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Tribes in Ancient India c6: Chapter II. The Gandhāras

Tribes in Ancient India c6

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Chapter II. The Gandhāras

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Gandhāra formed an integral part of India from the earliest epoch of Indo-Aryan civilisation, and is unique among the countries of India, in that its history may be traced in unbroken continuity from Rigvedic times down to the present day ¹ (Rapson, *Ancient India*, p. 81). The Gandhāris ² or people of Gandhāra are mentioned in the hymns of the *Rgveda*, while the name Gandhāra occurs in the other Vedas, and in the Epics and Purāṇas as well as the Buddhist books.

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¹ Rapson, *Ancient India*, 81.

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² Gandhāri is the Vedic form, later supplanted by Gandhāra.

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Gandhāra was on the N.W. frontiers of India in the neighbourhood of the Kāmbojas, Madras and similar other tribes, but there are differences of opinion among scholars with regard to its exact boundaries. It is generally accepted that Gandhāra denotes the region comprising the modern districts of Peshawar in the N.W. Frontier Province and Rawalpindi in the Punjab; but in the Old Persian inscriptions it seems to include also the district of Kābul in Afghānistān (see Rapson, *Ancient India*, p. 81). Rhys Davids (*Buddhist India*, p. 28) says that Gandhāra (modern Kandahar) ³ was the district of E. Afghānistān, probably including the N.W. Punjab. Vincent Smith apparently concurs with this view, saying that Gandhāra was equivalent to the N.W. Punjab and the adjoining regions.⁴ Dr. S. K. Aiyangar holds that Gandhāra was equivalent to E. Afghānistān, extending from the Afghan mountains to the district somewhat to the East of the Indus (*Ancient India*, p. 7). According to Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar, Gandhāra included the western Punjab and E. Afghānistān. Its capital was Takshaśilā where ruins are spread near Sarāīkālā in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab.⁵ In the *Ain-i-Akbari*, Gandhāra forms the district of Pukely lying between Kashmir and Attock. Gandhāra, says N. L. Dey, comprised the modern districts of Peshawar and Hoti Murdan or what is called the Eusofzai country.¹ Cunningham, relying on the narratives of the Chinese pilgrims, Fā Hien and Hsüan Tsang, gives the following boundaries to Gandhāra (Chinese *Kien-to-lo*): Laghmān and Jalālābād on the west, the hills of Swāt and Bunir on the N., the Indus on the E., and the hills of Kālabāgh on the South (*Ancient Geography*, p. 48; and see McCrindle, *Ancient India as described by Ptolemy*, p. 116). According to Strabo, the country of the Gandarai, which he calls Gandaritis, lay between the Khoaspes (Kunar) and the Indus, and along the river Kophes (Kabul). The name is not mentioned by any of the historians of Alexander, but it must have been known to the Greeks as early as the time of Hekataios, who calls Kaspapyros a ‘Gandaric city’. Herodotus mentions the Gandarioi.² Rennell placed them to the west of Baktria in the province afterwards called Margiana, while Wilson took them to be the people south of the Hindu Kush, from about the modern Kandahar to the Indus, and extending into the Punjab and to Kashmir (*Ancient India as described by Ptolemy*—McCrindle, pp. 115-6). In some books, the name ‘Cave country’ was applied to Gandhāra (Watters, *On Yuan Chwang*, Vol. I, p. 200).

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³ There is no proved etymological connection between the names Kandahar and Gandhāra. See McCrindle, *Ptolemy*, p. 116.

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⁴ V. A. Smith, *Aśoka*, 170.

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⁵ *Carmichael Lectures*, 1918, p. 54.

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¹ Discoveries have been made in this district of Buddhist architecture and sculpture of the time of Kanishka (first century A.D.). See N. L. Dey, *Geographical Dictionary*, p. 23.

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² Book III, c. xci. He describes them as being clad in cotton garments, and bearing bows of reed, and arrows tipped with iron. See Rapson, *Ancient India*, p. 87; and McCrindle, p. 116.

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From the above observations, and also from the various references to Gandhāra in Indian literature, it appears that the boundaries of the country varied at different periods in its history. At one time it appears to have included the Afghan District round Kandahar, but afterwards it receded to the mountains on the Indian frontier.

