan and South India, for such tombs are found in great abundance there. Be this as it may, it is a fact that by the third century B.C., i.e. during the life-time of Aśoka, the stūpa had assumed a definite form, i.e. a round base, rising perpendicularly up to a certain height, a dome-shaped structure resting upon this and being itself surmounted by a casket-shaped apex which ultimately was crowned with an umbrella, the emblem of both religious and secular dignity. Round the base of the structure was arranged a path for circumambulation, which was enclosed outwardly by a railing with gateways facing the cardinal points. The Āndhra-deśa, or the country adjoining the deltas of the rivers Kṛishṇā and Godāvarī, was a great stronghold of the Buddhist religion from the third century B.C. down to the sixth or seventh century A.D., and remains of several hundred stūpas have been traced in this part of the country, the latest discoveries having been made at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa on the southern bank of the Kṛishṇā, in the present Guntur district of the Madras Presidency.

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¹ As these tombs have a striking resemblance to their prototypes in Etruria, Spain, and Southern France, some archaeologists, as was observed above (supra, p. 719), are of the opinion that the megalithic tombs of the Deccan and Southern India were built by Scythians (Sakas) when they spread over this part of India.

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For the purpose of this chapter a short description of the central stūpa at Amarāvatī, which was perhaps the most magnificent in this part of the country, will suffice. Unfortunately, the stūpa does not exist now. It was in a ruinous condition in 1797, when Colonel Mackenzie first saw it, and since then the bulk of its fragments have been removed to London where they are preserved and exhibited at the British Museum, and the residue kept in the country are now housed and displayed at the Government Museum in Madras. According to the descriptions given by experts,¹ it appears that the base of the stūpa was of considerable size, being approximately 162 ft. in diameter. It was wainscoted with sculptural marble, the artistic and iconographic features of which will be discussed at the appropriate place in this chapter. Above the circular base was built the dome, which seems to have been from 120 to 140 ft. in diameter. The lower portion of the dome, which rose almost perpendicularly from the base, was also encased with marble slabs containing representations of the stūpa itself and jātaka stories carved artistically in relief. The upper part of the dome was built of brick and covered with stucco on which floral designs and religious emblems were similarly executed in low relief.

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¹ For a detailed account of the Amarāvatī stūpa, see The Buddhist Stūpas of Amarāvatī and Jagayyapeta, Archaeological Survey of Southern India, 1887.

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The apex of the dome comprised a casket with an umbrella rising above it. Both of them were elegantly carved. The base of the stūpa projected some three feet towards each of the cardinal points; this plan was resorted to with the double object of breaking the monotony of the uniform surface of the base and of affording support to the five monolithic pillars which were built at those points, along the upper part of the drum of the stūpa. The monolithic pillars in their turn represented a decorative feature of the stūpa, and also added strength to the masonry of the building by serving as buttresses. A processional path was arranged round the stūpa so that the votaries might walk round the building in a ceremonial manner and also view with due respect and reverence the various emblems of the faith and the scenes from the life of the Master. The path was enclosed by a marble railing externally and there were gateways for entry and exit in different directions.

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This stūpa when intact must have represented a vigorous style of architecture, based upon lofty religious ideals and a highly developed artistic sense. The latter two features of the early architecture of the Deccan are more impressively represented in the Buddhist chaityas, or cathedrals, the plans of which, as was observed above, resemble closely those of the Roman basilicas. Among such shrines the chaityas at Bhājā, Beḍsā, Pitalkhorā, Kārle, Koṇḍāṇe, Nāsik, Junnar, and Ajanta constitute a magnificent group, and they all belong to the first two centuries immediately preceding the Christian era. Being almost coeval in age they possess many common features, such as the use of wooden ribs in the vault of the ceiling, the wooden screen in the horse-shoe arch above the main entrance, the winged animals and sphinxes above the capitals of pillars (Plate VI a), the pyramid-shaped parapet carved on the façade (Plate VI b), the inward leaning of the jambs of doorways and columns of the hall, and the bell-shaped Persepolitan design of the capitals of pillars (Plate VII a). These temples vary in dimensions, and although the *chaitya* at Kārle is the most spacious,¹ and also the most imposing in regard to its architectural detail (Plate VII *b*), yet as its façade has lost many of its original features, a description of the *chaitya* at Beḍsā will be more suitable for the present review because this latter temple is comparatively in a better state of preservation. The plan of this *chaitya* resembles in arrangement to a certain extent the plan of the early Christian churches, comprising the nave, the side-aisles, and the apse containing the *stūpa* or *dagoba*. The side-aisles join in a semi-circular passage behind the *dagoba*. The *chaitya* at Beḍsā has an imposing portico in front of it, the pillars of which rise to a height of 25 ft. and are crowned with figures of animals. Some of these have human riders, the latter being carved with consummate skill. These figures are not only bold in conception but also most vivid in expression (Plate III *b*). The shafts of the pillars are octagonal in design, and they spring from pot-shaped bases and are surmounted with fluted bells which, according to Fergusson, are more Persepolitan in design than the capitals of pillars at any other place in India. The portico, which is in the form of a veranda, measures 30 ft. 2 in. in length and 12 ft. in width. The ceiling, owing to the height of the pillars and side-walls, is too high, but the rich carving attracts the eye at once and the idea of any incongruity does not rise even in the mind of the most discerning critic (Plate VIII *a*). The designs include religious architectural motifs, such as the rail and the *chaitya*-window with its lattice-work; but they are repeated so often, and are carved in such a skilful manner, that the whole looks like a goldsmith's work, and the love of the Deccan artist for richness of ornamentation is abundantly illustrated.