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In the *Ṛgveda* the long wool of the sheep reared by the Gandhāris is referred to by Lomaśā, the queen of King Bhāvya or Bhavayavya, who ruled on the banks of the Sindhu (Indus); she says to her husband, ‘I am covered with down like a ewe of the Gandhāris’ (*Ṛgveda*, I, pp. 126, 7; Wilson’s Trans., II, p. 78). From the facts that the verse is brought in very abruptly and that it is in a metre different from the rest of the hymn, Wilson observes that it is ‘probably a fragment of some old popular song’ (Trsl., p. 19). This would, therefore, attribute a knowledge of the Gandhāris to the Vedic Aryans in very ancient times.

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A hymn in the *Atharvaveda* consigns Takman or fever to the Gandhāris along with other people like the Mūjavants, the Aṅgas and the Magadhas. The authors of the *Vedic Index* explain this mention of two northern peoples (the Gandhāris and Mūjavants)

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with two eastern tribes (Aṅgas and Magadhas), by noting that ‘the latter two tribes are apparently the Eastern limit of the poet’s knowledge; the two former the Northern’.¹

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¹ Vedic Index, I, p. 219.

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In the Brāhmaṇa literature also we find mention of the Gandhāris (e.g. Chāndogya Upaniṣad, 6, 14—the familiar example of the man who is led blind-folded from the land of the Gandhāras, and has to find his way back by asking directions from village to village).

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The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa (VII, 34) mentions Nagnajit, a king of Gandhāra, among the Vedic teachers who propagated the Soma-cult, —so it is evident that Gandhāra was not excluded from Vedic ‘Aryandom’. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (VIII, 1, 4, 10) also we find King Svarjit Nāgnajita or Nagnajit of Gandhāra referred to,—though in this case his opinion on a point of ritual is treated with scant respect as he was merely a Rājanya-bandhu, i.e. belonging to the princely order, and not a Ṛṣi. But this King Nagnajit is mentioned with great regard and respect in later literature from the great Epic onwards,² and in a technical book on painting he is quoted as the originator of that art.³

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² In the Kumbhakāra Jātaka, for example, it is said that he ruled over Gandhāra and Kashmir, and later became a monk.

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³ Dokumente der Indischen Kunst, Erstes Heft, Malerei, des Citra Lakṣaṇa, edited by Berthold Laufer.

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Coming to the next period of Vedic literature, viz. the period of the Sūtras, we find the people of Gandhāra mentioned in the Śrauta-Sūtras of Baudhāyana, Āpastamba and Hiraṇyakeśī, along with other Aryan peoples of the east and the west.⁴

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⁴ Baudhāyana Śrauta Sūtra, XXI, 13; Āpastamba Śrauta Sūtra, XXII, 6, 18; Hiraṇyakeśī Śrauta Sūtra, XVII, 6.

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The Mahābhārata contains many legends about Gandhāra. In the Ādiparvan we find that Dhṛtarāṣṭra, king of the Kurus, married the daughter of Suvala,⁵ King of Gandhāra, and 100 sons were born to them (Chap. 10, p. 118; Chap. 63, p. 72). A princess of Gandhāra was one of the wives of Ajamīḍha who was the originator of the Kuru family. Gandhāra, it is said, was named after this Gāndhārī (Ādiparvan, Chap. 95, p. 105). In the Udyogaparvan we find that King Yayāti sent his son Yadu into exile in Gandhāra, because he began to disregard his Kṣatriya superiors, becoming vain on account of his strength (Chap. 149, p. 771). In the Droṇaparvan it is said that Karṇa brought Gandhāra under the sway of Duryodhana (Chap. 4, p. 997); while in the Aśvamedhaparvan we read that Arjuna went to the Punjab (Pañcanada), where he had a hard fight with the son of Śakuni, King of Gandhāra. The Gandhāran army was put to flight, but Arjuna spared the life of Śakuni's son (Chaps. 83-4, pp. 2093-4).

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⁵ Suvala is also mentioned in the Sabhāparvan (Chap. 34, p. 245).

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It would be wearisome to recount in detail all the references from the *Mahābhārata* to the actions of the Gandhāras in the long-drawn-out battle of Kurukṣetra. We may note, however, that the Gandhāras, led by their King Śakuni, made up a powerful division of the Kuru army. When at the commencement of the battle Duryodhana came out in procession at the head of his vast army, Śakuni's contingent of hill troops (*pārvatīya*) surrounded him on all sides.¹ This would seem to indicate that the warriors from the hills of Gandhāra were the most trusty of Duryodhana's soldiers, for they were chosen to form his bodyguard. After various adventures (*Bhīṣmaparvan*, Chap. 46, p. 76; Chap. 51, p. 14; Chap. 58, pp. 7-10), the Gandhāras on the 5th day of the battle, together with the Kāmbojas, Madras and other peoples of the N.W. frontier made an onset against Arjuna, under the lead of Śakuni (*Bhīṣmaparvan*, Chap. 71, pp. 13-17). The Gandhāras and their princes further distinguished themselves throughout the battle (see *Bhīṣmaparvan*, Chap. 90; *Droṇaparvan*, Chap. 20; Chap. 29, pp. 2-27; Chap. 48, p. 7; Chap. 85, pp. 16-17; *Śalyaparvan*, Chap. 8, p. 26). Evidently great reliance was placed on their prowess, and perhaps especially on their fast horses; for it appears that, like their neighbours, the Kāmbojas, the Gandhāras reared a large number of horses in their country, and their troops fought for the most part on horseback. References which do not give them credit are, e.g. *Karṇaparvan*, Chap. 44, p. 46 and Chap. 45, p. 8, where Karṇa says that the Gandhāras along with the other races on the N.W. frontier are men of disgusting practices and customs; and *ibid.*, Chap. 95, p. 6, where it is said that Śakuni cravenly fled from the field, surrounded by thousands of the Gandhāras (Cf. also *Droṇaparvan*, Chap. 29, pp. 2-27).

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¹ *Bhīṣmaparvan*, 20, 8; see also *ibid.*, Chap. 16, p. 28.

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Gandhāra is also mentioned in the *Purāṇas*. According to the *Matsya*, *Vāyu* and *Viṣṇu Purāṇas*,² a certain Gāndhāra was born in the family of Druhyu, one of the sons of Yayāti, and the kingdom of Gandhāra was named after him. According to the *Bhāgavata* and *Brahma Purāṇas*,³ Gāndhāra was fourth in the line of descent from Druhyu. Gandhāra had four children, namely, Dharma, Dhṛti, Durgam and Pracetā.⁴ Pracetā had 100 sons who, being the kings of the Mleccha country, conquered the north (*Viṣṇupurāṇa*, 4th Aṅka, Chap. 17). Mention is also made of the Gandhāra people in Varāhamihira’s *Bṛhatsaṃhitā* (Kern’s Edition, p. 92).

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² *Matsyapurāṇa*, 48; *Vāyupurāṇa*, 99; *Viṣṇupurāṇa*, 4th Aṅka, Chap. 17.

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³ 9th Skandha, Chap. 23 (*Bhāgavata*); Chap. 13 (*Brahma*).

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⁴ According to the *Matsyapurāṇa*, three children: Dharma, Vidusa and Pracetā.

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Turning from legend or semi-legend to fact, we note that in the days of Aśoka and some of his immediate successors, Gandhāra was one of the most flourishing seats of Buddhism. We learn from Rock Edict V that Aśoka appointed *Dharma-mahāmātras* (high officers in the department of dharma or religious conduct) to further the welfare and happiness of the Gandhāras.¹ Fā-Hien, the Chinese pilgrim, who visited India at the beginning of the fifth century A.D., relates that Gandhāra was the place where Dharmavivardhana, son of Aśoka, ruled. Here the Buddha, when a Bodhisattva, was supposed to have given his eyes for another man.² Buddhist scholastic philosophy reached its culmination in the fifth century A.D., at the time when two famous Gandhārans, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, flourished. Asaṅga, at first an adherent of the semi-orthodox Mahīsāsakas, later became a great teacher of Yogācāra. Vasubandhu likewise became a convert to Mahāyānism; he was celebrated as the author of the *Abhidharmakoṣa*. Other notable Buddhist scholars who made Gandhāra, and particularly its capital Takṣaśilā (Taxila) famous throughout India were Dhammapāla,³ Yasadatta,⁴ and Aṅgulimāla.⁵ For legendary accounts of Gandhāra as associated with Buddhism, see, e.g. *Gandhāra Jātaka*, *Sāsana-vaṃsa* (P.T.S., p. 12), *Divyāvadāna* (Cowell and Neil, pp. 60-1).