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¹ The general dimensions of the interior of this temple are 124 ft. 3 in. from the entrance to the back wall; 45 ft. 6 in. the combined width of the central hall and the side-aisles; and 45 ft. the height from the floor to the rock ceiling.

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There are two cells at each end of the veranda towards the right and left, the first cell on the latter side being incomplete. They have stone benches, and the jambs of their doors slant slightly inwards, both features indicating the early age of the excavation. Above the lintels of the cell-doors there is first a floral lattice design, and above that the rood-screen pattern, such as is to be seen in original wood in the *chaitya*-windows of Koṇḍāṇe and Bhājā. Access to the interior of the *chaitya* is given by three doors, the middle one of which is larger in dimensions than the two in the sides. The gallery in the sill of the great window, above the main entrance, extends 3 ft. 7 in. into the cave, which, besides the two irregular pillars in front, has twenty-four octagonal shafts, 10 ft. 5 in. high, separating the nave from the side aisles. The entire dimensions of the *chaitya* are: length, 45 ft. 4 in., width, 20 ft. The pillars are plain in design and except for the few religious symbols carved on them, and the rail-pattern executed on the *dagoba*, there is a complete absence of ornamentation in the interior of the shrine, and this feature adds to its solemn dignity. The ceiling had originally wooden ribs but these have now completely disappeared. The *dagoba* is rather slim in proportions and differs in general appearance from the *dagobas* of Kārle and Ajanta. Another feature of the carving of the cathedral is that it has no representation of the Buddha, such as is to be seen freely in the *chaityas* of later date—fourth-sixth centuries A.D. Caves XIX and XXVI of Ajanta are excellent examples of the *chaityas* of the late Buddhist period, because they belong to the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. respectively. In these temples the use of wood for the rafters of ceilings, or for the lattice-work of the *chaitya-window*, is entirely discarded; the pillars of the hall rise perpendicularly and the pyramid-shaped parapet does not appear. The pillars are round and they have spiral fluting with bands of floral or jewellery designs arranged at different levels in their height. The figures of the Buddha seated on a throne, or standing, are carved in a variety of poses (*mudras*) in the triforium as well as on the back of the aisles. Representations of the Master may also be noticed in niches carved on the *dagoba* itself. Both the exteriors and interiors of these temples are profusely adorned with sculpture, and the calm and solemn effect of the earlier shrines is replaced by magnificence and splendour. The carving taken by itself is exquisite both in design and workmanship, but its excess in the architectural scheme of the temples wearies the eye and also tends to disturb that tranquillity of mind which one would wish to feel in the interior of a religious shrine (Plates VIII *b*-IX).

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The third type of the early monuments of the Deccan is the *vihāra*, or the monastery evolved from a natural cavern wherein a holy personage dwelt and meditated. The *vihāras* of the pre-Christian period are not only plain but rather austere in design, comprising a middle room with cells arranged on three sides of it. The cells are of small dimensions, and they are connected with the main room by very narrow doors. In the cells benches are cut in the rock, and on one side of the surface of the rock is kept a little raised to serve the purpose of a pillow for the head when the Buddhist monks slept on these benches. Cave XIII of Ajanta is a very good example of an early Buddhist *vihāra*. Its middle room is 13½ ft. wide, 16½ ft. deep, and 7 ft. high. There are seven cells, which project from the main room, three of them being on the left side and two on each of the back and right sides. The monastic life permitted no ostentation, but the love of ornamentation being almost inherent in the people of the Deccan the *bhikshus* began to carve religious symbols, such as the *dagoba*, or the sacred balustrade, or the rood-screen, over the doors of their cells from the earliest times. The *vihāras* at Bhājā, Beḍsā, Junnar, Nāsik, and Ajanta, which all belong to the second or first century B.C., are adorned with such emblems, but the ornamentation shows considerable restraint and there is no lavishness such as is to be noticed in the decoration of the façades of *chaityas* of the same period. As the popularity of the Buddhist faith increased the number of *bhikshus*, the dimensions of the *vihāras* expanded quickly, and some early monasteries at Koṇḍāṇe and Nāsik have large halls in their centres. At the latter place, caves III and VIII, both of which are monasteries, and according to the inscriptions which they bear belong to the pre-Christian period, have spacious halls, and also pillared verandas in front of them for protection against rain and sun. Cave No. III, which seems to be the earlier of the two, has a hall which is 41 ft. wide and 46 ft. deep. It has also a bench on three sides and seventeen cells; seven on the right side, five at the back, and five on the left. The sculpture and the form of the pillars of these two caves resemble those of the *chaitya*-cave at Kārle, and it will not be wrong to infer that all three belong to the same period.