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¹ Cf. Chapter on Kāmbojas.

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² Legge, *Travels of Fa-Hien*, pp. 31-2.

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³ *Psalms of the Brethren*, p. 149.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, p. 201.

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⁵ *Ibid.*, pp. 319 et seq.

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Hsüan Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century A.D., has left an interesting account of Gandhāra. He records the ruined state of monasteries and shrines which two centuries before showed no traces of decay. The kingdom of Gandhāra, according to him, was about 1,000 li⁶ from north to south. On the east it bordered on the river Sin (= Sindhu). The capital was called Po-lu-sha-pu-lo, i.e. Puruṣapura, and was about 40 li in circuit. The royal family was extinct, and the kingdom was governed by deputies from Kapiśa. The towns and villages were deserted; but the country was rich in cereals, producing a variety of flowers and fruits, and abounding in sugarcane. The Chinese pilgrim goes on to say: ‘The climate is warm and moist. The disposition of the people is timid and soft; they love literature, and while most of them belong to heretical schools, a few believe in the true law (i.e. Buddhism)’. In the town of P’i-lo-tu-lo (i.e. Salātula), he observes, Pāṇini was born (see *Buddhist Records of the Western World* (Beal), Vol. I, pp. 97-8; p. 114).

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⁶ One li = approx. 576 metres.

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The early capital cities of Gandhāra (each being the centre of its own kingdom) were Puṣkalāvatī or Puṣkarāvatī, and Takṣaśilā (Taxila),—the former being situated to the west and the latter to the east of the Indus. It would appear that in early times the Gandhāra territory lay on both sides of the Indus, but was later confined to the western side (McCrindle, p. 115). As we have just seen, Hsüan Tsang knew Puruṣapura (= Peshawar) as the capital; and yet another city, namely, Kāpiśa, was a Gandhāran capital during the days of Greek rule.¹

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¹ Rapson, Ancient India, pp. 133, 141-2.

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According to Cunningham, the most ancient capital of Gandhāra was Puṣkarāvatī, which is said to have been founded by Puṣkara, son of Bharata and nephew of Rāma.² Puṣkalāvatī’s antiquity is undoubted, as it was the capital of an Indian Prince named Hasti (Greek Astes) at the time of Alexander’s expedition (326 B.C.). It is called Peukelaotis by Arrian and Peukalei by Dionysius Periegetes. Together with Takṣaśilā, Puṣkalāvatī came under the Śaka rule during the reign of Maues³ (c. 75 B.C.). Tārānātha mentions the town as a royal residence of Kaniṣka’s son (Vincent Smith, *Early History of India*, 4th Ed., p. 277, f.n. 1).

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² Viṣṇupurāṇa, Wilson’s Edition, Vol. IV, Ch. 4.

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³ Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 560; see also Brown, Coins of India, p. 24.

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Shi-shi-ch’eng, the Chinese name for Takṣaśilā, the Eastern capital of Gandhāra, means ‘severed head’. The legend goes that when the Buddha was a Bodhisattva in this city, he gave his head away in charity, and the city took its name from this circumstance.⁴ The city as described by Arrian was great, wealthy and populous. Strabo and Hsüan Tsang praise the fertility of its soil. Pliny calls it a famous city, and states that it was situated on a level where the hills sank down into the plains. About 80 years after Takṣaśilā’s submission to Alexander, it was taken by Aśoka; while by the early part of the second century B.C. it had become a province of the Graeco-Baktrian monarchy,—only to be conquered in 126 B.C.⁵ by the Indo-Scythian Sus or Abars, who retained it until it was taken from them by a different tribe of the same nationality, under Kaniṣka (c. 78 B.C.). About the middle of the first century A.D. it is said to have been visited by Apollonius of Tyana and his companion Damis, who described it as being about the size of Nineveh, walled like a Greek city, with narrow but well-arranged streets. Takṣaśilā must have been destroyed long before the Muhammadan invasion, for it is not mentioned by any Muhammadan author who has written upon India.¹

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⁴ Legge, Fā-Hien, p. 32.

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⁵ But note discrepancy in dates of conquest.

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¹ See McCrindle, *Ancient India as described by Ptolemy*, pp. 119 et seq.