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*Vihāras*, which in the beginning were only monasteries through the religious zeal of the *bhikshus*, developed into temples by the inclusion of an image-chamber in the back of the *vihāra*. Although *dagobas* are carved in some of the earliest *vihāras*, yet the introduction of a shrine with an ante-chamber into the general plan of the *vihāra* seems to have come into vogue when the *Mahāyāna* doctrine permitted the representation of the Buddha in human form for purposes of adoration. At Ajanta, cave IV is perhaps the earliest *vihāra* on this plan, and it has a spacious hall 87 ft. square in the middle with an ante-chamber and a shrine at the back. The large dimensions of this cave, combined with the massiveness of its architectural features (Plate X *a*), with the frugal use of decorative work, present a faithful picture of Buddhist religious dignity, reflecting the practical restraint of the Buddhist monastic life on the one hand and the expansiveness of spiritual life on the other. The *vihāra* was probably excavated in the third century A.D. or still earlier,¹ but the work on the doorway and the windows may have been done at a later date. At this juncture it should be pointed out that in the early centuries of the Christian era, the first to the third A.D., some structural buildings also in the form of *stūpas*, *chaityas*, and *vihāras* were built in the Deccan. The *chaityas* at Ter, Koṇḍāpur,² and Pāṇigiri³ belong to this period. They are built of large bricks, but the dimensions of these structures are so small that they can never have been examples of architectural grandeur, even when they were intact. The *chaitya* at Ter has undergone much alteration on account of its having been converted into a temple of another cult, and it is impossible to form any idea of the artistic merits of the original building from present appearance. The *chaityas* of Kondāpur, which have been exposed to view in the course of excavations carried out by the Archaeological Department of Hyderabad in 1941-2, are of insignificant dimensions, the western *chaitya* measuring 25 ft. 4 in. by 10 ft. 4 in. and the eastern 21 ft. 4 in. by 21 ft. These structures when compared with the grand rock-hewn *chaityas* of Kārle, Bhājā, and Ajanta betray a lack of the lofty idealism and breadth of vision which are to be noticed in the latter *chaityas*.

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¹ This *vihāra* may have been built at the same time as the *chaitya*-cave X at Ajanta, for a temple of colossal size required a large monastery for the accommodation of monks. The ante-chamber and the shrine may have been added at a later date.

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² Koṇḍāpur is forty-three miles west-north-west of Hyderabad and the best way to approach it is to travel the first thirty-seven miles on the Bidar road and the remaining six by a fair-weather road which has been recently made motorable for the convenience of visitors by the Public Works Department of the Hyderabad State.

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³ Pāṇigiri is a hillock in the Nalgonda district on which remains of *stūpas* were found in the course of excavations made by the Archaeological Department of Hyderabad during the years 1942-3.

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Apart from structural buildings, the rock-hewn shrines of this period (first to third centuries A.D.) also show no creative effort, the same architectural forms and designs being repeated and the artistic effect being rather one of imitation than of originality. With the waning of the political ascendancy of the Āndhras the artistic impulse of the people of the Deccan seems to have deteriorated, and the passing of the sovereignty to the Vākāṭakas, who came from the north¹ and had matrimonial relations with the Guptas, ultimately proved most useful by breathing a fresh spirit of life into art in all its forms. Further, the rigorous asceticism of the *Hīnayāna* school had in course of time dimmed the original bright outlook on the joys of life, and the introduction of the *Mahāyāna* doctrine during the rule of the Vākāṭakas, fourth to fifth century A.D., saved the emotional aspect of the art of the Deccan from complete etiolation. The *vihāras* of Ajanta, belonging to this period, bear eloquent testimony to the joyous outlook which the votaries of the Buddhist faith had on the beauty of nature and the aims and ideals of life in general. Among these monasteries caves I-II and XVI-XVII deserve special notice; the last two bear contemporary inscriptions fixing their dates in the last quarter of the fifth century A.D. Cave I is the largest of these four *vihāras*, comprising a porch, a veranda, a hall with corridors on all four sides, an ante-chamber, and a shrine in which a colossal figure of the Buddha is carved. There are also fourteen cells in the interior of this *vihāra* and two in the veranda, one at each end. The veranda is 64 ft. long, 9 ft. wide, and 12 ft. 6 in. high. A large door in the middle, with beautifully carved jambs and entablature, gives access to the great hall which is 64 ft. square, its ceiling being supported by a colonnade of twenty pillars, leaving aisles 9 ft. 6 in. wide all round. The ante-chamber, at the back of the hall, measures 10 ft. by 9 ft. and leads to the shrine through a richly carved door. The shrine is square in plan, measuring 20 ft. on each side.

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¹ In *Hyderabad Archaeological Series*, Monograph No. 16, Ghatotkacha Inscriptions, V.V. Mirashi has tried to find their place of origin in the Eastern Deccan.

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The exterior view of this monastery has been somewhat marred by the destruction of the porch which was the prominent feature of it, but the several bands of carving on the architrave, representing scenes from the life of the Buddha, elephant-fights, and hunting expeditions, have been executed with consummate skill and show sculpture of a high order.

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The pillars in the interior of this cave exhibit much ingenuity both in variety of form and picturesqueness of ornamental detail (Plate X b), and these features, combined with the general effect of spaciousness, produced by the large dimensions of the monastery, make it one of the finest *vihāras* of its kind in India. Cave II is almost a replica of cave I, but its hall is a little smaller than that of the latter, and its pillars also do not indicate such a fine sense of proportion as is shown by the columns of cave I. As regards the form of the pillars and the artistic effect of some of the component architectural parts, caves XVI and XVII are superior to cave I, but taken as a whole the latter cave excels them in the beauty of its design. These *vihāras*, caves I-II and XVI-XVII, are adorned with both sculpture and painting, the merits of which will be studied in their appropriate place in this chapter.

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The plan of the *vihāra* developed a variety of forms during the period fourth to fifth centuries A.D., according to the aims and ideals and the numerical strength of the monastic orders, and notable types of these plans may be seen in the designs of caves V, XI, and XII of Ellora. They all belong to the Buddhist faith, and although after this religion ceased to exist as a living force in the land of its birth, these *vihāras* were nicknamed *Mahārwāḍa* or *Dheḍwāḍa*, which name still sticks to them, they constitute one of the most imposing group of monasteries belonging to any faith in India. Among this group caves XI and XII, though called Do Thāl and Tin Thāl respectively, both consist of three stories and have a spacious court in front which is excavated out of the living rock (Plate XI). Cave V, called the *Mahārwāḍa* or the temple of the Mahārs, is 110 ft. deep and 70 ft. wide, if the recesses cut on either side of the aisles be included. The hall is rectangular in plan and is divided into three apartments by two low benches, which may have served as tables for dining purposes or have been used as reading-desks by the *bhikshus*, for the cave has twenty cells for the accommodation of the monks and a fairly large number of them would have attended the services of the monastery. The plan of this cave resembles that of the Darbār Hall of Kaṇheri and some experts are of opinion that the *Mahārwāḍa* may have been originally a refectory, which may account for its plan (Plate XII).

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The Do Thāl and the Tin Thāl, apart from their lofty and massive façades, exhibit a refined taste in the carving of their pillars, which are not crowded with patterns but have the lotus or pot design incised only in outline (Plate XIII *a*) in harmony with the simple dignity of a religious building. These two monasteries in their uppermost story are divided lengthwise into aisles at the ends of which are niches containing representations of the Buddha according to the *Mahāyāna* doctrine. The ante-chamber contains two tall *dvārapālas* with crossed arms and high crowns, and on the back wall three female deities are carved on each side of the door of the shrine. Inside the shrine beside the colossal figure of the Buddha there are statues of the Padmāpāṇi, Vajrāpāṇi, and other Bodhisattvas, shown as attendants of the Master.

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From the top floors of these two *vihāras* the view of the valley and the plains below is grand, and *bhikshus* sitting for meditation in these caves must have been inspired by the beauty of nature in its various aspects.

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These two monasteries apparently belong to the seventh century A.D., because they are situated close to the *chaitya* styled the Viśvakarma, and this, apart from certain architectural features, bears an inscription which on palaeographic grounds has been assigned to the seventh century A.D. The revival of the Brāhmanic faith in the Deccan had begun during the rule of the Chālukyas, who built rock-hewn shrines of that faith at Bādāmi, the seat of their government; but they were tolerant to the followers of the Buddhist religion and the shrines of the latter faith continued to be built under their régime. During the reign of the Rāshṭrakūṭas, who ousted the Chālukyas from the greater part of their kingdom in the Deccan, an aggressive religious spirit seems to have prevailed, for they not only converted Buddhist *vihāras* into the temples of their own faith,¹ but also built new shrines on such a grand scale as to eclipse in the eyes of their co-religionists the glory of the Buddhist religion. Religion is often associated with a certain amount of fanaticism, but at Ellora the religious fervour of the followers of the Brāhmanic faith has carved out in the living rock temples which might well have been considered to be the work of gods not only by the votaries of that religion but also by the most discerning critic of the period, because they are unique specimens of this kind of architecture in the world. Their gigantic dimensions, rich decorative detail, and perfect finish, are absolutely amazing. Kailāsa is the most remarkable of these temples; it is monolithic, isolated from the surrounding rock, and carved outside as well as inside. It stands in a large court, 276 ft. long and 154 ft. wide, with a scarp 107 ft. high at the back. In front of this court a curtain has been left, carved on the outside with large statues of Śiva and Vishṇu, displaying ceaseless activity on the one hand and a sense of urgent vehemence on the other. The entrance to the temple is through a passage which has several apartments, and ultimately leads to the lower part of the court from the two sides of a vestibule arranged at its end. The lower court has the effigies of two life-size elephants carved at either side of the basement of the temple in order to give an air of majesty to the shrine. Two lofty *dhvajastambhas*, ensign staffs, each 45 ft. high, add further dignity to the temple (Plate XIII *b*). The basement of the temple is quite high and it is adorned with sculptures representing episodes from the *Mahābhārata* and *Rāmāyaṇa* as well as figures of lions and elephants which are very spiritedly represented. The basement measures 164 ft. from east to west, and 109 ft. from north to south, but the temple, in spite of its large dimensions, is designed like a chariot resting on the backs of elephants. The style is South Indian, developed from the style of the *rathas* of Māmallapuram, but here it appears in such a perfect form that there is nothing missing in the component parts of the temple—such as the portico, the *Nandi* pavilion, the *mandapa*, the shrine, the court with its surrounding galleries and the entrance—which are to be found in a structural temple of this style. According to an inscription it was built by the Rāshṭrakūṭa king Kṛishṇa, who succeeded Dantidurga in the latter half of the eighth century A.D.