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Cunningham says that the site of Takṣaśilā is found near Shah-Dheri just one mile to the N.E. of Kāla-ka-sarāi, in the extensive ruins of a fortified city around which he was able to trace no less than 55 stūpas (of which two are as large as the great Mānikyāla tope), 28 monasteries and 9 temples. Now the distance from Shah-Dheri to Ohind is 36 miles, and from Ohind to Hashtnagar another 38, making 74 miles in all,—which is 19 in excess of the distance between Taxila and Peukelaotis (Puṣkalāvatī) as recorded by Pliny. To reconcile the discrepancy, Cunningham suggests that Pliny's 60 miles or LX should be read as 80 miles or LXXX, which is equivalent to 73½ English miles or within half a mile of the actual distance between the two places (Cunningham, *Ancient Geography*, p. 105). Dr. Bhandarkar says² that in Aśoka's time Takṣaśilā does not appear to have been the capital of Gandhāra, for from his Rock Edict XIII it seems that Gandhāra was not in his dominions proper, but was feudatory to him; while from the Kalinga Edict I, we learn that Takṣaśilā was directly under him, as one of his sons was stationed there. The deduction that Takṣaśilā was not the capital of Gandhāra at that time is confirmed by Ptolemy's statement that the Gandarai (Gandhāra) country was situated to the west of the Indus with its city Proklais, i.e. Puṣkarāvatī.³

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² *Carmichael Lectures*, 1918, p. 54, f.n.

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³ See also *Fā-Hien's Travels* (Legge's Ed.), pp. 31-2 where the traveller distinguishes Takkhasilā from Gandhāra.

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Takṣaśilā was visited by Hsüan Tsang in the seventh century A.D. (when it was a dependency of Kashmir).⁴

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⁴ V. A. Smith, *Early History of India*, 4th edition, p. 368. Watters, *On Yuan Chwang*, Vol. I, p. 240.

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Takṣaśilā figures prominently in Buddhist and Jain stories. It was associated with Mahāvīra, the founder of Jainism⁵ (see *Heart of Jainism* by Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, p. 80, f.n.), and with traditions regarding the Buddha. It is stated in the *Dīpavaṃsa* that a Kṣatriya prince named Dīpamkara, and his sons and grandsons governed their great kingdom in Takṣaśilā⁶ (Pāli Takkhasilā). In the *Dutiyapalāyi Jātaka* we find that King Gāndhāra (= the Gandhāran) of Takṣaśilā attacked and surrounded Benares with his four-fold army, and boasted that nobody would be able to defeat him. But the King of Benares said to him: ‘I shall destroy your army like mad elephants destroying a *nalavana* (bamboo grove)’. King Gāndhāra forthwith fled, terrified, to his own kingdom.¹ But we find the situation reversed in the Palāyi Jātaka: Brahmadatta, King of Benares, leads an army to Takṣaśīlā, but is so struck by the splendour of the city gate, which he mistakes for a palace, that he does not dare to make an attack on so mighty a king (the king being pictured as the Bodhisattva), and returns baffled to his own country.²

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⁵ S. Stevenson, *Heart of Jainism*, p. 80, f.n.

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⁶ *Dīpavaṃsa*, ed. Oldenberg, III, 31.

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¹ Jātaka (Fausböll), Vol. II, pp. 219-21.

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² Ibid., pp. 217-8.

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Takṣaśīlā was a great seat of learning in Ancient India. Various arts and sciences were taught there, and pupils from different parts of India would flock to the city for instruction.³ Here also magic charms⁴ and spells for understanding the cries of animals⁵ were taught. According to Jātaka (IV, 391), only Brahmans and Kṣatriyas were admitted to the university. The details of Taxila’s importance as a seat of learning have been given by me elsewhere,⁶ and a brief notice is all that is necessary here.

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³ See, e.g. Psalms of the Brethren, p. 136.

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⁴ Jātaka, II, No. 185, p. 100.

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⁵ Ibid., III, No. 416, p. 415.

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⁶ See B. C. Law, Historical Gleanings, Chap. I, pp. 1-8.