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¹ Cave XV, called the *Daśāvatāra*, was originally a Buddhist *vihāra*, and the images of the Buddha, although chiselled off with care from many a niche, may still be noticed in some places. This cave has a long inscription of Dantidurga carved over its entrance.

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The main temple has two staircases in front which lead to a porch. The ceiling of the porch has several layers of painting, the undermost being contemporary with the building of the temple. The main hall is 57 ft. wide and 55 ft. deep and the ceiling is supported by sixteen richly carved pillars, which are so arranged that two passages have been formed, one leading from the entrance to the shrine and another crossing the former in the middle of the hall and connecting it with the balconies built at either side of it towards the north and south. The form of the pillars and their decoration show good taste, and as the rock out of which they are hewn is close-grained the carving is extremely sharp, and the floor of the hall is so finely polished that it shines like a mirror.

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A door in each of the back corners of the hall leads to the terrace behind. A wide path is arranged there round the outside of the shrine, which forms the base of the *vimāna* or spire. This tower rises to a height of 96 ft. from the court below and is richly carved. Below are compartments between pilasters, with delicately sculptured finials over each, and the middle of each compartment is occupied in most cases by a representation of Śiva or Vishṇu. On the wall above there are flying figures, and over them begin the horizontal mouldings of the *śikhara*. On the outer side of the terrace are five small shrines crowned by *śikharas*, which with the main spire in the middle give a picturesque effect to the general appearance of the temple.

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Kailāsa has several adjuncts some of which may have been excavated at a later date. But the galleries running round the court are coeval with the central shrine, and their architectural effect when the visitor looks at the long rows of columns and the continuous series of sculptured panels from one end of them, is most fascinating (Plate XIV *a*). The eastern gallery is particularly striking; it is 189 ft. in length and has nineteen panels in its back wall adorned with figures of deities of more than human size. Fergusson has compared Kailāsa with the Śaiva temple of Paṭṭadakal, a comparison which may be valid in regard to the close resemblance between the structural features of the two temples, but the very fact that Kailāsa is hewn out of solid rock suggests an idea of solidity and everlastingness which, combined with the impression which it gives of patient industry and continuous devotion to the service of the gods, makes the temple rank in sublimity and grandeur with the great temples of Egypt, like those at Karnak and Edfu.

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For vigour of style and boldness of design, the Dhumar Leṇa, cave XXIX of Ellora, is also worthy of being described here, for it shows what giant strides the architects of the Deccan made under the patronage of the Rāshṭrakūṭa kings. The plan of this temple (Plate XIV *b*) has a certain resemblance to that of the great shrine with the Trimūrti at Elephanta, but Dhumar Leṇa is larger in dimensions and finer in architectural effect than the latter cave. The interior of the Dhumar Leṇa measures 148 ft. by 149 ft. and the height of the rock ceiling from the floor is 17 ft. 8 in. From the steps facing the west the visitor first enters a corridor which is connected with the central passage of the shrine as well as with the corridors running on either side of the passage. The side corridors continue to the end of the excavation and form a kind of *pradakshiṇa* round the shrine. The main passage is crossed in the middle by another which is planned to run from north to south and connects the middle part of the temple with its adjuncts in those directions. These adjuncts comprise a pair of corridors, the outer ones leading to the steps being smaller than those behind them. The plan of the temple, notwithstanding the long aisles into which its interior is divided, is star-shaped, that being the predominant form of the medieval temples of the Deccan. The pillars with their fluted cushion-shaped capitals are a little top-heavy, but owing to the height of the ceiling and the vast spaces of the corridors this blemish is not felt obtrusively, and the general architectural effect of the interior of the temple is one of grandeur and timelessness.

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In the eighth century A.D., the period during which the Dhumar Leṇa was excavated, some structural buildings of considerable magnitude were erected in the Deccan, but before reviewing them the Jaina group of rock-hewn shrines at Ellora should also be mentioned because they throw much light on the aims and ideals of the builders who held that faith. In this group of shrines the most notable are the Indra Sabhā and the Jagaṅnātha Sabhā, which in their plans and architectural features show a striking resemblance to the Brāhmanic temples of Ellora. But the various adjuncts of these temples have been so crowded together, and are so overloaded with unnecessary ornamental detail, that the eye is bewildered and fatigued by the complicated intricacy displayed. For instance, in the court of the Indra Sabhā, the *dhvajastambha* is not only close to the door of the temple but also so near the central pavilion of the court that the whole looks cramped and confined. This effect is further enhanced by the small dimensions of the court and the tiny size of the pillars of some of the chapels which overlook it. These characteristics betray a sad lack of sense of proportion in the general design of the temple, although the architectural detail taken separately exhibits considerable industry and skill. Art in such instances is degraded into artifice, because the creative effort is replaced by a soulless striving after effect.

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In studying the structural monuments of the Deccan, it will be helpful to keep in view also the political history of the country. It has been observed above¹ that the Āndhras were followed by the Vākāṭakas, who came from the provinces to the north of the Deccan and had matrimonial relations with the Guptas. During their rule of some two hundred years (A.D. 300-500) many architectural decorative features of North India were adopted in the Deccan. The next dynasty to rule there was that of the Chāḷukyas, who extended their kingdom both in the north and in the south and were often at war with the Pallavas of Kāñchī, the modern Conjeevaram. Their capital was first at Bādāmi (Vātāpipura), now a small town in the Bijāpur District. Apart from the rock-cut shrines which the Chāḷukyas built at Bādāmi in imitation of the Buddhist temples, they constructed several fanes of great magnitude in the suburbs of their capital, which may still be seen at Paṭṭadakal and Aihole. The Lokeśvara temple at Paṭṭadakal bears inscriptions of the Chāḷukyan king Vikramāditya II (A.D. 733-46), stating that this temple was built for his queen Lokamahādevī, in memory of his having thrice conquered the Pallavas of Kāñchī.² The temple bears a striking resemblance to the contemporary Rājasimheśvara temple of Kāñchī, and there is a copper-plate grant of the reign of Kīrtivarman II (A.D. 746-57) which mentions that his father (Vikramāditya II) was much impressed by the sculpture of the latter shrine and probably had it overlaid with gold.³ It is likely that the magnificence of the Rājasimheśvara temple induced Vikramāditya to take some of the master-builders of Kāñchī with him to his own capital at Bādāmi. This conjecture receives support from two inscriptions on the eastern gateway of the Lokeśvara, one of them clearly stating that the builder of the shrine was ‘the most eminent sutradhārī of the southern country’.

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¹ Supra, p. 729.

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² Indian Antiquary, x, 162.

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³ South Indian Inscriptions, i, 146.

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At one time the Pallavas also invaded the territory of the Chāḷukyas and reduced the capital, Bādāmi. But this state of affairs did not last long, and the Chāḷukyas soon regained their supremacy in the Deccan. In the middle of the eighth century A.D. the Chāḷukyas were, however, routed by another dynasty, the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, and their western territory, the Karnataka-deśa, was permanently lost to them. At Paṭṭadakal there is an inscription of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king, Dhruva, stating that he humbled the pride of the Pallavas also, who, it appears, had taken advantage of the disruption of the Chāḷukyan kingdom to extend their territories within the borders of its former dominions.

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The Rāṣṭrakūṭas were evidently fascinated by the architecture of the temples built at Aihole and Paṭṭadakal by the masons of Kāñchī, because the great rock-hewn shrine of Kailāsa built at Ellora by Kṛṣṇa I, in the middle of the eighth century A.D., is almost a copy of the Lokeśvara temple at Paṭṭadakal. It is not unlikely that the king employed sculptors of South India in building the Kailāsa.

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The later Chāḷukya kings as well as the Rāṣṭrakūṭas were favourably inclined towards the Jaina religion, and there are inscriptions extant which show that both rock-hewn and structural temples of this faith were built under the patronage of the kings of these two dynasties. In A.D. 973 the Rāṣṭrakūṭas were ousted by Taila II, a scion of the Chāḷukya family, who established his government at Kalyāṇī. The descendants of Taila ruled from there until A.D. 1161, when the country was temporarily occupied by the Kalachuris, whose seat of government was first at Annigiri and was afterwards shifted to Kalyāṇī. The liṅgayat cult sprang up during the short reign of the Kalachuris, who, however, could not crush the Chāḷukyas, and they regained possession of the throne for some years during which time several kings of the dynasty ruled until A.D. 1189. But they had become so feeble that the southern part of their territory was occupied by the Hoysalas and the northern by the Yādavas of Devagiri. The Yādavas ruled from A.D. 1187 to 1310, when the country was overrun by Malik Kāfūr, a general of the Delhi Sultan, ‘Alā-ud-Dīn Khaljī.