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As regards the authentic political history of Gandhāra itself, as distinct from that of its capitals, we find that in the Buddha’s time Pukkusāti, King of Gandhāra, is said to have sent an embassy and a letter to King Bimbisāra (Skt. Bindusāra) of Magadha.⁷ Prof. Rapson states⁸ that Gandhāra was in all probability conquered by Cyrus (558-530 B.C.), and remained a Persian province for about two centuries. After the downfall of the Persian empire in 331 B.C., it came under the sway of Alexander the Great, together with the Persian province of ‘India’ or ‘the country of the Indus’. Through Gandhāra and the ‘Indian’ province was exercised the Persian influence which so greatly modified the civilisation of N.W. India. Later, as we have seen, Gandhāra was feudatory to Aśoka, but it declared its independence shortly after his death,—only to fall very soon under the sway of the Greek kings.⁹ According to Whitehead,¹⁰ it was Euthydemos (circa. 230-195 B.C.) who conquered Gandhāra. R. D. Banerjee, however, presumes¹¹ that the conqueror was Diyadāta (Diodotos) II, as some gold coins of his reign have been discovered by Sir John Marshall in the ruins of Taxila. Whitehead’s supposition is the more probable, if we are to assume that Gandhāra was subject to the Maurya Empire until Aśoka’s death in 227 B.C., for the house of Diodotos was supplanted by Euthydemos in 230 B.C.

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⁷ Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 28.

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⁸ Rapson, Ancient India, pp. 81-82.

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⁹ R. D. Banerjee, Vāngālār Itihāsa, pp. 31-2.

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¹⁰ Catalogue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, Lahore, Vol. I, p. 4.

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¹¹ Prācīna Mudrā, p. 27.

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A rival Greek prince, Eucratides (circa. 175–155 B.C.) wrested Gandhāra, with other territories, from Demetrios, the 4th Bactrian king.¹ The family of Eucratides was supplanted in its turn by Śaka satraps in Kāpiśa and Taxila, but continued to hold the Kabul Valley until finally overpowered by the Kushāṇas.² At the end of the fifth century A.D., Gandhāra was occupied by the Hūṇas.³ After this, information is scanty until we come to the late 9th century, when Lalliya founded the Hindu Shāhiya dynasty, with its capital at Ohind, on the Indus.⁴ In the 11th century (1021 A.D., according to Vincent Smith) Trilocanapāla, the last king of the Shāhiya dynasty, was defeated on the banks of the river Toṣi by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, and after his reign no account is available of the Hindu rule in Gandhāra, apart from the fact that his son Bhīmapāla regained his independence for five years.⁵

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¹ See Rapson, *Ancient India*, p. 133; Brown, *Coins of India*, pp. 23-4.

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² Ibid., pp. 133 and 142.

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³ V. A. Smith, *Early History of India*, 4th Ed., p. 328.

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⁴ Ibid., 4th Ed., p. 388.

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⁵ R. D. Banerjee, *Prācīna Mudrā*, p. 198.

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We may close this chapter by making one or two remarks on the trade relations of Gandhāra, and by giving some references for the further study of the celebrated school of art which takes its name from this country. The Jātakas testify to the existence of trade relations between the Kashmir-Gandhāra kingdom and the north-eastern kingdom of Videha (see, e.g. Gandhāra Jātaka and Fick, *The Social Organisation in N.E. India in Buddha’s Time*, p. 272). Horse-dealers figure prominently amongst the Gandhāran traders, and we learn from the *Vāyupurāṇa* that the Gandhāran horses were considered the best of all (Chap. 99). We find references to the production of valuable blankets or woollen shawls (*kambala*) in the *Vessantara Jātaka* (Fausböll, *Jātaka*, Vol. VI, pp. 500-1), and also in the *Suttanipāta Commentary* (II, 487). In later times (9th and 10th centuries) it was in Gandhāra that the finest ‘double-die’ coins were struck.⁶

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⁶ See Brown, *Coins of India*, p. 53.

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The story of Gandhāra art is a complete study in itself, and all we can do here is to give some references to authorities on the subject, for example, Vincent Smith’s *History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon*; James Fergusson’s *History of Indian and Eastern Architecture* (2nd Edition, London, 1910); A. Foucher, *L’Art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhāra*; Sir John Marshall, *A Guide to Taxila*; and contributions to A.S.I. (*Annual Reports*) by J. Ph. Vogel, D. B. Spooner, Sir John Marshall and A. Cunningham.

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