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In this historical review, however brief, it is necessary to mention the Kākatīyas, who in the beginning were vassals of the Chāḷukyan kings of Kalyāṇī and when the latter were dispossessed by the Kalachuris, the Kākatīyas became independent and the dynasty gradually rose into power and ruled over a large part of the Deccan for nearly three centuries. The last important king of the dynasty was Pratāpa Rudra II, whose dominions extended as far as the Western Ghāṭs, and from the Godāvarī to the Pālār river. Muḥammad bin Tughluq conquered Teḷiṅgāna during the reign of this king and sent Pratāpa a prisoner to Delhi, but eventually he was allowed to return to Warangal and to rule as a vassal of the Delhi kings. The Kākatīyas were fond of architecture, and as they had sprung from the Chāḷukyas and were also allied by marriage with the Cholas of South India, it is natural that their temples should show a happy blending of the styles of North India and South India in their construction.

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For the reasons given above it becomes clear that from the close of the third century A.D. up to the beginning of the fourteenth, the Deccan, owing to its political conditions, was influenced in artistic matters by both North and South India. To demonstrate this influence in the domain of architecture the salient features of the temples built during this period are given below. The Lokeśvara or Virūpāksha temple of Paṭṭadakal, referred to several times above, is one of the oldest structural temples of the Deccan and has a striking resemblance to its earlier prototype, the Rājasimheśvara temple of Kāñchī. The type of architecture is pure Pallava evolved from the wooden ratha style, the earlier examples of which may be noticed in the rock-hewn shrines of Māmallapuram. The spire consists of a square pyramid, divided into distinct stories which decrease in dimensions as they rise one above the other and are ultimately crowned with a round tower. The storied or horizontal arrangement of the spire is a Pallava or South Indian feature, while the North Indian spire has a perpendicular arrangement, the reduplication being obtained by vertical additions, clustering round the main structure of the spire. The architects of the Deccan in building their spires adopted a middle course; whilst retaining the storied arrangement of South India, they reduced the height of the stories but increased their number, and covered them with so great a profusion of ornamental detail that at first glance the storied arrangement itself is not apparent to the eye. Again, to make the spires resemble their prototypes in Northern India, the architects so manœuvred the central panels, or niches on each story, as to form a more or less continuous vertical band, thus simulating the perpendicular arrangement of the North. The spire of the Mahādeva temple at Ittagi, in the Raichur District (Plate XV *a*), built in A.D. 1112, shows a middle course, but the spires of the temples of Ālampur, constructed about the same period (twelfth century A.D.), are so ingeniously overladen with decorative detail that they appear to be almost replicas of the Liṅgarājā temple at Bhuvaneśvar, in Orissa (Plate XV *b*).

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The internal plans of the temples of the Deccan comprise a shrine room, which generally faces the east with an ante-chamber in front of it, and a pillared hall adjoining the latter. The pillared halls of the temples in the south-western parts of the Deccan are generally screened and have windows of pleasing design for the admission of air and light (Plate XVI *a*). The halls of the northern and eastern parts of the Deccan are open, in imitation of the temple-halls of Northern India. As the majority of the shrines of the Deccan are dedicated to Śaivite worship, the plan of the building includes a separate hall or a projection in the main building itself, for the accommodation of the sacred bull, Nandi, the vehicle of Śiva. Further, the temples of the North and East Deccan have porches on three sides of the building which give the plan a star-shaped appearance, this being a special feature of Deccanese shrines. The ceiling of the interior of the building is generally flat, being divided into compartments by beams resting on the capitals of pillars supporting the roof. These compartments are square in plan, and where the space occupied by them is large, the architects have inserted triangular slabs at the angles of the squares for the greater safety of the building. This device has a pleasing effect because it removes the flatness of the ceiling which otherwise would have been apparent. The plan of the ceiling in some compartments is sixteen-sided, a device which has been carried out by the insertion of triangular pieces at the angles. The artistic effect of this plan is further enhanced by the rich carving of the masonry (Plate XVI *b*).

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The ceiling of the central apartment of the hall is often dome-shaped, but it is not built of voussoirs with radiating joints. On the contrary it is constructed of ring upon ring of stones laid with horizontal or level bedding, each ascending ring being smaller than the lower, and closing in towards the top, which is covered by a single circular slab. These rings are held in position by the immense weight of roofing material above them pressing down upon the supporting walls of the dome all round. The inside of the vault is carved into ascending concentric circles, each circle being beautifully cusped with a graceful pendant hanging from the apex, or with a rosette or some other pleasing design carved thereon.

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The pillars of the Deccan temples show a large variety of designs, and in workmanship and artistic effect they far surpass the pillars of the temples elsewhere in both North and South India, the exceptional skill and refined taste of the sculptors of the Deccan being largely due to their continuous practice of, and long tradition in, stone-carving, stretching back for many centuries, as is proved by the existence of the early rock-hewn shrines in this region. The stone used for pillars is dolerite, which runs in trap-dykes like a backbone across the granite hills, and has a jet-black or greenish hue. The early men of the Deccan used it for their implements, and their heavy hand-axes, chisels, and other chipped or polished tools are all made of this stone. It is close-grained and takes a beautiful polish. Some authorities are of opinion that the pillars were actually turned on a lathe in order to secure this polished surface. This may be true, but the pillars of the main hall of the rock-hewn shrine, Kailāsa, which shine like a mirror, cannot have been turned on a lathe, the temple being monolithic. The fact is that the craftsmen of the Deccan had acquired consummate skill both in carving and in polishing stone from the early centuries of the Christian era onwards. The sculpture on some pillars is so sharp and crisp that it might have been finished only yesterday. The facets, the floral designs, and the religious motifs are all deeply cut; the human figures stand out from the main surface of the stone, while some floral designs have an almost fringe-like effect, being connected with the shaft only at one end, with the major part of the carving almost detached (Plates XVII–XVIII). For deep-cut carving the temple of Ittagi is perhaps unique, but in polish the pillars of some of the temples in Telingāna, notably those at Pālampet and Pillalmari, are superior to those of the Karnatak shrines.

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The architraves, door-frames, and friezes above them are also richly carved, and they all illustrate the immense devotion and masterly skill of the architects in building and adorning the abodes of their gods. The walls are built of large slabs of masonry and they have a double shell, the core being hollow in the middle. This method of building is exposed to view where the outer shell of the wall has been destroyed by climatic or other causes. As the foundations of the walls have not been laid deeply enough, sinkage has occurred freely, causing the ruin of many temples. Even those which have survived have broken lintels, cracked walls, and out-of-plumb columns, this unfortunate state of affairs being entirely due to the insecure nature of the foundations.

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The temples of the northern parts of the Deccan have lofty stylobates, like those of the contemporary temples of North India, but the fanes of the Karnataka-deśa have basements of moderate height, intended to keep the floor immune from the damp of the surrounding ground during the rainy season. The cornices (chhajjas) are deep and curved like those of the South Indian temples, and in some shrines they have figure-brackets for their support. The brackets of the great temple of Pālampet in the Warangal District represent dancing-girls in significant poses, showing both rich imagination and skilful workmanship. The cornices are sometimes ribbed and divided into panels in imitation of the cornices of a wooden ratha.¹

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¹ A canopied chariot used for taking the gods round the streets on the occasion of a religious festival. They are profusely carved and may be seen to this day in all towns, and also in certain villages, of Southern India.

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To illustrate the above remarks, which are more or less general, a description of a few important temples in the Deccan, with plans and photographs, is given below. To begin with the temples of the South-West Deccan, the Mahādeva temple of Ittagi may be noticed first, because it is considered to be the finest temple of its kind in that part of the country. It is situated some three miles to the south of Banikop station on the M.S.M. Railway, between Bellary and Gadag. The village was until recently included in Nawāb Sālār Jung’s jagir in the Raichur District of the Hyderabad State. The plan of the temple comprises a shrine with an ante-chamber, a closed hall with porches on either side of it towards the north and south, and a pillared hall which is open at the sides. The temple faces the rising sun, and the great open hall at the east end was originally supported upon sixty-eight pillars. Twenty-six of these are large ones, standing on the floor and forming the main support of the roof: the rest, which were shorter, stood on the stone bench surrounding the hall, and carried the sloping eaves. The large columns are of different designs, but are arranged symmetrically with regard to the shape and pattern of each. The four central ones have angular carving arranged vertically in the shafts and capitals; the design, although very rich (Plate XVIII a), seems quite in harmony with the elaborate pattern of the other architectural parts of the building. For instance, the slabs of the ceiling of the middle apartment of the hall have been carved into a rich arrangement of hanging arabesque foliage, and makaras² which spring from the jaws of a kirtimukha mask.³ The convolutions of the design with their circling excrescences and bewildering whorls form a most luxuriant pattern. The inner hall, which is closed, measures 27 feet on each side, and beside the entrance from the outer hall has also doorways towards the north and the south which are richly adorned with sculpture. The exterior of the temple has deteriorated considerably and the carved masonry of the outer casing of the walls has been carried away by the villagers for use as building material for their own houses. The top of the śikhara is also missing, and the spire as it now stands is divided into three stories which are quite distinct and not so cut up and masked by decorative detail as in the temples at Ālampur.¹ The little cusped niches, which decorate the centre of each story, rising one above the other, are exceedingly handsome, and the deep canopy of the roll moulding, which is pointed with little hanging buds, is designed in very graceful curves. Their delicate lace-like workmanship is further enhanced by the background of the rich, dark shadows of the niches.

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